Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
: पुरुषार्थ, IAST: ) literally means "object(ive) of men". Cappeller Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany It is a key concept in
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, and refers to the four proper goals or aims of a human life. The four ''puruṣārthas'' are Dharma (righteousness, moral values),
Artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
(prosperity, economic values),
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
(pleasure, love, psychological values) and
Moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
(liberation, spiritual values, self-actualization).
All four ''Purusharthas'' are important, but in cases of conflict, ''Dharma'' is considered more important than ''Artha'' or ''Kama'' in Hindu philosophy. ''Moksha'' is considered the ultimate goal of human life.Alban Widgery (1930) The Principles of Hindu Ethics , International Journal of Ethics, 40(2): 239–240 At the same time, this is not a consensus among all Hindus, and many have different interpretations of the hierarchy, and even as to whether one should exist.
Historical Indian scholars recognized and debated the inherent tension between active pursuit of wealth (Artha) and pleasure (Kama), and renunciation of all wealth and pleasure for the sake of spiritual liberation (Moksha). They proposed "action with renunciation" or "craving-free, dharma-driven action", also called ''
Nishkama Karma
''Nishkama Karma'' (Sanskrit IAST : ''Niṣkāmakarma''), self-less or desireless action, is an action performed without any expectation of fruits or results, and the central tenet of Karma Yoga path to liberation. Its modern advocates press upon ...
'' as a possible solution to the tension.
Etymology
''Puruṣārtha'' (पुरुषार्थ) is a composite Sanskrit word from ''
Purusha
''Purusha'' (' or ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presuppositions of Ind ...
'' (पुरुष) and ''Artha'' (अर्थ). ''Purusha'' means "spirit", "immaterial essence", or "primaeval human being as the soul and original source of the universe".purusha Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Koeln University, Germany, depending on the
darsana
In Indian religions, ''Darshana'', also spelt ''Darshan'', (Sanskrit: दर्शन, , ) or ''Darshanam'' (darśanam) is the auspicious sight of a deity or a holy person.
The term also refers to six traditional schools of Hindu philosophy ...
, the school of thought. ''Artha'' in one context means "purpose", "object of desire" and "meaning". Together, ''Purushartha'' literally means "purpose of human being" or "object of human pursuit".R Prasad (2008), A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, , page 125Alf Hiltebeitel translates ''Purushartha'' as "Goals of Man". Prasad clarifies that "Man" includes both man and woman in ancient and medieval Indian texts. Olivelle translates it as the "aims of human life". In his book '' Bhagavad-Gita As It Is'', Prabhupada describes Purusartha as "material religiosity, economic development, sense gratification and, at the end, the attempt to become one with the Supreme."
Purushartha is also referred to as ''Chaturvarga''.
Discussion
''Purushartha'' is a key concept in Hinduism, which holds that every human has four proper goals that are necessary and sufficient for a fulfilling and happy life,
* Dharma – signifies behaviors that are considered to be in accord with ''
rta
RTA may refer to:
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* Radio Television Afghanistan
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* Radiodiffusion Télévision Algérienne
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Scienc ...
'', the order that makes life and universe possible, and includes duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and ''right way of living''.Dharma, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Ed. (2013), Columbia University Press, Gale, Hindu dharma includes the religious duties, moral rights and duties of each individual, as well as behaviors that enable social order, right conduct, and those that are virtuous. Dharma, according to van Buitenen,J. A. B. van Buitenen, Dharma and Moksa, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. - Jul., 1957), pp 33–40 is that which all existing beings must accept and respect to sustain harmony and order in the world. It is, states van Buitenen, the pursuit and execution of one's nature and true calling, thus playing one's role in cosmic concert.
*
Artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
– signifies the "means of life", activities and resources that enables one to be in a state one wants to be in.John Koller, Puruṣārtha as Human Aims, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 18, No. 4 (Oct., 1968), pp. 315–319 ''Artha'' incorporates wealth, career, activity to make a living, financial security and economic prosperity. The proper pursuit of artha is considered an important aim of human life in Hinduism.Bruce Sullivan (1997), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, , pp 29–30
*
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
– signifies desire, wish, passion, emotions, pleasure of the senses, the aesthetic enjoyment of life, affection, or love, with or without lustful connotations.
Gavin Flood
__NOTOC__
Gavin Dennis Flood (born 1954) is a British scholar of comparative religion specialising in Shaivism and phenomenology, but with research interests that span South Asian traditions.
From October 2005 through December 2015, he served ...
explainsGavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, , pp 11–13 kāma as "love" without violating dharma (moral responsibility), artha (material prosperity) and one's journey towards moksha (spiritual liberation).
*
Moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
– signifies emancipation, liberation or release. In some schools of Hinduism, ''moksha'' connotes freedom from '' saṃsāra'', the cycle of death and rebirth, in other schools moksha connotes freedom, self-knowledge, self-realization and liberation in this life.
Relative importance between four goals of life
Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma is foremost. If dharma is ignored, artha and kama - profit and pleasure respectively - lead to social chaos.Gavin Flood (1996), The meaning and context of the Purusarthas, in Julius Lipner (Editor) - The Fruits of Our Desiring, , pp 16–21 The
Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
Dharmashastra,
Apastamba
''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra'' (Sanskrit: आपस्तम्ब धर्मसूत्र) is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one o ...
Dharmasutra and
Yājñavalkya Smṛti
The ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, IAST: ') is one of the many Dharma-related texts of Hinduism composed in Sanskrit. It is dated between the 3rd to 5th-century CE, and belongs to the Dharmasha ...
, as examples, all suggest that dharma comes first and is more important than artha and kama.See:
* Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , Note 24.23 at pp 364;
* Gautama Dharmashastra at 1.9.46–47, Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , paragraph overlapping pp 92–93;
* Yajnavalkya Smrti at 1.115, Translation by Rai Vidyarnava (1918) The Sacred Books of Hindus Volume XXI, Verse CXV and commentary at pp 232;
* Apastamba Dharmasutra 2.20.18–23; Patrick Olivelle, Dharmasutras - The Law Codes of Ancient India, Oxford University Press, , Miscellaneous Rules 18–23 at pp 64
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
states the relative value of three goals as follows: artha is more important and should precede kama, while dharma is more important and should precede both kama and artha.The Hindu Kama Shastra Society (1925) The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana University of Toronto Archives, pp. 8 Kautiliya's Arthashastra, however, argues that artha is the foundation for the other two. Without prosperity and security in society or at individual level, both moral life and sensuality become difficult. Poverty breeds vice and hate, while prosperity breeds virtues and love, suggested Kautiliya. Kautilya adds that all three are mutually connected, and one should not cease enjoying life, nor virtuous behavior, nor pursuit of wealth creation. Excessive pursuit of any one aspect of life with complete rejection of other two, harms all three including the one excessively pursued.See:
* Kautilya Arthashastra at 1.7.3–7; For English translation - Rangarajan (1987), Penguin Classics, ;
* Ashok S. Chousalkar (2004), Methodology of Kautilya's Arthashastra, The Indian Journal of Political Science, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 55–76 The sastras, states Kane, observe that the relative precedence of artha, kama and dharma are naturally different with age.
Moksha is considered in Hinduism as the ''parama-puruṣārtha'' or ultimate goal of human life.
Tension between four goals of life
Indian scholars recognized and have debated the inherent tension between renunciation and ''Moksha'' on one hand, and the active pursuit of ''Kama'' and ''Artha'' on the other. This has led to the concepts of ''Pravrtti'' (प्रवृत्ति, Pravritti) and ''Nivrtti'' (निवृत्ति, Nivritti), with the former meaning "giving or devoting one's self to" external action, while the latter means "withdrawing and restraining one's self from" external action in order to focus on one's own liberation. ''Artha'' and ''Kama'' are ''Pravrtti'', while ''Moksha'' is ''Nivrtti''. Both are considered important in Hinduism. Manusmriti, for example, describes it as,
Indian scholars offered a creative resolution to the tension between "action"-filled life and "renunciation"-driven life, by suggesting the best of both worlds can be achieved by dedicating oneself to "action with renunciation", that is when "action is without attachment or craving for results". Action must be engaged in because it is ''Dharma'', that is, it is good, virtuous, right, a duty and a moral activity, and not because of one's craving for the results or material rewards without any consideration for Dharma. This idea of "craving-free, dharma-driven action" has been called ''
Nishkama Karma
''Nishkama Karma'' (Sanskrit IAST : ''Niṣkāmakarma''), self-less or desireless action, is an action performed without any expectation of fruits or results, and the central tenet of Karma Yoga path to liberation. Its modern advocates press upon ...
'' in Bhagavad Gita.Gerard Delanty (2012), Routledge Handbook of Cosmopolitanism Studies, Routledge, , page 465 Other Indian texts state the same answer to tension between "pursue wealth and love" versus "renounce everything" ''Purusharthas'', but using different words. Isa Upanishad, for example, states "act and enjoy with renunciation, do not covet".
Origins of puruṣārtha theory
The concept of ''mokṣa'' appears in the ''
Upanishads
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
'', while the preceding '' Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas'' commonly refer to ''kāma'', ''artha'' and ''dharma'' as the "''trivarga''" or "three categories" of possible human pursuits. The ''
Dharmaśāstra
''Dharmaśāstra'' ( sa, धर्मशास्त्र) is a genre of Sanskrit texts on law and conduct, and refers to the treatises ( śāstras) on dharma. Unlike Dharmasūtra which are based upon Vedas, these texts are mainly based on ...
s'' and the epics ''
Ramayana
The ''Rāmāyana'' (; sa, रामायणम्, ) is a Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epic composed over a period of nearly a millennium, with scholars' estimates for the earliest stage of the text ranging from the 8th ...
'' and ''
Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the s ...
'' are the first known sources that comprehensively present the notion that integrated living entails the pursuit of four goals or ends. Prasad (2008) states that the division between the ''trivarga'' and ''mokṣa'' is intended to highlight the context between the social (''trivarga'') and personal (''mokṣa'') spheres.
The ''
Sannyasa
''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' A ...
'' is entirely focussed on the pursuit of ''Moksha'' without violating ''Dharma''. Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, completed by about 7th century BC, states the following behavioral vows for a person in ''Sannyasa'',Max Muller (Translator) Baudhayana Dharmasūtra Prasna II, Adhyaya 10, Kandika 18 The
Sacred Books of the East
The ''Sacred Books of the East'' is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious texts, edited by Max Müller and published by the Oxford University Press between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts ...
, Vol. XIV, Oxford University Press, pages 279–281
Baudhāyana also makes repeated references to the ''Sannyasa'' (ascetic) stage and its behavioral focus, such as in verses II.13.7 and 11.18.13. This reference, Olivelle states, is found in many early to mid 1st millennium BC texts, and is clearly from
gnomic poetry
: ''For the map projection see Gnomonic projection; for the game, see Nomic; for the mythological being, see Gnome.''
Gnomic poetry consists of meaningful sayings put into verse to aid the memory. They were known by the Greeks as gnomes (c.f. the ...
about an established ascetic tradition by the time Baudhayana Dharmasutra and other texts were written. Katha Upanishad, in hymns 2.1–2.2 contrasts the human feeling of pleasant (''preyas'', प्रेयस्) with that of bliss (''sreyas'', श्रेयस्), praising the latter. The hymns of Rig Veda in Book 10 Chapter 136, mention '' Muni'' (मुनि, monks, mendicants, holy man), with characteristics that mirror those found in later concepts of renunication-practising, ''Moksha''-motivated ascetics (''Sannyasins'' and ''Sannyasinis''). These ''Muni'' are said to be ''Kesins'' (केशिन्, long haired) wearing ''Mala'' clothes (मल, dirty, soil-colored, yellow, orange, saffron) and engaged in the affairs of ''Mananat'' (mind, meditation).GS Ghurye (1952), Ascetic Origins, Sociological Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2, pages 162–184; For Sanskrit original Rigveda Wikisource; For English translation Kesins Rig Veda, Hymn CXXXVI, Ralph Griffith (Translator)
Scharfe states, "there are abundant references both to the ''trivarga'' and ''caturvarga'' in Hindu literature throughout the ages".
Purushartha-focused literature
Each of these four canonical ''puruṣārthas'' was subjected to a process of study and extensive literary development in Indian history. This produced numerous treatises, with a diversity of views, in each category. Some Purushartha-focused literature include,
* On Dharma
:These texts discuss ''dharma'' from various religious, social, duties, morals and personal ethics perspective. Each of six major schools of Hinduism has its own literature on dharma. Examples include Dharma-sutras (particularly by
Gautama
Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a śramaṇa, wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism.
According to Buddhist tradition, he was ...
,
Apastamba
''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra'' (Sanskrit: आपस्तम्ब धर्मसूत्र) is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one o ...
,
Baudhayana
The (Sanskrit: बौधायन) are a group of Vedic Sanskrit texts which cover dharma, daily ritual, mathematics and is one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. Th ...
and
Vāsiṣṭha
Vasishtha ( sa, वसिष्ठ, IAST: ') is one of the oldest and most revered Vedic rishis or sages, and one of the Saptarishis (seven great Rishis). Vashistha is credited as the chief author of Mandala 7 of the '' Rigveda''. Vashishtha ...
Yājñavalkya Smṛti
The ''Yajnavalkya Smriti'' ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति, IAST: ') is one of the many Dharma-related texts of Hinduism composed in Sanskrit. It is dated between the 3rd to 5th-century CE, and belongs to the Dharmasha ...
Viṣṇusmṛti
Vishnu Smriti (IAST: ) is one of the latest books of the Dharmaśāstra tradition in Hinduism and the only one which does not deal directly with the means of knowing dharma. The text has a strong bhakti orientation, requiring daily puja to the g ...
). At personal dharma level, this includes many chapters of
Yogasutras
The ''Yoga Sutras of Patañjali'' is a collection of Sanskrit sutras (aphorisms) on the theory and practice of yoga – 195 sutras (according to Vyāsa and Krishnamacharya) and 196 sutras (according to others, including BKS Iyengar). The ' ...
Tirukkural
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. The tex ...
exclusively focuses on ''aram'', the Tamil term for dharma, although the entire work of the Tirukkural keeps dharma as its base.
* On Artha
:Artha-related texts discuss ''artha'' from individual, social and as a compendium of economic policies, politics and laws. For example, the '' Arthashastra'' of Kauṭilya, the Kamandakiya Nitisara, Brihaspati Sutra, and Sukra Niti. Olivelle states that most Artha-related treatises from ancient India have been lost. The Book II of the Tirukkural primarily focuses on ''porul'', the Tamil term for artha.
* On Kama
:These discuss arts, emotions, love, erotics, relationships and other sciences in the pursuit of pleasure. The
Kamasutra
The ''Kama Sutra'' (; sa, कामसूत्र, , ; ) is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexuality, eroticism and emotional fulfillment in life. Attributed to Vātsyāyana, the ''Kama Sutra'' is neither exclusively nor predominantly ...
of
Vātsyāyana
Vātsyāyana was an ancient Indian philosopher, known for authoring the ''Kama Sutra''. He was a brahmin, and lived in India during the second or third century CE, probably in Pataliputra (modern day Patna in Bihar).
He is not to be confused ...
is most well known. Others texts include Ratirahasya, Jayamangala, Smaradipika, Ratimanjari, Ratiratnapradipika, Ananga Ranga among others. While the
Book III
Kevin Danell Mann (born January 10, 1970), better known by his stage name Brotha Lynch Hung, is an American rapper, songwriter and record producer from Sacramento, California who has been described as "the creator of horrorcore rap." He is also ...
of the Tirukkural primarily focuses on ''inbam'', the Tamil term for kama, it remains unique in the sense that, unlike the Kamasutra, the Tirukkural's Book of Inbam remains a poetic appreciation of flowering human love as explicated by the
Sangam period
The Sangam period or age (, ), particularly referring to the third Sangam period, is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu, Kerala and parts of Sri Lanka (then known as Tamilakam) spanning from c. 6th century BCE to c. 3rd century CE. ...
's concept of intimacy, known as ''agam'' in the Tamil literary tradition.
* On Moksha
:These develop and debate the nature and process of liberation, freedom and spiritual release. Major treatises on the pursuit of moksa include the
Upanishad
The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
s,
Vivekachudamani
The ''Vivekachudamani'' (; IAST: ) is an introductory treatise within the Advaita Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, traditionally attributed to Adi Shankara of the eighth century, though this attribution has been questioned and mostly rejected by ...
Yoga
Yoga (; sa, योग, lit=yoke' or 'union ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India and aim to control (yoke) and still the mind, recognizing a detached witness-consci ...
, in particular the fourth portion of Patanjali's Sutras.
The Sanskrit Epics devote major sections on ''purusharthas'', in particular debating dharma.J Ganeri (2010), A Return to the Self: Indians and Greeks on Life as Art and Philosophical Therapy, Royal Institute of Philosophy supplement, 85(66), pages 119–135 The ancient Tamil moral literature of the
Tirukkural
The ''Tirukkuṟaḷ'' ( ta, திருக்குறள், lit=sacred verses), or shortly the ''Kural'' ( ta, குறள்), is a classic Tamil language text consisting of 1,330 short couplets, or kurals, of seven words each. The tex ...
focuses on the first three of the purusharthas (Dharma, Artha, and Kama) without discussing Moksha, suggesting that "the proper pursuit of the other three will inevitably lead to the fourth." The Nalatiyar, another work of the
Sangam literature
The Sangam literature (Tamil: சங்க இலக்கியம், ''caṅka ilakkiyam'';) historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil: சான்றோர் செய்யுள், ''Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ'') connotes ...
, too, follows similar philosophy as the Tirukkural.
Ashrama
The four puruṣārthas are often discussed in the context of four ashramas or stages of life ('' Brahmacharya'' – student, '' Grihastha'' – householder, '' Vanaprastha'' – retirement and ''
Sannyasa
''Sannyasa'' (Sanskrit: संन्यास; IAST: ), sometimes spelled Sanyasa (सन्न्यास) or Sanyasi (for the person), is life of renunciation and the fourth stage within the Hindu system of four life stages known as '' A ...
'' – renunciation). Scholars have attempted to connect the four stages to the four puruṣārthas, however Olivelle dismisses this, as neither ancient nor medieval texts of India state that any of the first three ashramas must devote itself predominantly to one specific goal of life.Patrick Olivelle (1993), The Āśrama System: The History and Hermeneutics of a Religious Institution, Oxford University Press, , pages 216–219
The fourth stage of ''Sannyasa'' is different, and the overwhelming consensus in ancient and medieval Indian texts is that anyone accepting ''Sannyasa'' must entirely devote to ''Moksha'' aided by ''Dharma'', with a complete renunciation of ''Artha'' and ''Kama''.
With the known exception of
Kamasutra
The ''Kama Sutra'' (; sa, कामसूत्र, , ; ) is an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexuality, eroticism and emotional fulfillment in life. Attributed to Vātsyāyana, the ''Kama Sutra'' is neither exclusively nor predominantly ...
, most texts make no recommendation on the relative preference on Artha or Kama, that an individual must emphasize in what stage of life. The Kamasutra states,
This text does not mention the ashramas, however.
See also
The four proper goals of a human in Hindu traditions:
* Dharma
*
Artha
''Artha'' (; sa, अर्थ; Tamil: ''poruḷ'' / ''பொருள்'') is one of the four aims of human life in Indian philosophy.James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Rosen Publishing, New York, , pp 55–56 ...
*
Kama
''Kama'' (Sanskrit ) means "desire, wish, longing" in Hindu, Buddhist, Jain, and Sikh literature.Monier Williamsकाम, kāmaMonier-Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, pp 271, see 3rd column Kama often connotes sensual pleasure, sexual ...
*
Moksha
''Moksha'' (; sa, मोक्ष, '), also called ''vimoksha'', ''vimukti'' and ''mukti'', is a term in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism for various forms of emancipation, enlightenment, liberation, and release. In its soteriologic ...
*
Arishadvargas
In Hindu theology, Arishadvarga or Shadripu/Shada Ripu ( sa, षड्रिपु; meaning the six enemies) are the six enemies of the mind, which are: '' Kama'' (desire), '' krodha'' (anger), '' lobha'' (greed), '' Mada'' (arrogance), '' moha' ...
Other elements of ethical theories in Hindu traditions:
*
Ashrama (stage) Ashrama may refer to:
*Ashram (''āśrama''), a spiritual hermitage or a monastery in Indian religions
* Ashrama (stage) (''āśrama''), in Hinduism is one of four age-based life stages discussed in ancient and medieval era Indian texts.
*Ashrama, ...
*
Yamas
The Yamas ( sa, यम, translit=Yama), and their complement, the Niyamas, represent a series of "right living" or ethical rules within Yoga philosophy. It means "reining in" or "control". These are restraints for proper conduct as given in the ...
*
Niyama
The Niyamas ( sa, नियम, translit=Niyama) are positive duties or observances. In Indian traditions, particularly Yoga, niyamas and their complement, Yamas, are recommended activities and habits for healthy living, spiritual enlightenmen ...
*
Karma
Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
* Gavin Flood (1997), "The Meaning and Context of the Puruṣārthas", In The Bhagavadgītā for Our Times (Editor: Julius J. Lipner), Oxford University Press, pages 11–27,
* Arvind Sharma (1982), "The Puruṣārthas: A Study in Hindu Axiology", Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University,
* Karl Potter (1963), "Presuppositions of India's Philosophies", Prentice Hall,
External links
* Donald David (2004), "Being Hindu or being human: A reappraisal of the puruṣārthas", ''International Journal of Hindu Studies'', 8(1–3): 1–27,
* John Koller (1968) ''Puruṣārthas as Human Aims'' Philosophy East and West, 18(4): 315–319
{{DEFAULTSORT:Purusartha
Hindu ethics