Pakhangba is a primordial deity, often represented in the form of a

dragon A dragon is a reptilian legendary creature that appears in the folklore of many cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but dragons in western cultures since the High Middle Ages have often been depicted as ...

, in Meitei mythology and Sanamahism, the indigenous religion of Manipur. He is depicted in the

heraldry Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branch ...

of Manipur kingdom, which originated in ''paphal'' ( mni, ), mythical illustrations of the deity. It is believed that the ancestor of one of the Meitei clans manifested himself as the Pakhangba. The identity of the deity is often fused with '' Nongda Lairen Pakhangba'', the first ruler of the Ningthouja dynasty. The title ''Pakhangba'' was also used by other kings in the history of Manipur.

Mythology

Pakhangba and his elder brother

Sanamahi Laininthou Sanamahee (Meetei: ꯂꯥꯏꯅꯤꯡꯊꯧ ꯁꯥꯅꯥꯃꯍꯤ) is the Supreme Guardian God of mankind and the supreme deity of the household in Meetei religion and mythology. He originated from the ancient kingdom of Kangleipak ...

were told by their father that the one who could circumambulate the universe seven times and reach him first would be given the throne of the universe. Sanamahi set out immediately. Pakhangba, besides being the younger brother, was less strong. His mother Leimarel Sidabi, said that circling his father's throne is equivalent to the circling of the entire universe. So, he circled the throne, and his father was satisfied with Pakhangba's knowledge. So, Pakhangba was given his name, which means "one who has realised his father" and was enthroned.

Iconography

Pakhangba is depicted as a serpent with the antlers of a sangai, or brow-antlered deer, signifying the cultural synthesis of two different totemic belief systems, which are the worship of serpents and

stags Deer or true deer are hoofed ruminant mammals forming the family Cervidae. The two main groups of deer are the Cervinae, including the muntjac, the elk (wapiti), the red deer, and the fallow deer; and the Capreolinae, including the reindeer ...

. Serpents are the totem creatures of the Ningthouja clan. Ningthoujas do not consume any fishes or plants that look like serpents, as a mark of respect for their ancestors. The Sangai is associated with the Luwang clan. The Chakpa people, who are a part of the Meitei community, also regard deer as their totem animals. According to legend, Pudangkoi Khutkoiba, a king of the Luwangs, was once transformed into a deer. He was inadvertently killed by his own younger brother, who didn't know his true identity. Once the error was recognised, the head and antlers of the deer were brought into and preserved in the royal palace. For the inauguration of a royal boat of a Luwang king, the preserved horned head was decoratively installed on the stern. After the cultural integration of the Luwangs and the Meiteis, this tradition was integrated into the making of Meitei . Simultaneously, the sides of the boat are decorated to resemble the body of serpentine dragon, thereby looking like the features of deity Pakhangba. In the post- Khagemba era, representations of Pakhangba in the form of a paphal (a coiled serpent or dragon biting its own tail, similar to an oubouros became prominent.

In Meitei architecture

In traditional Meitei architecture, the most important Meitei cultural element in building a house is the decoration for the front roof with a design resembling a deer's antlers ( mni, }). is derived from the word , and is derived from the word . The Chirong symbolises the antler premeditated on his head of the deity Pakhangba.

Beliefs

In relation to Pakhangba,

Meitei language Meitei (), also known as Manipuri (, ), is a Tibeto-Burman language of north-eastern India. It is spoken by around 1.8 million people, predominantly in the state of Manipur, but also by smaller communities in the rest of the country and in pa ...

has two commonly used words to refer to the

snakes Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes . Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more joi ...

or serpents. The words are "lin" and "lairen". Lin is used to refer to small snakes, usually the

poisonous snakes Venomous snakes are Species (biology), species of the Suborder (biology), suborder Snake, Serpentes that are capable of producing Snake venom, venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The v ...

. On the other hand, "Lairen" is used to refer to the large snakes, usually the pythons, as well as any big mythical snakes. Whenever anyone encounters a snake, they may attribute it to the "lin" or "lairen" or any other

honorifics An honorific is a title that conveys esteem, courtesy, or respect for position or rank when used in addressing or referring to a person. Sometimes, the term "honorific" is used in a more specific sense to refer to an Honorary title (academic), ho ...

dedicated to divine serpents. Sometimes, they simply attribute it to the gods, or directly to Pakhangba. Pythons are related to Pakhangba in the world of charms and fortunes. Many people claim that their lives have changed in dramatic ways after encountering a pythons (or Pakhangba). There are some people who believe in the millenarian return of Pakhangba. According to their beliefs, Pakhangba will re-unite the people of the plains and the hills of Manipur, both politically and religiously, ending decades of tension and violent insurgency.

Cult

The cult of Pakhangba extraordinarily has an ability to integrate different deities. There are numerous deities, whose names are sufficed with the word "Pakhangba", starting from cosmological deities to ancestral deities. Notable ones are Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, Tangja Leela Pakhangba, Leinung Loncha Pakhangba, Saram Tangkhul Pakhangba, Loidam Thaja Pakhangba and Laiyingthou Pakhangba.

Deified Meitei kings

Since ancient times, rulers of Kangleipak were deified and worshipped as Pakhangba or one of his divine forms. Similarly, historical queens were deified and integrated into the cult of

Yumjao Lairembi ) , deity_of = All time reigning queen mother Goddess of house, household, royalty, rule and power , member_of = Lairembis , image = YUMCHAO LEIMA.jpg , alt = , caption = "Yumchao Leima", the Ancient Meitei (O ...

. In the Thangmeiband region, Meitei king Naothingkhong (c. 5th century CE) is worshipped as Naothingkhong Pakhangba. Another King, Khagemba is also worshipped as a form of Pakhangba.

Tangkhul deities

Saram Tangkhul Pakhangba and his wife, Saram Tangkhul Nurabi are associated with the Tangkhul people of north eastern parts of Manipur. The Tangkhul deities were given a prominent position in the Umang Lai pantheon of the Meitei people. Besides being identified as a form of deity Pakhangba, in some cases, Saram Tangkhul is also identified with Nongpok Ningthou.

Consorts

Pakhangba has numerous consorts, belonging to different communities and ethnicities. One legend of Pakhangba says that he has seven wives, who give birth to the seven Meitei clans. It signifies the integration of different communities and ethnicities into one single nation. Lady Liksanu Saphabi belonging to Kabui people and

Thangal people The Thangals are one of the indigenous Naga tribes restricted to the Senapati district of the state of Manipur in north-east India. Presently there are 13 Thangal villages. They are found in eleven hill villages of the Senapati District. Mapao T ...

, lady Khamlang Taobi belonging to

Chothe people The Chothe tribe is one of the oldest tribes found in the state of Manipur, India. Some historians and anthropologists have erroneously recorded the Chothe as the Purum of India. Some Chothe are called Chawhte in Mizoram and they are part of ...

, lady Chotenu belonging to Kom people and lady Leiyoi Nurabi belonging to Langmeidong are a few of the numerous consorts of the Meitei deity Pakhangba. Lady Saram Tangkhul Nurabi is the consort of Tangkhul Pakhangba, a Tangkhul deity, who is a divine form of Pakhangba.

Texts

Pakhangba is mentioned in numerous

ancient Meitei language Meitei (), also known as Manipuri (, ), is a Tibeto-Burman language of north-eastern India. It is spoken by around 1.8 million people, predominantly in the state of Manipur, but also by smaller communities in the rest of the country and in pa ...

texts, including the ''Thanglon Thangchat'', the ''Pakhangba Laihui'', the ''Pakhangba Phambal'', the "Pakhangba Naoyom", the "Pakhangba Nongkarol", etc.

In heraldry

Pakhangba, as a heraldic

, was present in all the former royal flags and coats of arms of Manipur. The kingdom of Manipur had a set of two flags, a white one and a red one. All featured the Pakhangba dragon in the centre, although not as prominently in the latter flags.

In traditional dance and music

Keiyen is an

song describing the conflict between Pakhangba (Apanba) and his elder brother

(Asheeba), as a conflict between a tiger and a

cock Cock or cocks most commonly refers to: * Cock (bird) or rooster, a male of any bird species * Cock (slang), a slang term for the penis Cock or cocks may also refer to: Names * Cock (surname) * Cocks (surname) Places * Cocks Glacier, Ross Dep ...

respectively, having

mythological Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narrat ...

and symbolic importance to the Meitei culture. It is symbolically represented in the Ke-kre-Chongba performance. Younger brother Pakhangba's attempt to escape, along with his seven goddesses, from the elder brother Sanamahi is depicted in the song. Its interpretation by the different minstrels, maibas and maibis, have many variations. Metaphorically, the song is about a cock (Pakhangba) being pursued by a tiger (Sanamahi). In

Ancient Meitei language Meitei (), also known as Manipuri (, ), is a Tibeto-Burman language of north-eastern India. It is spoken by around 1.8 million people, predominantly in the state of Manipur, but also by smaller communities in the rest of the country and in pa ...

, a tiger is termed as “Kei”. “Yangen” is a name of a small wild bushy shrub plant. “Shamba” means “to traverse” in Meitei. “Shyao Shyao” refers to the ancient Meitei onomatopoeic word for the sound produced while traversing the bushy way by the tiger. “Yengkhong Phate” refers to the ominous sound of the cock. It implies that Pakhangba's deeds are not good and so, he deserves to be devoured as a punishment. But, that very cock is not an ordinary one, as it belongs to . The last line indicates that the entire actions of everyone are done as a divine will of God, thereby showing the ultimate power of the Almighty God and his process of the creation of the entire universe. The

Meitei philosophy Meitei may refer to: *Meitei people, of Manipur, India **Meitei language **Meitei script **Meitei architecture *Denechandra Meitei (born 1994), Indian footballer *Loken Meitei (born 1997), Indian footballer *Ningombam Bupenda Meitei (born 1987), Ind ...

associated with Keiyen is imbibed in the dances performed in the Lai Haraoba. Later, it gradually evolved into present day dance of the

Thabal Chongba Thabal chongba is a Manipuri folk dance traditionally performed during the festival of Yaoshang in India. In the dance, participants join hands in a circle, hop on one foot and swing their free legs across, slowly advancing. Description In e ...

Festivals

Lai Haraoba

Pakhangba, being considered as one of the

Umang Lai Umang Lai are the group of sacred groves preserved for the local forest deities (with the same title), worshipped by the Meitei people, the Pangal people and Meitei Christians, the predominant ethnic groups, since ancient times in the Himalayan ...

deities, is honoured with the celebration of the Lai Haraoba festival by the Meitei people.

Pakhangba Cheng Hongba

Pakhangba Cheng Hongba is a traditional Meitei religious festival celebrated annually in honour of deity Pakhangba, to bring peace and tranquility among the mankind. One of the most notable celebrations is organised by the Utra Shanglen Sana Konung and the Pacha Loishang by offering flowers to Nongshaba, Pakhangba and

. This festival is celebrated on regular basis in the

Sana Konung The Sana Konung () is the Royal Palace of the rulers of Manipur, from the annexation of the Kangla The Kangla Palace ( mni, /kəŋ.la/), popularly as well as officially known as the Kangla Fort, is an old fortified palace at Imphal in the Ma ...

, widely believed to be organised since the era of King Nongda Lairen Pakhangba. It has been participated by a renowned cultural institute named "Atinga" since 2017.

In politics

In 1992, Meitei King Okendrajit Singh, the then ruler of Manipur Kingdom, converted from Hinduism to Sanamahism, the traditional Meitei religion to become a revivalist. In 2020,

Leisemba Sanajaoba Maharaja Leishemba Sanajaoba is the current titular king of Manipur, India, and a politician belonging to the Bharatiya Janata Party from Manipur. In 2020, he was elected as the member of Rajya Sabha from Manipur. Debates on bills Leishemba ...

, the son of the former king Okendrajit, took oath of joining as an MP inside the Rajya Sabha on behalf of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), mentioning the name of deity Pakhangba, besides

and Govindajee ( Krishna). The state administrative office of Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in Imphal houses a shrine dedicated to the deity Pakhangba. The BJP-ruled state government of Manipur developed the sacred sites of Pakhangba and performed rituals in the Kangla. Other opposition political parties are also seen in engaging religious activities in relation to deity Pakhangba. During his 2019 Parliamentary election campaign, Kaiku Rajkumar, a renowned politician-turned actor of

Meitei cinema The Cinema of Manipur is the film industry based in Manipur, India. It includes not only Meitei language movies but all the films made in different languages of the different communities in Manipur. The Manipuri film industry was born when ' ...

, visited the

Pakhangba Temple, Kangla The Pakhangba Temple, also known as the Pakhangba Laishang ( mni, , , Temple of God Pakhangba), is a Meitei temple dedicated to the God Pakhangba of Sanamahism, the traditional Meitei religion, located beside the Nungseng Eekon, to the left s ...

and publicly performed .

Outside Manipur

Bangladesh

A temple dedicated to Pakhangba was constructed during the time of Maharaja Gambhir Singh, in the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh. The temple is 24m tall and raised a further 90cm on a 15 by 37m brick platform, which it shares with temples dedicated to Yumjao Lairembi and Lainingthou Nongasaba. It has a steep conical roof and is decorated with bas relief carvings of a peacock, moon and sun on the upper part of its entrance door. The eastern wall is carved with images of the moon, a horse and a cow.

Myanmar

There are a few shrines dedicated to Pakhangba in Myanmar. One notable example is found in the village of Tadalel, Amarapura township, Mandalay Division. In 2023, the Mandalay-based Myanmar Meitei Development Association requested help with the protection and preservation of the site from

Nongthombam Biren Nongthombam Biren Singh ( Meitei pronunciation: /nōng-thōm-bam bī-ren sīng/; born 1 January 1961) is an Indian politician, former footballer and journalist, who is currently serving as the Chief Minister of Manipur for the second term sin ...

, the then

Chief Minister of Manipur The chief minister of Manipur is the chief executive of the Indian state of Manipur. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is a state's '' de jure'' head, but '' de facto'' executive authority rests with the chief minister. Follo ...

, to give assistance for the preservation and protection of the holy site.

Tripura

A temple dedicated to deity Pakhangba was built during the coronation of Tripuri King

Radha Kishore Manikya Maharaja Radha Kishore Manikya of the Manikya Dynasty reigned as the king of Tripura State from 1897 to 1909. He has been described as one of the architects of modern Tripura. Administration Maharaja Radha Kishore Manikya brought about the sep ...

, highlighting the influence of Meitei queens, including both the mother and the wife of King Radha, on the

Kingdom of Tripura The Twipra Kingdom (Sanskrit: Tripura, Anglicized: Tippera) was one of the largest historical kingdoms of the Tripuri people in Northeast India. Geography The present political areas which were part of the Twipra Kingdom are: * Barak Valley ( ...

. During the reign of the Meitei king

Marjit Singh Marjit Singh was a Meitei king who ruled Manipur kingdom between 1812 and 1819 as a vassal of Burma, but was eventually expelled by the Burmese.: "Marjit ruled over Manipur for seven years (1812-1819) as a vassal of the Burmese King." The Burm ...

, Raja Borothakur Krishna Kishore ruled in Tripura. The first queen was Sija Chandrakala Devi, a Meitei princess and the second, known as Bamon Leima was a

Meitei Brahmin Manipuri Brahmins ( mni, Manipuri Bamon) or Meitei Brahmins ( mni, Meitei Bamon) are the Brahmins who speak the Meitei ( Manipuri) language as their native tongue and mainly reside in the valley areas of Manipur. They constitute 4.5% of Manip ...

. Meitei culture flourished in Tripura, with the proliferation of cults dedicated to different Meitei deities in the region of Bonmalipur. Pakhangba is still worshipped in the Pakhangba Temple, located near the Royal Palace of Tripura.

In popular culture

In the 2018 edition of the

Sangai festival Sangai festival ( mni, Sangai Kumhei) is an annual cultural festival organised by Manipur Tourism Department every year from 21 to 30 November. Even though many editions of this Festival has been celebrated over the past few years with the nam ...

held in Manipur, twenty artistes, standing and dancing in the form of a human chain, presented a lively 30 metres long image of deity Pakhangba, dancing on the stage for 45 minutes, depicting the origin of the human beings, as adapted from the Lai Haraoba festival performances, while presenting a theatrical show titled , choreographed by Sangeet Natak Akademi's

Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar Ustad Bismillah Khan Yuva Puraskar is an annual Indian award given by the Sangeet Natak Akademi to outstanding artists under 40 who have demonstrated talent in the fields of music, dance and drama. The award is intended to provide national reco ...

Awardee Sinam Basu. A Mumbai-based group of musical artists titled "Serpents of Pakhangba", named after the deity Pakhangba himself, formed in 2019, is continuously producing musical works related to Meitei mythology and

Meitei folklore Meitei folklore is the folklore and mythology of the Meitei people of Manipur Manipur () ( mni, Kangleipak) is a state in Northeast India, with the city of Imphal as its capital. It is bounded by the Indian states of Nagaland to the n ...

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * *

Notes

References