Rajendra Chola I (;
Middle Tamil
Middle Tamil is the form of the Tamil language that existed from the 8th to the 15th century.
The development of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil, which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century, was characterised by a number of ...
: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ;
Classical Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: Rājēndradēva Cōla;
Old Malay
Malay was first used in the first millennia known as Old Malay, a part of the Austronesian language family. Over a period of two millennia, Malay has undergone various stages of development that derived from different layers of foreign influence ...
: ''Raja Suran
''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tamil: ''Kaṅkaikoṇṭa Cōḻaṉ''; ), and Kadaram Kondan (Middle Tamil: Kaṭāram koṇṭāṉ ; ) was a
Chola
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
Emperor who reigned between 1014 and 1044 CE. He is considered the most significant ruler in early eleventh century South Asia for his role in patronising the arts, encouraging trade and expanding the Chola Empire to is greatest extent .
Born in
Thanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
to
Rajaraja I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
and his queen Vanavan Mahadevi, Rajendra first assumed royal power as co-regent with his father in 1012 until the later's death in 1014, after which he ascended the Chola throne in his own right. During his reign, the Chola Empire was the largest and most significant political, military, and economic force is in the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
, and extended its reach via trade and conquest across the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
, making Rajendra one of only a handful of Indian monarchs to have conquered territory beyond South Asia. His early years were marked by his involvement in the
Chola Army, where he fought in several campaigns against the
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the Deccan Plateau, western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada people, Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalya ...
as well as the rulers of
Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
, earning him his first victories. He was also responsible for putting down rebellions in the
Chera and
Pandiya vassal states, and in
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
. As Emperor, he completed the conquest of Anuradhapura and brought a large portion of Sri Lanka under imperial rule.
Rajendra further expanded Chola rule by defeating the kingdoms of
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
and
Vengai, and subduing the islands of
Laccadives
Lakshadweep (), also known as Laccadives (), is a union territory of India. It is an archipelago of 36 islands in the Arabian sea, located off the Malabar Coast.
The name ''Lakshadweep'' means "one lakh islands" in Sanskrit, though the Lacc ...
and the
Maldives
Maldives (, ; dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, translit=Dhivehi Raajje, ), officially the Republic of Maldives ( dv, ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, translit=Dhivehi Raajjeyge Jumhooriyyaa, label=none, ), is an archipelag ...
, which he renamed ''Munnir Palantivu Pannirayiram'', meaning "Twelve Thousand Islands and the Ocean Where Three Waters Meet." These islands were later used as strategic naval bases. During his
Southeast Asia campaign, he annexed
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
,
Kedah
Kedah (), also known by its honorific Darul Aman (Islam), Aman and historically as Queda, is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area ...
,
Tambralinga
Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...
and
Pegu
Bago (formerly spelt Pegu; , ), formerly known as Hanthawaddy, is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. It is located north-east of Yangon.
Etymology
The Burmese name Bago (ပဲခူး) is likely derived from the Mon lang ...
, achieving imperial dominance during his reign and cementing the Chola's continued influence in Southeast Asia.
Rajendra conducted an ongoing war of attrition against the
Pala dynasty, resulting in him capturing a great deal of booty that he used to build the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram
Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years. ...
, which would remain the capital of the Chola Empire and one of the great centres of trade and commerce in South Asia for several centuries.
The city was remarkable for its magnificent artificial lake, extensive fortifications, including moats that surrounded the imperial palace, and the splendid
Brihadisvara Temple
Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram () by its builder, and known locally as ''Thanjai Periya Kovil'' ("Thanjavur Big Temple") and ''Peruvudaiyar Kovil'', is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the ...
. Rajendra was a devout man and a follower of
Shaivism
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
(a sect of
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, though he was also welcoming of Buddhism and built several
stupas across Southeast Asia and South India.
One of the most enduring legacies of Rajendra's reign was the emergence of new forms of trade. Thanks in part due to his domination of the
Strait of Malacca
The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, 500 mi (800 km) long and from 40 to 155 mi (65–250 km) wide, between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connec ...
and several other coastal areas a commercial system called "emporia" emerged, which refers to the practice of exporting goods according to their demand. This new system made trade within the Empire considerably more profitable, creating a cyclic effect where the highly lucrative trade networks engendered a larger and more powerful military which in turn facilitated the further widening of those networks. In this, the
Khmer Empire was a major ally and trading partner and helped the Cholas stretch their networks as fas as
Song China
The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
- a link which allowed Rajendra to incorporate Chinese vessels into the Chola military. These massive networks also extended west, where the Cholas engaged in the spice trade with
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...
,
North Africa
North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...
,
Anatolia
Anatolia, tr, Anadolu Yarımadası), and the Anatolian plateau, also known as Asia Minor, is a large peninsula in Western Asia and the westernmost protrusion of the Asian continent. It constitutes the major part of modern-day Turkey. The re ...
, and
Turkic.
Rajendra was succeeded by his son
Rajadhiraja I who ruled from 1044 to 1054.
Early life and ascension
![Rajendra Chola, Gangaikondasolapuram](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Rajendra_Chola%2C_Gangaikondasolapuram.jpg)
The exact birth date of Rajendra I is unknown. It is suspected that he was born around 971 CE.
He was the son of
Rajaraja I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
and queen Vanavan Mahadevi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. He had a younger brother named
Araiyan Rajarajan, who was a commanding general of a Chola army. (He must have had at least three sisters, the younger Kundavai, the queen of Chalukya-Vimaladitya, and a daughter called Mahadevi.) Other major members of the royal household included queen mothers Dantisakti Vitanki alias Lokamahadevi and
Kundavai
Kundhavai was a historic and a popular name of a number of royal women in southern India between the ninth and eleventh century. Some of the women who went by the name Kundavai are as follows:
*Kundhavai, the daughter of Western Ganga king Prithv ...
, the elder sister of Rajaraja. The nakshatra of Rajendra's birth was
Thiruvathira
Thiruvathira or Thiruvathirai or Arudhra Darisanam is a Hindu festival celebrated in the Indian states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Thiruvathirai (Arudhra) in Tamil means "sacred big wave". In Chidambaram in Tamil Nadu, the Sri Natarajar temple ...
i (Ardra).
Rajendra was declared heir apparent and formally associated with his father in the administration of the Chola Empire in the final years of his rule (1012–1014). In 1018, Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent or Co-Regent to the Chola throne (Ruled Pandya dynasty from 1018 to 1044).
Ruling career
Rajendra Cholan I commenced his war expeditions in the Indian mainland when he was yet a co-regent of his father, with the capture of
Aduthurai in central Tamil Nadu,
Vanavasi
Vanavasi is a Town Panchayat in Mettur Taluka, Salem District, in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu.
Culture
Several festivals are celebrated in Vanavasi, including the Draupathiyamman Festival (celebrated Five years once), the festival of Sowdesw ...
of west Tamil Nadu, in one expedition in 1012. He thereafter directed his attention on Kollipaakkai of north Andhra Pradesh, and captured same in 1013. The above two expeditions were carried out by Rajendra Chola I on behalf of his father Rajaraja Chola I. In 1014 he led an expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraillakam the north Karnataka and south Maharashtra, and captured its capital city the Mannaikadakkam the Maleked, also on behalf of his father, which met this reverse after its initial capture by Rajaraja Cholan in 1006. With the death of Rajaraja Cholan I in 1014 CE, and with the ascension of Rajendra Cholan I in the same year as the next emperor of the Chola empire, there was a lapse of two years in the latter continuing with his war expeditions. In 1016 he first sent an expedition overseas to Sri Lanka and brought the entire Anuradhapura Kindom under his control.
This was followed by an expedition to east Kerala in 1017 and captured the Kudamalai Nadu.
Rajendra's forces crossed the seas again, in the year 1018, and captured the Pal Palanthivam the many islands of Maldives and Lakshadweep. This was followed by the capture of Sandimaaththivu the Kavaratti island overseas west of Kerala, also in 1018. In 1019 Rajendra Cholans sent another expedition against the Irrataipaadi Elaraiillakam the north Karnataka and south Maharashtra – now with its new capital at Kalyani, in the northmost Karnataka which the Cholas lost again but re-captured after a battle at Musangi of east Karnataka. Rajendra Cholan I with his capture of many regions in the Indian mainland after a lapse of two years he became more ambitious in conquering the northern and north-western regions of India. He commenced his war expedition in this direction in the year 1021 with his capture of Sakkarakkoattam the south Chhattisgarh. From here he split his forces in to two and sent one in the direction of Ganges river in the north and the other in the north-western direction while he stationed himself at Sakkarakkoattam until the two expeditions were complete.
The second expedition went towards river Ganges in the north from Sakkarakkoattam and captured the regions of Odda Vishayam of Odisha, Kosala Naadu the north Chhattisgarh, Thandabuththi in north Odisha, Thakkana Laadam in south Jharkhand, Vangala desam the Bangladesh, Uttara Laadam of north Jharkhand and reached the great river Ganges. The Chola Indian Mainland expedition ended in 1022 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his Meikeerthi's from the year 1023. With the return of the Chola forces of Rajendra to the Chola capital, from their victorious expedition to Uttarapatha and Gangetic region countries in 1022, the Royal Guru of Rajendra Cholan I the Isaana Pandithar built a temple at Kulampandel in Tamil Nadu named as Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer temple. With his return Rajendra Cholan I claimed a new title as "Gangaikondaan" and gave the title "Gangaikonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Gangai) to his younger brother who led the Gangetic expedition. Rajendra Cholan I commenced the construction of a new city named the "Gangaikonda Cholapuram", with a new Siva Temple named "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem", and a big 'temple water tank' named the "Chola Gangam" where the holy water brought in from the Ganges River was mixed. The Essalam Copper Plates of Rajendra Cholan I specifically state that with the conquest of the Gangetic region, it was Rajendra Cholan I who constructed the new city the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the great Gangaikonda Choleswarer temple, and the sacred Cholagangam Tank at the Udaiyar Palaiyam region of Ariyalur district. In this great temple "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem" he built, the presiding deity of the Karuvarai (Sanctum Sanctorium) was known as the "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer" also known as "Peruvudaiyar" - the God Siva in the form of Lingam, the biggest Lingam among the Siva Temples both in India and Worldover, having a height of 13 ft and 20 ft in circumference.
The ''
praśasti
''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...
'' mentions Rajendra's Conquests:
The ''
praśasti
''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...
'' mentions Rajendra's Conquests:
The "Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple – of Erumbur in Cuddalore district (present Kadambavanesvara temple near Erumbur) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Sri Vijaya and many regions of Sumatra of Indonesia. The "Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem" Siva temple – of Kudimallur in Vellore district (present Bhumisvara temple near Kalavai) was built in commemoration of the victory of the forces of Rajendra Chola I over Kadarem and many regions of Malaysia.
His far overseas war expedition commenced in the year 1023 with a large fleet of ships with Chola warriors directed first to Sri Vijaya the Palembang of south Sumatra of Indonesia which was captured. Thereafter they captured the Malaiyur of south Sumatra adjacent to Sri Vijaya. From there the fleet crossed the seas and captured the Mevilibangham the Bangha Island adjacent to south Sumatra and then they moved to Pannai of east Sumatra in the mainland, followed by Ilamuridesam of north Sumatra. The forces now crossed to Malaysia and captured Vallaipandur of north-east Malaysia, followed by Kadarem of north-west and west Malaysia. From here they went further north and captured the Ilankasokam of south-east Thailand adjacent to Kadarem and followed by Mathamalingam of east Thailand, and Thalaitakkolam of south-west Thailand. From here the fleet went on sea homeward, and on their way captured the Manakkavaarem in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. They further travelled by sea and captured the Maapapaalam the seaport city of the present south Myanmar, and returned to the Chola country. The Chola south-east Asian expedition ended in 1024 and details of the countries conquered by his forces in this single expedition was included in his MeikeerthAn early silver kasu of Rajendra Ii's from the year 1025. With the victory of Rajendra Cholan I over Sri Vijaya(m) of Sumatra, Indonesia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple at Erumbur in Tamil Nadu, and named it as Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem.
![Chola Kings](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Chola_Kings._Rajaraja_I._985-1014_CE_Uncertain_Tamilnadu_mint._Chola%2C_conqueror_of_the_Gangas_in_Tamil%2C_seated_tiger_with_two_fish.jpg)
With his triumph over the Kadaram, Rajendra Cholan I assumed another new title as "Kadaremkondaan", and one of his grandsons who led the Kadarem expedition was given the title "Kadaremkonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Kadarem), and a region of the present Kudimallur in Tamil Nadu was named as the "Kadaremkonda Cholapuram". There are villages in present-day Tamil Nadu still bearing names as Kadaramkondaan at Thiruvaarur and Ariyalur regions (present Gedaramkondan in Ariyalur), and as Kadaramkonda Cholapuram (present Narasingpuram). With the victories of Rajendra Cholan I over Kadaram in Malaysia in 1023, he built a Siva Temple in north Tamil Nadu and named it as Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem.
It was with their triumphs in the wars in the Indian mainland, and near overseas, they built the former two "magnificient & gigantic temples completely out of Granite stone" as living monuments of their great valour and superior status in this region, which are included in the present day UNESCO World Heritage Series. The latter two were built in commemoration of their triumphs far overseas, and as monuments of their great achievements in South-East Asia and the superior status of the Medieval Chola Empire in the World History of that period (1025 CE).
Rajendra Chola's Conquest Chronology
Battles in Southern India
Early campaigns
Rajendra led campaigns from 1002 CE. These include the conquest of the
Rashtrakutas
Rashtrakuta (IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing their ...
and the campaigns against the
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the Deccan Plateau, western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada people, Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalya ...
. He conquered the Chalukyan territories of Yedatore (a large part of the
Raichur
Raichur (formerly Raichore) is a city and municipality in the district of Raichur in the Indian state of Karnataka. Raichur, located between Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, is the headquarters of Raichur district. It is located 409 km fr ...
district between the
Krishna
Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
and the
Tungabhadra),
Banavasi
Banavasi is an ancient temple town located near Sirsi in Karnataka. Banavasi was the ancient capital of the Kannada empire Kadamba that ruled all of modern-day Karnataka state. They were the first native empire to bring Kannada and Karnataka t ...
in the north-west of
Mysore
Mysore (), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern part of the state of Karnataka, India. Mysore city is geographically located between 12° 18′ 26″ north latitude and 76° 38′ 59″ east longitude. It is located at an altitude of ...
and capital
Manyakheta
Malkhed originally known as Manyakheta (IAST: Mānyakheṭa, Prakrit: "Mannakheḍa"), and also known as Malkhed,Village code= 311400 Malkhed (J), Gulbarga, Karnataka is a town in Karnataka, India. It is located on the banks of Kagina river i ...
. Rajendra erected a
Siva temple at
Bhatkal
Bhatkal, is a coastal town in the Uttara Kannada District of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bhatkal lies on National Highway 66 (India), National Highway 66, which runs between Mumbai and Kanyakumari, and has Bhatkal railway station which is ...
. He also conquered Kollipakkai, located to the north of
Hyderabad
Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part ...
in present-day
Telangana
Telangana (; , ) is a States and union territories of India, state in India situated on the south-central stretch of the Indian subcontinent, Indian peninsula on the high Deccan Plateau. It is the List of states and union territories of India b ...
. An excerpt from an inscription in
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
from
Kolar
Kolar or Kolara is a city in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Kolar district. The city is known for its milk production and gold mines. It is also known for Someshwara temple and Kolaramma temple.
History
The Wes ...
states:
In 1018/19 CE, Rajendra marched into the
Pandya and
Chera Perumal
Chera Perumals of Makotai, also known as the Perumal dynasty of KeralaThapar, Romila'', The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.'' Penguin Books, 2002. 331-32., or Cheraman Perumal dynasty of MahodayapuramNoburu Karashmia ...
kingdoms and conquered the two countries.
[See Sastri, K. A. N., ''A History of South India'', p165] Rajendra appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the title ''Jatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya'' with
Madurai
Madurai ( , also , ) is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. It is the cultural capital of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Madurai District. As of the 2011 census, it was the third largest Urban agglomeration in ...
as the headquarters (in-charge both Pandya and Chera/Kerala countries).
Chola–Chalukya wars
![Rajendra Chola in Battle, Kolaramma Temple - Edited](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Rajendra_Chola_in_Battle%2C_Kolaramma_Temple_-_Edited.jpg)
Rajendra fought several battles with the Western Chalukyas. From 992 CE to 1008 CE during the reign of Rajaraja I, Rajendra raided and annexed several towns such as Rattepadi, Banavasi and Toanur.
In 1015 CE, Jayasimha II became the king of
Western Chalukyas
The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the Deccan Plateau, western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. This Kannada people, Kannadiga dynasty is sometimes called the ''Kalyani Chalukya'' after its regal capital at Kalya ...
. He tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessor
Satyashraya
Satyashraya (; ), also known as Sattiga or Irivabedanga, was a king of the Western Chalukya Empire. During a time of consolidation of the empire in the early 11th century, Satyashraya was involved in several battles with the Chola dynasty of Th ...
, who fled his capital and was later restored to the throne by Raja Raja I as a tribute-paying subordinate. Initially, Jayasimha II was successful as Rajendra was busy with his campaigns in Sri Lanka.
[See Sastri, K. A. N., ''A History of South India'', p166] In 1021 CE, after the demise of the
Eastern Chalukyan king Vimaladitya of
Vengi
Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period. The ...
, Jayasimha supported the claim of Vijayaditya VII to the throne against the claims of
Rajaraja Narendra
Rajaraja Narendra () was the Eastern Chalukya king of the Vengi kingdom in South India. Rajaraja Narendra established the city Rajahmahendravaram. His period was famous for Social and Cultural heritage. During the time of Rajaraja Chola I, Raj ...
.
Rajaraja Narendra
Rajaraja Narendra () was the Eastern Chalukya king of the Vengi kingdom in South India. Rajaraja Narendra established the city Rajahmahendravaram. His period was famous for Social and Cultural heritage. During the time of Rajaraja Chola I, Raj ...
was the son of Vimaladitya and Chola princess Kundavai.
Rajendra helped his nephew Rajaraja defeat Vijayaditya.
[''Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, page 70'']
Rajendra fought Jayasimha in the battle of Maski.
He led an army of 900,000 and defeating
Jayasimha II at the Battle of Maski (1019 CE – 1020 CE). On the Eastern Front, Rajendra Chola led
Rajaraja Chola I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
's army in Vengi and expelled the rulers in battle. Vengi was later the site of the coronation of Rajendra Chola's nephew following his victories in the
Chola expedition to North India
The Medieval Chola emperor Rajendra Chola I led an expedition to North India between 1019 and 1021. The expedition traversed the states of Eastern Chalukyas, Vengi, Kalinga (historical kingdom), Kalinga, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Orissa, India, ...
.
Conquest of Anuradhapura
Conquest of Anuradhapura
Under his father Rajaraja I, Rajendra anong with Chola commander
Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan
Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan was a commander of the Chola Army. He was one among the famous chieftains of the Chola emperors Rajaraja I and Rajendra I and chief of the Samanthas of North Arcot and also the husband of Rajaraja's elder sister Kunt ...
commanded an army that invaded the island of
Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka (, ; si, ශ්රී ලංකා, Śrī Laṅkā, translit-std=ISO (); ta, இலங்கை, Ilaṅkai, translit-std=ISO ()), formerly known as Ceylon and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an ...
. The capital city of
Anuradhapura
Anuradhapura ( si, අනුරාධපුරය, translit=Anurādhapuraya; ta, அனுராதபுரம், translit=Aṉurātapuram) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central ...
was sacked by the Chola army. The capital was at
Polonnaruwa
Poḷonnaruwa, ( si, පොළොන්නරුව, translit=Poḷonnaruva; ta, பொலன்னறுவை, translit=Polaṉṉaṟuvai) also referred as Pulathisipura and Vijayarajapura in ancient times, is the main town of Polonnaruwa Dis ...
which was renamed "Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. The Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a
Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town of Mahatittha (modern Mantota, Mannar), which was renamed Rajaraja-pura. Chola occupied territories in the island were named Mummudicholamandalam after Mummudi Chola or Rajaraja I, the father of Rajendra.
Rajendra's father
Rajaraja I
Rajaraja I (947 CE – 1014 CE), born Arunmozhi Varman or Arulmozhi Varman and often described as Raja Raja the Great or Raja Raja Chozhan was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 CE to 1014 CE. He was the most powerful Tamil king in South ...
annexed the
KIngdom of Anuradhapura
The Anuradhapura Kingdom ( Sinhala: , translit: Anurādhapura Rājadhāniya, Tamil: ), named for its capital city, was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka related to the Sinhalese people. Founded by King Pandukabhaya in 437 ...
in northern Sri Lanka during his reign. Rajendra invaded the
Kingdom of Polonnaruwa
The Kingdom of Polonnaruwa ( si, පොළොන්නරුව රාජධානිය, Polonnaruwa Rājādhaniya) was the Sinhalese kingdom that expanded across the island of Sri Lanka and several overseas territories, from 1070 until 1232. ...
in the south in 1017 CE.
[''Indian History with Objective Questions and Historical Maps Twenty-Sixth Edition 2010, South India page 59''] Chola raids were launched southward from
Rajarata
Rajarata ā dja ra tə(Meaning: King's country) ( Sinhala: රජරට) (Tamil: ரஜரட) was one of three historical regions of the island of Sri Lanka for about 1,700 years from the 6th century BCE to the early 13th century CE. Several anci ...
into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura including the south-eastern province of Rohana were incorporated into the Chola Empire. As per the Sinhalese chronicle ''
Mahavamsa'', the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V, i.e. about 1017–18. But the south of the island, which lacked large and prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation, was never really consolidated by the Chola. Thus, under Rajendra, Chola predatory expansion in Ceylon began to reach a point of diminishing returns. According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra Chola led a large army into Anuradhapura and captured Mahinda's crown, queen, daughter, vast amount of wealth and the king himself whom he took as a prisoner to India, where he eventually died in exile in 1029.
Aftermath
Eleven years after the conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana, where Chola forces vainly searched for him. Soon after the death of his father Kassapa assumed the
monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, is head of state for life or until abdication. The political legitimacy and authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutional monarchy) ...
as
Kassapa VI
Vikramabahu (1017–1041; known as Kassapa before his coronation) was a medieval List of rulers of Sri Lanka, king of Sri Lanka. Following the death of his father in 1029, Vikramabahu led the resistance movement against the Chola invaders of the ...
(also known as Vikramabahu) and "ruled" in Rohana for several years (c. 1029–1040) while attempting to organize a campaign of liberation and unification. Taking advantage of uprisings in the
Pandya kingdom and
Chera kingdoms, Kassapa VI massacred the Chola garrisons in Rohana and drove the 95,000 strong Chola army to Pulatthinagara. But he died before he could consolidate his power, and a series of ephemeral aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the Cholas from the north. Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end to the war. His successor
Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042) tried to lead an unsuccessful revolt against the Cholas.
Vijayabahu
Vijayabahu I (born ''Prince Keerthi'') (ruled 1055–1110), also known as Vijayabahu the Great, was a medieval king of Sri Lanka. Born to a royal bloodline, Vijayabahu grew up under Chola occupation. He assumed rulership of the Ruhuna principal ...
I (1055–1110), descended from, or at least claimed to be descended from the
Sinhalese royal house. He had defeated his most powerful rivals in Rohana and was anxious to take on the Cholas, by the age of seventeen. The crisis in the country left a scattering of turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a greater threat to their independence than the Cholas were.
For that reason, the Cholas occasionally succeeded in recruiting nominal support from rebel chiefs in Rohana, as a result Vijayabahu had difficulty consolidating a firm territorial base from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On the other hand, the Cholas were unable to eliminate similar opposition to themselves in the north. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back and forth struggle of raids and counter-raids, with the forces of Vijayabahu advancing upon Polonnaruva and then falling back to fortresses in
Dakkhinadesa and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.
Conquest of the Ganges
Conflict with the Palas
*
Chola expedition to the North India
In 1019 CE, Rajendra's forces marched through
Kalinga Kalinga may refer to:
Geography, linguistics and/or ethnology
* Kalinga (historical region), a historical region of India
** Kalinga (Mahabharata), an apocryphal kingdom mentioned in classical Indian literature
** Kalinga script, an ancient writ ...
towards the river Ganga. In Kalinga the Chola forces defeated Indraratha the ruler of the Somavamsi Dynasty. Rajendra Chola took help of the Paramaras and the Kalachuris with whom Indraratha had a bitter enmity and Rajendra Chola took advantage of this situation. Indraratha was defeated against the combined armies and probably was killed. Within years of this event, Yayati II, the next Somavamshi ruler restored order in the Odra region and was successful in coming out of the influence of Rajendra Chola I. The Chola army eventually reached the
Pala Pala may refer to:
Places
Chad
*Pala, Chad, the capital of the region of Mayo-Kebbi Ouest
Estonia
* Pala, Kose Parish, village in Kose Parish, Harju County
* Pala, Kuusalu Parish, village in Kuusalu Parish, Harju County
*Pala, Järva County, vi ...
kingdom of Bengal where they defeated
Mahipala
Mahipala (or Mahipala I; ) was a notable king of the Pala dynasty, which ruled over much of the eastern regions of the Indian subcontinent between the 8th and 12th centuries. He was the son and successor of Vigrahapala II. Mahipala's reign mark ...
. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of the
Kamboja Pala dynasty
The Kamboja-Pala dynasty ruled parts of Bengal in the 10th to 11th centuries CE, after invading the Palas during the reign of Gopala II. The last Kamboja Kamboh ruler of the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty Dharmapala was defeated by the south Indian Empero ...
Dharmapala of Dandabhukti. The Chola army went on to raid
East Bengal
ur,
, common_name = East Bengal
, status = Province of the Dominion of Pakistan
, p1 = Bengal Presidency
, flag_p1 = Flag of British Bengal.svg
, s1 = East ...
and defeated
Govindachandra of the
Chandra dynasty
The Chandra kingdom was a Buddhist kingdom, originating from the Indian subcontinent, which ruled the Samatata region of Bengal, as well as northern Arakan. Later it was a neighbor to the Pala Empire to the north. Rulers of Chandra kingdom were ...
and invaded
Bastar region.
The Tamil ''
praśasti
''Prashasti'' (IAST: Praśasti, Sanskrit for "praise") is an Indian genre of inscriptions composed by poets in praise of their rulers. Most date from the 6th century CE onwards. Written in the form of poetry or ornate prose, the ''prashastis'' s ...
'' of Rajendra Chola I reads:
Gangaikondacholapuram
To celebrate his victory in the Ganges, Rajendra constructed a new capital at
Gangaikondacholapuram
Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years. ...
and built the
Gangaikonda Choleeswarar Temple similar to the
Brihadeeswarar Temple
Brihadishvara Temple, called Rajarajesvaram () by its builder, and known locally as ''Thanjai Periya Kovil'' ("Thanjavur Big Temple") and ''Peruvudaiyar Kovil'', is a Shaivite Hindu temple built in a Chola architectural style located on the ...
at Thanjavur. There have been general disagreement among historians on the nature of the expedition. Early scholars such as
V. Venkayya interpreted Rajendra Chola's campaign to "bring the waters of the Ganges into Chola territory" as a pilgrimage to the Ganges River.
Sastri Sastri is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* A. Seshayya Sastri (1828–1903), Indian administrator, Diwan of Travancore 1872–1877 and Diwan of Pudukkottai 1878–1894
* Bapudeva Sastri (1821–1900), Indian scholar in Sanskrit ...
, p 209 However, this theory has been refuted by later historians, most notable among them being
K. A. Nilakanta Sastri
Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri (12 August 1892 – 15 June 1975) was an Indian historian who wrote on South Indian history. Many of his books form the standard reference works on the subject. Sastri was acclaimed for his scholarship and ...
.
Sastri Sastri is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* A. Seshayya Sastri (1828–1903), Indian administrator, Diwan of Travancore 1872–1877 and Diwan of Pudukkottai 1878–1894
* Bapudeva Sastri (1821–1900), Indian scholar in Sanskrit ...
, p 210 That the campaign was military in nature is suggested by the last line of the Thiruvalangadu plates which state that the king erected a ''Ganga-jalamayam jayasthambham'' or a "liquid pillar of victory" in the form of the Cholaganga tank.
The Chola expedition to the Ganges had a long-lasting influence. According to R. D. Banerji, a
Kannadiga
The Kannada people or Kannadigaru IAST">nowiki/>IAST:_Kannadadavaru_or_Kannadigas_(English_term).html" ;"title="IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowiki/>IAST: Kannadadavaru or Kannadigas (English term)">IAST.html" ;"title="nowiki/>IAST">nowik ...
chief who accompanied Araiyan Rajarajan on his campaign settled down in Bengal and founded the
Sena Dynasty
The Sena dynasty was a Hindu dynasty during the early medieval period on the Indian subcontinent, that ruled from Bengal through the 11th and 12th centuries. The empire at its peak covered much of the north-eastern region of the Indian subcont ...
.
It is believed that the Karnata people of
Mithila Mithila may refer to:
Places
* Mithilā, a synonym for the ancient Videha state
** Mithilā (ancient city), the ancient capital city of Videha
* Mithila (region), a cultural region (historical and contemporary), now divided between India and Nepal
...
, too, might have descended from soldiers in the Chola army.
The ''Siddhantasaravali'' of Trilocana Sivacharya claims that a large number of
Saivite
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
Brahmins
Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (guru o ...
from Bengal were taken to the Chola country where they were granted lands by Rajendra Chola I. They, eventually, settled down in
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its temple ...
and the
Cauvery Delta
Chola Nadu is a cultural region of the Tamil Nadu state in southern India. It encompasses the lower reaches of the Kaveri River and its delta, and formed the cultural homeland and political base of the Chola Dynasty which ruled large parts of ...
forming the
Sivacharya community.
Southeast Asia Campaign
Invasion of Srivijaya
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
was a kingdom centered on
Palembang
Palembang () is the capital city of the Indonesian province of South Sumatra. The city proper covers on both banks of the Musi River on the eastern lowland of southern Sumatra. It had a population of 1,668,848 at the 2020 Census. Palembang ...
in
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
, ruled by the
Sailendra dynasty
The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...
. During the reign of Mara Vijayatungavarman, Srivijaya had cordial relations with the Chola Empire during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I; Mara Vijayatungavarman built a
Chudamani Vihara at
Nagapattinam
Nagapattinam (''nākappaṭṭinam'', previously spelt Nagapatnam or Negapatam) is a town in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the administrative headquarters of Nagapattinam District. The town came to prominence during the period of Medieval ...
. Mara was succeeded by
Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman (also known as Sangramavijayottunggavarman or Sang Rama Wijaya Tungga Warman) was an emperor of Srivijaya of Sailendra dynasty, who reigned in the early 11th century in Kadaram. He is best known for being captured by th ...
.
Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I made war on the kingdom of
Tambralinga
Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...
(in the Malay Peninsula). Suryavarman I requested aid from Rajendra.
[Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya, which was granted by Sangrama.
[*Majumdar, R. C. (1961)]
"The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Chola"
''Artibus Asiae'' 24 (3/4), pp. 338–342. Artibus Asiae Publishers. This eventually led to the Chola expedition against the Srivijiya Empire. This alliance somewhat also had a religious nuance, since both the Chola Empire and the
Khmer Empire were
Hindu
Hindus (; ) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism.Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pages 35–37 Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for ...
Shivaist
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangin ...
, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya were
Mahayana Buddhist
''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing br ...
. King
Suryavarman I
Suryavarman I ( km, សូរ្យវរ្ម័នទី១; posthumously ''Nirvanapada'') was king of the Khmer Empire from 1006 to 1050. Suryavarman usurped King Udayadityavarman I, defeating his armies in approximately 1002. After a protra ...
of the
Khmer Empire requested aid from Rajendra Chola I of the
Chola dynasty
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
against
Tambralinga
Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...
kingdom.
[Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra Chola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested aid from the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
king Sangrama Vijayatungavarman.
[ R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers] This eventually led to the
Chola Empire
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...
coming into conflict with the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
Empire.
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both
piracy
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
and foreign trade. Sometimes Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. While
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
that controlled two major naval choke points;
Malacca
Malacca ( ms, Melaka) is a state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, next to the Strait of Malacca. Its capital is Malacca City, dubbed the Historic City, which has been listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site si ...
and
Sunda Strait
The Sunda Strait ( id, Selat Sunda) is the strait between the Indonesian islands of Java island, Java and Sumatra. It connects the Java Sea with the Indian Ocean.
Etymology
The strait takes its name from the Sunda Kingdom, which ruled the weste ...
; at that time was a major trading empire that possess formidable naval forces. Malacca strait's northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on Peninsula side and from
Pannai
Pannai, Panai or Pane was a Buddhist kingdom located on the east coast of Northern Sumatra that existed between the 11th and 14th centuries. The kingdom was located on the Barumun River and Panai River valleys, in today's Labuhan Batu and Sout ...
on the
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
n side, while
Malayu (
Jamb
A jamb (from French ''jambe'', "leg"), in architecture, is the side-post or lining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window outside the frame are called “reveals.” Small shafts to doors and windows with caps and bases are know ...
.)
Other Campaigns in Southeast Asia
In 1025 CE, Rajendra led Chola forces across the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
and
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
.
The Chola sacked
Kadaram (the capital) and
Pannai
Pannai, Panai or Pane was a Buddhist kingdom located on the east coast of Northern Sumatra that existed between the 11th and 14th centuries. The kingdom was located on the Barumun River and Panai River valleys, in today's Labuhan Batu and Sout ...
in Sumatra and
Malaiyur in the
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula (Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The area ...
. Rajendra also invaded
Tambralinga
Tambralinga ( sa, Tāmbraliṅga) was an Indianised kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula, existing at least from the 10th to 13th century. It was under the influence of Srivijaya for some time, but later became independent from it. The name ha ...
and the
Gangga Nagara
Gangga Negara is believed to be a lost semi-legendary Malay-Hindu kingdom mentioned in the Malay Annals that covered present day Beruas, Dinding and Manjung in the state of Perak, Malaysia with Raja Gangga Shah Johan as one of its kings. Rese ...
Kingdom in modern Malaysia and south Thailand.
[The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World by Lincoln Paine p.866][''Epigraphia Carnatica, Volume 10, Part 1, page 41''] The Chola forces captured the last ruler of the
Sailendra Dynasty
The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...
Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman (also known as Sangramavijayottunggavarman or Sang Rama Wijaya Tungga Warman) was an emperor of Srivijaya of Sailendra dynasty, who reigned in the early 11th century in Kadaram. He is best known for being captured by th ...
. The Chola invasion was the end of Srivijaya.
[Abshire, Jean. ''The History of Singapore'' p. 17][Murfett, Malcolm H.; Miksic, John; Farell, Brian; Chiang, Ming Shun. ''Between Two Oceans: A Military History of Singapore from 1275 to 1971'' p. 16] Srivijaya's maritime power declined under Chola attack.
[Sar Desai, D. R. ''Southeast Asia: Past and Present'' p.43] After this the Chola Empire conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its ports of
Ligor
Nakhon Si Thammarat Municipality ( th, เทศบาลนครนครศรีธรรมราช, ; from Pali ''Nagara Sri Dhammaraja'') is a municipality (''thesaban nakhon'') in Southern Thailand, capital of Nakhon Si Thammarat prov ...
,
Kedah
Kedah (), also known by its honorific Darul Aman (Islam), Aman and historically as Queda, is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area ...
, and
Tumasik (now
Singapore
Singapore (), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a sovereign island country and city-state in maritime Southeast Asia. It lies about one degree of latitude () north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, borde ...
).
The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
merchant associations such as the
Manigramam
Manigiramam, or manigramam, typically refers to a medieval merchant guild, organised by itinerant ethnic Indian traders, primarily active in south India.Noburu Karashmia (ed.), ''A Concise History of South India: Issues and Interpretations.'' Ne ...
,
Ayyavole, and
Ainnurruvar
Ainnurruvar is a medieval merchant guild originating in the Tamil Nadu region of India between the eighth and 13th centuries. In this period, organised merchant guilds exerted considerable power and influence. ''Ainnurruvar'' was one of the most ...
into
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. For the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
.
The expedition of Rajendra Chola It is mentioned in the corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval
Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
chronicle ''Sejarah Melaya'', and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, such as
Raja Chulan
Raja Chulan ibni Almarhum Sultan Abdullah Muhammad Shah II Habibullah KBE (1 July 1869 – 10 April 1933) was a member of the Perak royal family. He was born on 1 July 1869 at Tanjung, Brambong. He was the son of Sultan Abdullah Muhammad Sha ...
of
Perak
Perak () is a state of Malaysia on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. Perak has land borders with the Malaysian states of Kedah to the north, Penang to the northwest, Kelantan and Pahang to the east, and Selangor to the south. Thailand's ...
. One record of Rajendra Chola describes him as the King of
Lamuri
Lamuri or Lambri was a kingdom in northern Sumatra, Indonesia from the Srivijaya period until the early 16th century. The area was inhabited by Hindu population around the seventh century. There is also evidence of Buddhism. The region is also ...
in north Sumatra. The Chola invasion led to the fall of the
Sailendra Dynasty
The Shailendra dynasty (, derived from Sanskrit combined words ''Śaila'' and ''Indra'', meaning "King of the Mountain", also spelled Sailendra, Syailendra or Selendra) was the name of a notable Indianised dynasty that emerged in 8th-century ...
of Srivijaya and the Chola invasion also coincides with the return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar
Atiśa
( bn, অতীশ দীপংকর শ্রীজ্ঞান, ôtiś dīpôṅkôr śrigyen; 982–1054) was a Buddhist religious leader and master. He is generally associated with his work carried out at the Vikramashila monastery in Biha ...
from Sumatra to India in 1025.
Despite the devastation,
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
mandala still survived as the Chola invasion ultimately failed to install direct administration over
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
, since the invasion was short and only meant to plunder. Nevertheless, this invasion gravely weakened the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
n hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms like
Kahuripan
Kahuripan (also spelt Kuripan) was an 11th-century Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom with its capital located around the estuarine of Brantas River valley in East Java. The kingdom was short-lived, only spanning the period between 1019 and 1045, ...
and its successor,
Kediri in
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
Although the invasion was not followed by direct
Chola
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
n occupation and the region was unchanged geographically, there were huge consequences in trade.
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
traders encroached on the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
n realm traditionally controlled by
Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
traders and the
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
guilds' influence increased on the
Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula (Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The area ...
and north coast of
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
.
Aftermath
With the growing presence of
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
guilds in the region, relations improved between
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
and the
Chola
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
s.
Chola
The Chola dynasty was a Tamils, Tamil thalassocratic Tamil Dynasties, empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated ...
nobles were accepted in
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
court and in 1067 CE, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
n ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince who was the nephew of
Rajendra Chola
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tami ...
later was enthroned in 1070 CE as
Kulothunga Chola I
Kulottunga I (;1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his ...
. Later during the Kedah rebellion,
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
asked the Cholas for help. In 1068 CE,
Virarajendra Chola
Virarajendra Chola (1002 CE – 1070 CE) was a Chola emperor, who spent a major part of his life as a subordinate to two of his elder brothers Rajadhiraja I and Rajendra II, he is the son of Rajendra I. During his early reign he granted the ...
launched a naval raid to help
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
reclaim
Kedah
Kedah (), also known by its honorific Darul Aman (Islam), Aman and historically as Queda, is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area ...
.
[Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.305] Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
n Maharaja and Kedah accepted the
Srivijaya
Srivijaya ( id, Sriwijaya) was a Buddhist thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia), which influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th t ...
n sovereignty.
Death
![A 11th century relief with woman praying to Shiva Linga Shaivism](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/A_11th_century_relief_with_woman_praying_to_Shiva_Linga_Shaivism.jpg)
Rajendra I died in 1044 AD at the village of Brahmadesam, present-day
tiruvannamalai
Tiruvannamalai (Tamil: ''Tiruvaṇṇāmalai'' IPA: , otherwise spelt ''Thiruvannamalai''; ''Trinomali'' or ''Trinomalee'' on British records) is a city, a spiritual, cultural, economic hub and also the administrative headquarters of Tiruvanna ...
district in
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is a States and union territories of India, state in southern India. It is the List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of India ...
. This information is recorded in an inscription by his son,
Rajadhiraja I which states that Rajendra's queen Viramahadevi committed
sati
Sati or SATI may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi
* ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike
*Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer
*Sati, a character in ''Th ...
upon her husband's death and her remains were interred in the same tomb at Brahmadesam. It adds that the queen's brother, Madhuranthaka Parakesari Velan, who was a general in Rajendra's army, constructed a watershed at the same place in memory of his sister.
Personal life and family
![Domlur chola stone art 10th century,bangalore](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Domlur_chola_stone_art_10th_century%2Cbangalore.jpg)
The Siddanta Saravali of Trilochana Sivacharya states that Rajendra was a poet and he composed hymns in praise of god Shiva. A commentary on the same work states that Rajendra brought a number of
Saivas
Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
from the banks of the river Ganges and settled them in
Kanchi
Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its temple ...
and the Chola country.
Titles
* After his successful campaign to
Ganges
The Ganges ( ) (in India: Ganga ( ); in Bangladesh: Padma ( )). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international river to which India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China are the riparian states." is ...
river in north India he got the title ''Gangaikonda Chola'' (The Chola who took the Ganges river). And after his successful Southeast Asian campaign he got the title "Kadaram Kondan" (He who took
Kedah
Kedah (), also known by its honorific Darul Aman (Islam), Aman and historically as Queda, is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state of Malaysia, located in the northwestern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The state covers a total area ...
in Malaysia).
[Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to .Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke, K Kesavapany, Vijay Sakhuja p.170]
* He inherited the title ''Mummudi Cholan'' (Chola with three crowns) from his father with ''Mummudi'', a title used by
Tamil
Tamil may refer to:
* Tamils, an ethnic group native to India and some other parts of Asia
**Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka also called ilankai tamils
**Tamil Malaysians, Tamil people native to Malaysia
* Tamil language, nativ ...
kings who ruled the three kingdoms of
Cholas
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...
,
Pandyas and
Cheras. To commemorate his conquests, Rajendra assumed other titles such as ''Mudigonda Cholan'' and ''Irattapadikonda Cholan''.
* Rajendra I bore the title Chalukya-Chudamani, that is ''Crest Jewel of the Chalukyas''.
Family
Rajendra I had many queens including Tribhuvana or Vanavan Mahadevi, Mukkokilan, Panchavan Mahadevi, Puteri Onangki and Viramahadevi, last of whom committed
sati
Sati or SATI may refer to:
Entertainment
* ''Sati'' (film), a 1989 Bengali film by Aparna Sen and starring Shabana Azmi
* ''Sati'' (novel), a 1990 novel by Christopher Pike
*Sati (singer) (born 1976), Lithuanian singer
*Sati, a character in ''Th ...
upon her husband's death (1044 AD). He had 7 sons, namely Rajarajan,
Rajadhiraja
''RajadhiRaja'' () is a 2014 Malayalam-language action thriller film, directed by Ajai Vasudev and written by the duo of Udayakrishna-Siby K. Thomas. The film stars Mammootty and Raai Laxmi, alongside an ensemble supporting cast including ...
,
Manukula Kesari, Sanga varman,
Rajendra II, Rajamahendran and
Virarajendra. Rajarajan was the eldest of the seven but he died as a pre-teen.
Manukula Kesari died in 1021 CE during the war with western chalukyas. Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar and Ammangadevi (queen of Eastern Chalukya Rajaraja I and the mother of
Kulottunga I
Kulottunga I (;1025 CE - 1122 CE) also spelt Kulothunga (), was a Chola Emperor who reigned from 1070 CE to 1122 CE succeeding his cousin Athirajendra Chola. He also served as the Eastern Chalukya king from 1061 CE to 1118 CE, succeeding his ...
) are the two known daughters of king Rajendra.
Issues
Work and legacy
Temples
![Gangaikonda CholaPuram 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Gangaikonda_CholaPuram_1.JPG)
Rajendra had built several Important sites.Rajendra built
Gangaikondacholapuram
Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years. ...
, to commemorate his victory over the
Pala Dynasty. The name means ''The town of the Ganga Bringer (water from Ganga) or who defeated (the kings near) Ganga''. This contained an artificial lake, which was filled with water from the Kolerun and the Vellar rivers. The city seems to had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.
Rajendra established Gangaikonda Cholapuram as his capital from the medieval Chola capital of
Thanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
, which would go on to become the capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built the entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil Vastu and Agama
sastra
''Shastra'' (, IAST: , ) is a Sanskrit word that means "precept, rules, manual, compendium, book or treatise" in a general sense.Monier Williams, Monier Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford University Press, Article on 'zAstra'' The wo ...
texts. These included a
Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples. However, all of these were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except the Brihadishvara temple. The other Chola landmarks are evidenced by soil covered mounds and excavated broken pillar stumps and brick walls found over an area of several kilometers from the surviving temple.
Rajendra states Dehejia, must have involved the same craftsmen used by his father and transferred them from Thanjavur.
Most or all of the Chola kings from Rajendra I had their coronation at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and palace remains a few kilometers from this temple
Rajendra has also build a royal
palace
A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence, or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. The word is derived from the Latin name palātium, for Palatine Hill in Rome which ...
of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. There is a tunnel that links the palace and the temple inner first prakaara (north).
Rajendra also expanded the He also expanded the
Koneswaram temple in
Trincomalee
Trincomalee (; ta, திருகோணமலை, translit=Tirukōṇamalai; si, ත්රිකුණාමළය, translit= Trikuṇāmaḷaya), also known as Gokanna and Gokarna, is the administrative headquarters of the Trincomalee Dis ...
. The temple to
Bhadrakali
Bhadrakali (IAST: Bhadrakālī; ), also known as Mahakali and Kali, is a Hindu goddess.
According to Shaktism, she is one of the fierce forms of the Supreme Goddess Shakti, or Adi Parashakti, mentioned in the Devi Mahatmyam. In Vaishnavism, ...
is located further along in the complex inland along Konesar Road, benefitted from Rajendra Chola I.
[An inscription of the Cola king, Rajendra I (1012–1044 A.D.) was found recently at the goddess Kali's Temple in Trincomalee, detailing his expansion of the shrine. Indrapala, Karthigesu (2007). The evolution of an ethnic identity: The Tamils in Sri Lanka C. 300 B.C. to C. 1200 A.D. Colombo: Vijitha Yapa. .] The Kali temple is mentioned in the book ''Birds of Prey'' (1997) by
Wilbur Smith
Wilbur Addison Smith (9 January 1933 – 13 November 2021) was a Zambian-born British-South African novelist specialising in historical fiction about international involvement in Southern Africa across four centuries, seen from the viewpoints ...
, set in the 1660s. The ''Thirukonasala Mahatyam'', describing the origins of the world, Lanka and Koneswaram based on puranic legends is now lost. The historical literature ''
Mattakallappu Manmiyam
''Mattakkalappu Maanmiyam'' (; ''The Glory of Batticaloa'') is a Tamil language historical book concerning the history of Batticaloa. It was compiled by F. X. Nadarajah from the collections of palm-leaf manuscript
Palm-leaf manuscripts are m ...
'' (''Batticaloa Manmiyam'') that chronicles the
history
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the History of writing#Inventions of writing, invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbr ...
of Tamil settlement in Batticaloa, follows the ''Dakshina Kailasa Puranam'' and ''Dakshina Kailasa Manmiam'' in describing Koneswaram as one of the nine most important and sacred sites in the world for all Hindus.
Rajendra also expanded the
Pathirakali Amman Temple also in Trincomalee. It attracted a lot of pilgrims during his reign.
Rajendra developed highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of ''devadana'' and ''bramadeya'' lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra built a huge tank named Cholagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory.
Rajendra developed highly efficient system of water management from the village level upwards. The increase in the royal patronage and also the number of and lands which increased the role of the temples and village assemblies in the field. Committees like eri-variyam (tank-committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active as also the temples with their vast resources in land, men and money. The water tanks that came up during the Chola period are too many to be listed here. But a few most outstanding may be briefly mentioned. Rajendra built a huge tank named Cholagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram and was described as the liquid pillar of victory.
Ottakoothar's ''Vikrama Cholan Ula'' mentions Rajendra's conquests:
The Malay-language ''
Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain
''Hikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain'' is a Malay epic describing fictional exploits of Alexander the Great (Iskandar), identified with Dhu al-Qarnayn (Zulkarnain), a king briefly mentioned in the Quran. The oldest existing manuscript is dated 1713, b ...
'' was written about
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
as
Dhul-Qarnayn
, ( ar, ذُو ٱلْقَرْنَيْن, Ḏū l-Qarnayn, ; "He of the Two Horns") appears in the Quran, Surah Al-Kahf (18), Ayahs 83–101 as one who travels to east and west and sets up a barrier between a certain people and Gog and Magog ...
and from it the ancestry of several southeast Asian royal families is traced to Iskandar Zulkarnain,
through Rajendra Chola (Raja Suran, Raja Chola) in the ''
Malay Annals
The ''Malay Annals'' (Malay: ''Sejarah Melayu'', Jawi: سجاره ملايو), originally titled ''Sulalatus Salatin'' (''Genealogy of Kings''), is a literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and demise of the gr ...
'', such as the
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
n
Minangkabau Minangkabau may refer to:
* Minangkabau culture, culture of the Minangkabau people
* Minangkabau Culture Documentation and Information Center
* Minangkabau Express, an airport rail link service serving Minangkabau International Airport (''see belo ...
royalty.
Inscriptions
![Domlur Chola Temple](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Domlur_Chola_Temple.jpg)
Throughout his reign and conquests, There have been several inscriptions of Rajendra found.
An inscription of the king from the Adhipuriswara temple in
Chengalpattu
Chengalpattu, previously known as Chingleput, is a city and the headquarters of Chengalpattu district of the state Tamil Nadu, India. The town is located near to the industrial and IT hub. It is the headquarters of the district and is away fro ...
district gives his natal star as Tiruvadarai. Donations were made to the temple to celebrate the king's birthday in the month of Maargali.
Another inscription from the Umamahesvara temple in Konerirajapuram,
Thanjavur
Thanjavur (), also Tanjore, Pletcher 2010, p. 195 is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is the 11th biggest city in Tamil Nadu. Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian religion, art, and architecture. Most of the Gr ...
district refers to the donations by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai-Pirattiyar during the third year of the king's reign.
Officials and feudatories
Rajendra (the Parakesari) appointed his son Rajadhiraja (the Rajakesari) as heir apparent to the Chola throne in 1018 AD. Large military expeditions, like the Pandya and Chalukya wars, were carried out by Rajadhiraja. The prominent feudatories or officials of the time were,
* Vallavaraiyar Vandyadevar
* Yadava Bhima "Uttama Chola" Miladudaiyar
* Gangaikonda Chola Miladudaiyar
*
Dandanayakan Narakkan Krishnan Raman
* Marayan Arumoli "Uttama Chola" Brahmamarayan
* Talaigrama Indaladeva
Popular culture
*India's merchant navy training ship ''TS Rajendra'' was named in his honour.
*The state government of Maharashtra proposed to dedicate Rajendra Chola's portrait to
Mazgaon Docks
*The video game ''
Age of Empires II: Definitive Edition: Dynasties of India'' contains a five-chapter campaign titled ''Rajendra''.
Literature
*''Vengayin Maindhan'' by
Akilan
Akilandam, better known by his pen name Akilan, was an Indian writer and novelist who wrote in Tamil. He was attracted by Gandhian philosophy during his school days and he discontinued his college education at Pudukkottai to join the freedom st ...
covers the life and achievements of Rajendra Chola
*''Gangapuri Kavalan'' by
Vembu Vikiraman in which Rajendra Chola is the protagonist
*''Mannan Magal'' by
Sandilyan
Bhashyam Iyengar (6 November 1910 - 11 September 1987), better known by the pen name of Sandilyan, was an Indian writer known for his historical fiction novels in Tamil. He is known for his historical romance and adventure novels, often set in ...
set in the period of Rajendra Chola
*''Gangai Konda Cholan'' by Balakumaran
*''Ulagam Vendra Cholan'' by Bharathika which covers the war history and lifetime achievements
Gallery
File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (56).jpg, Sculptures of Shiva
Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
and Parvati
Parvati ( sa, पार्वती, ), Uma ( sa, उमा, ) or Gauri ( sa, गौरी, ) is the Hindu goddess of power, energy, nourishment, harmony, love, beauty, devotion, and motherhood. She is a physical representation of Mahadevi i ...
at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years.
...
File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (68).jpg, Entrance of Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple
File:Maligai-Medu.jpg, Ruins of Rajendra's Palace
File:11th century Bhaktavatsala temple, Cheranmahadevi Tamil Nadu India - 9.jpg, Bhaktavatsala temple
File:11th century Gangaikonda cholapuram Temple, dedicated to Shiva, built by the Chola king Rajendra I Tamil Nadu India (98).jpg, alt=, Sculptures at Gangaikonda Cholapuram
See also
*
Chola Empire
The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BCE d ...
*
Chola Navy
The Cholas did not have a standing navy in the modern sense. The maritime force of Cholas was formed by using ships used for trade, as they did not have a dedicated ship for naval combat. The ships were used for transporting the land army overs ...
*
List of Indian monarchs
The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. It includes those said to have ruled a portion of the Indian subcontinent, including Sri Lanka.
The earliest Indian rulers are known from epigraphical sources fo ...
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History of South India
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List of Tamil monarchs
This is a list of ethnically Tamil and predominantly Tamil speaking monarchs, who ruled in Southern India and parts of Sri Lanka and South East Asia. The ancient Tamil monarchy was largely hereditary and supported by numerous chieftains.
Tam ...
References
Bibliography
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Further reading
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* R. Hall, Kenneth (October 1975)
Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' 18 (3), pp. 318–336.
Brill Publishers
Brill Academic Publishers (known as E. J. Brill, Koninklijke Brill, Brill ()) is a Dutch international academic publisher founded in 1683 in Leiden, Netherlands. With offices in Leiden, Boston, Paderborn and Singapore, Brill today publishes 27 ...
* Śrīnidhiḥ: perspectives in Indian archaeology, art, and culture by K. R. Srinivasan, K. V. Raman
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chola, Rajendra, I
Rajendra I
Rajendra Chola I (; Middle Tamil: Rājēntira Cōḻaṉ; Classical Sanskrit: Rājēndradēva Cōla; Old Malay: ''Raja Suran''; c. 971 CE – 1044 CE), often referred to as Rajendra the Great, and also known as Gangaikonda Chola (Middle Tamil ...
Year of birth unknown
1040s deaths
11th-century Indian monarchs
Hindu monarchs
Indian military leaders
971 births