HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The ''Punica'' is a Latin
epic poem An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...
in seventeen books in
dactylic hexameter Dactylic hexameter (also known as heroic hexameter and the meter of epic) is a form of meter or rhythmic scheme frequently used in Ancient Greek and Latin poetry. The scheme of the hexameter is usually as follows (writing – for a long syllable, ...
written by
Silius Italicus Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus (, c. 26 – c. 101 AD) was a Roman senator, orator and Epic poetry, epic poet of the Silver Age of Latin literature. His only surviving work is the 17-book ''Punica (poem), Punica'', an epic poem about th ...
(c. 28 – c. 103 AD) comprising some twelve thousand lines (12,202, to be exact, if one includes a probably spurious passage in book 8). It is the longest surviving Latin poem from antiquity. Its theme is the
Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of three wars fought between Carthage and Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For 17 years the two states struggled for supremacy, primarily in Ital ...
and the conflict between the two great generals
Hannibal Hannibal (; xpu, 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, ''Ḥannibaʿl''; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Puni ...
and
Scipio Africanus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , ; 236/235–183 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military com ...
. The poem was re-discovered in either 1416 or 1417 by the Italian
humanist Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humani ...
and scholar
Poggio Bracciolini Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanist. He was responsible for rediscovering and recovering many classi ...
.


Composition

The dates of the ''Punica's'' composition are not entirely clear. There is external evidence for composition dates from some of the epigrams of
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
. Martial 4.14, a poem dated to 88 AD, describes Silius' work on the ''Punica'', mentioning Scipio and Hannibal as the subjects of the poem. 7.63, dated to 92 AD also describes his work on the poem. Two passages of internal evidence also help date the ''Punica''. At 3.600ff. during Jupiter's prophecy about the future of Rome, describes significant events from the
Flavian Flavian may refer to: * A member of the Flavian dynasty of Roman emperors, during the late 1st century AD, or their works * Flavian Zeija, a Ugandan lawyer, academic and judge. Principal Judge of Uganda, since December 2019. * A person named Flavian ...
dynasty and the life of
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
, such as the death of
Vespasian Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
,
Titus Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death. Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a mili ...
' destruction of Jerusalem, Domitian's adoption of the title Germanicus (83 AD), and the burning of the
Capitoline The Capitolium or Capitoline Hill ( ; it, Campidoglio ; la, Mons Capitolinus ), between the Forum and the Campus Martius, is one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The hill was earlier known as ''Mons Saturnius'', dedicated to the god Saturn. T ...
temple in 69 AD. Thus the passage puts a ''terminus post quem'' for Book 3 at 83 AD. At 14.685-88, the mention of a contemporary ''vir'' who has brought peace to the world and put a stop to illegal theft has been interpreted as referring to the accession of
Nerva Nerva (; originally Marcus Cocceius Nerva; 8 November 30 – 27 January 98) was Roman emperor from 96 to 98. Nerva became emperor when aged almost 66, after a lifetime of imperial service under Nero and the succeeding rulers of the Flavian dy ...
in 96 AD, although this reference to Nerva has been disputed. Thus, composition dates for the poem must be set at c. 83 to c. 96 AD, although since those dates do not include the first two or final three books, they must remain approximate. The poem is a work of Silius' old age, and thus his time spent at his Campanian villas collecting antiques and giving recitations, presumably of the ''Punica''.Pliny 3.7 According to the epigrams of Martial cited above, the poem met with some success and was compared with the ''Aeneid''.


Poetic models and historical sources

Silius, as a poet of historical epic, had to make use of both historical sources and poetic models.
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditiona ...
is considered his single most important historical source; however, Silius differs his work from Livy's by often embellishing themes which are only briefly treated in Livy and altering the focus of his narrative. It is known that Silius also used other historians as sources. Silius should not be viewed as a simple transmitter of his historical sources, as "Livy in verse", but should be viewed as a poet who, while making use of historians, is not bound by the rules of historiography but rather of poetry. In choosing a historical subject, the
Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of three wars fought between Carthage and Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For 17 years the two states struggled for supremacy, primarily in Ital ...
, Silius had many poetic predecessors. From the time of Naevius onwards every great military struggle in which the Romans had been engaged had found its poet. Naevius' influence cannot be gauged because of the almost total loss of his poem on the
First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
. Silius specifically names
Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: t ...
,
Homer Homer (; grc, Ὅμηρος , ''Hómēros'') (born ) was a Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Homer is considered one of the ...
, and
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia, (Ancient Calabria, ...
as his epic inspiration. Homer is mentioned at 13.778-797, where Silius has Scipio meet his shade in the underworld. Silius' sybil praises Homer as the preeminent, universal, and divine poet who made
Troy Troy ( el, Τροία and Latin: Troia, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒋫𒊒𒄿𒊭 ''Truwiša'') or Ilion ( el, Ίλιον and Latin: Ilium, Hittite language, Hittite: 𒃾𒇻𒊭 ''Wiluša'') was an ancient city located at Hisarlik in prese ...
, (i.e. Rome) famous in song, saying "his omer'spoetry embraced the earth, sea, stars, and shades and he rivaled the
Muses In ancient Greek religion and mythology, the Muses ( grc, Μοῦσαι, Moûsai, el, Μούσες, Múses) are the inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the p ...
in song and
Phoebus Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
in glory," to which Scipio replies, "If Fate would allow this poet to sing of Roman deeds, for all the world to hear, how much deeper an impression the same deeds would make upon posterity if Homer sang of them." Ennius is a character in Book 12 of the ''Punica'' (12.387-414), where he participates in a battle in
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; it, Sardegna, label=Italian, Corsican and Tabarchino ; sc, Sardigna , sdc, Sardhigna; french: Sardaigne; sdn, Saldigna; ca, Sardenya, label=Algherese and Catalan) is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after ...
. Silius says that his account of Ennius' fight is his attempt to "hand down to long ages noble deeds, too little known, of a great man." He describes Ennius' birth, his prowess in war, and has
Apollo Apollo, grc, Ἀπόλλωνος, Apóllōnos, label=genitive , ; , grc-dor, Ἀπέλλων, Apéllōn, ; grc, Ἀπείλων, Apeílōn, label=Arcadocypriot Greek, ; grc-aeo, Ἄπλουν, Áploun, la, Apollō, la, Apollinis, label= ...
prophesy his future, saying "he nniusshall be the first to sing of Roman wars in noble verse, exalting their commanders to the skies; he shall teach Helicon to repeat the sound of Roman poetry..." Virgil is mentioned at 8.593-594, where Silius says of Virgil's hometown
Mantua Mantua ( ; it, Mantova ; Lombard language, Lombard and la, Mantua) is a city and ''comune'' in Lombardy, Italy, and capital of the Province of Mantua, province of the same name. In 2016, Mantua was designated as the Italian Capital of Culture ...
that it was "home of the Muses, raised to the sky by immortal verse, and a match for the lyre of Homer." Indeed, Virgil is considered Silius' most pervasive influence. His contemporaries
Pliny Pliny may refer to: People * Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE), ancient Roman nobleman, scientist, historian, and author of ''Naturalis Historia'' (''Pliny's Natural History'') * Pliny the Younger (died 113), ancient Roman statesman, orator, w ...
and
Martial Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
discuss his almost crazed devotion to the spirit of Virgil (whom Silius is known to have worshipped as a god and whose tomb he bought and repaired) and often compare his poetry to the works of Virgil. Silius employs constantly Virgilian images, similes, tropes, and elements (such as his ''nekyia'' or the historically-themed shield of Hannibal) in the ''Punica'', and hardly a page goes by without some significant allusion to the ''
Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; la, Aenē̆is or ) is a Latin Epic poetry, epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Troy, Trojan who fled the Trojan_War#Sack_of_Troy, fall of Troy and travelled to ...
''. Finally,
Lucan Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (3 November 39 AD – 30 April 65 AD), better known in English as Lucan (), was a Roman poet, born in Corduba (modern-day Córdoba), in Hispania Baetica. He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imperial ...
is a significant model for Silius, although Silius differs dramatically from Lucan's historical epic by his use of the divine machinery. Frederick Ahl posits that Silius construed his epic as occupying the historical and poetic midpoint between the ''Aeneid'' and the '' Bellum Civile'', forming a trilogy of poems on Roman history. Silius is closest to Lucan in his treatment of historical description, especially geography and battlefields, his focus on the macabre and violence, and his
stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy * STOIC, a programming language * ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll * ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain * ...
tone.


Contents

Book 1 The poem opens with phrase ''ordior arma'' "I set in order the arms" and tells how the poet's theme is the Second Punic War, setting up the conflict as the struggle between the Roman and Carthaginian nations for supremacy. The betrayal of
Dido Dido ( ; , ), also known as Elissa ( , ), was the legendary founder and first queen of the Phoenician city-state of Carthage (located in modern Tunisia), in 814 BC. In most accounts, she was the queen of the Phoenician city-state of Tyre (t ...
, familiar from the ''
Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; la, Aenē̆is or ) is a Latin Epic poetry, epic poem, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Troy, Trojan who fled the Trojan_War#Sack_of_Troy, fall of Troy and travelled to ...
'' and Juno's anger stir the goddess to prophesy the course of the war and choose Hannibal as her instrument of revenge. The childhood oath of Hannibal to his father
Hamilcar __NOTOC__ Hamilcar ( xpu, 𐤇𐤌𐤋𐤊 , ,. or , , "Melqart is Gracious"; grc-gre, Ἁμίλκας, ''Hamílkas'';) was a common Carthaginian masculine given name. The name was particularly common among the ruling families of ancient Carthage. ...
at the Dido temple in Carthage is narrated, and his character is described as vicious, cunning, and daring. The priestess of the temple prophesies the war.
Hasdrubal Hasdrubal ( grc-gre, Ἀσδρούβας, ''Hasdroúbas'') is the Latinized form of the Carthaginian name ʿAzrubaʿal ( xpu, 𐤏𐤆𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤋 , , "Help of Baal"). It may refer to: * Hasdrubal I of Carthage was the Magonid king of Ancient ...
is slaughtered by Spanish Gauls in revenge for his crucifixion of their king. Hannibal succeeds him by the army's acclaim and attacks
Saguntum Sagunto ( ca-valencia, Sagunt) is a municipality of Spain, located in the province of Valencia, Valencian Community. It belongs to the modern fertile ''comarca'' of Camp de Morvedre. It is located c. 30 km north of the city of Valencia, cl ...
the situation and Rutulian/Zacynthian history of which are described. The siege begins and Hannibal fights a duel with the Saguntine champion Murrus, who is slain. The Saguntine senate meets and requests that Rome send envoys to stop the siege. Book 2 In Book 2, Hannibal dismisses the Roman envoys from Saguntum and addresses his troops with a threat to Rome. The siege of the city continues and the warrior princess Asbyte is killed by Theron, who is killed by Hannibal and mutilated. At Carthage,
Hanno Hanno may refer to: People * Hanno (given name) :* Hanunu (8th century BC), Philistine king previously rendered by scholars as "Hanno" *Hanno ( xpu, 𐤇𐤍𐤀 , '; , ''Hannōn''), common Carthaginian name :* Hanno the Navigator, Carthagi ...
gives a speech calling Hannibal insolent, while Gestar gives a response that suggests Hanno is a Roman sympathizer. While campaigning against Spanish tribes, Hannibal receives a shield as a gift from the
Gallaeci The Gallaeci (also Callaeci or Callaici; grc, Καλλαϊκοί) were a Celtic tribal complex who inhabited Gallaecia, the north-western corner of Iberia, a region roughly corresponding to what is now the Norte Region in northern Portugal, an ...
that shows Carthaginian history up to the siege of Saguntum. The Saguntines begin to suffer, and a saddened Hercules sends Fides to strengthen and ennoble the Saguntines. Juno sends
Tisiphone Tisiphone ( ; grc, Τισιφόνη, Tisiphónē), or Tilphousia, was one of the three Erinyes or Furies. Her sisters were Alecto and Megaera. She and her sisters punished crimes of murder: parricide, fratricide and homicide. In culture Lite ...
, who whips the people into a madness that causes them to burn themselves alive. The poet addresses the Saguntines and ensures their immortality. Book 3 Bostar is sent to consult Jupiter
Ammon Ammon (Ammonite: 𐤏𐤌𐤍 ''ʻAmān''; he, עַמּוֹן ''ʻAmmōn''; ar, عمّون, ʻAmmūn) was an ancient Semitic-speaking nation occupying the east of the Jordan River, between the torrent valleys of Arnon and Jabbok, in p ...
about the war. Hannibal visits the shrine of Hercules at Gades, where he admires the doors painted with the god's deeds and the unusual tides of the
Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe ...
. He tearfully sends his wife, the brave Imilce, back to Carthage, despite her wish to remain in the camp. Jupiter sends a dream to Hannibal in which he is led by
Mercury Mercury commonly refers to: * Mercury (planet), the nearest planet to the Sun * Mercury (element), a metallic chemical element with the symbol Hg * Mercury (mythology), a Roman god Mercury or The Mercury may also refer to: Companies * Merc ...
into Italy with a destructive snake which symbolizes Hannibal. The poet offers a catalogue of Carthaginian troops. As Hannibal crosses the
Pyrenees The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to C ...
, their Herculean aetiology is explained. Hannibal crosses the
Alps The Alps () ; german: Alpen ; it, Alpi ; rm, Alps ; sl, Alpe . are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe, stretching approximately across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Sw ...
amid hardship while Venus asks Jupiter whether he plans on destroying Rome. Jupiter says his plan is to test Roman ''virtus'' and set the foundations of the Roman empire. He describes the future of Rome, which culminates in the reign of
Domitian Domitian (; la, Domitianus; 24 October 51 – 18 September 96) was a Roman emperor who reigned from 81 to 96. The son of Vespasian and the younger brother of Titus, his two predecessors on the throne, he was the last member of the Flavi ...
and a praise of the emperor's poetry. The response from Jupiter Ammon promises glory to Carthage. Book 4 Fama incites fear and preparation in the Romans who ready themselves for Hannibal and his vengeance-seeking Gallic troops. Scipio encourages his troops and leads them to the
Ticinus The river Ticino ( , ; lmo, Tesín; French language, French and german: Tessin; la, Ticīnus) is the most important perennial left-bank tributary of the Po (river), Po. It has given its name to the Canton of Ticino, Swiss canton through which it ...
river where a bird omen promises that the Carthaginians can rout the Romans for 8 years, but will be overcome eventually by Rome. The Gauls and their hero Crixus stand out in the
Battle of Ticinus The battle of Ticinus was fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and a Roman army under Publius Cornelius Scipio in late November 218 BC as part of the Second Punic War. It took place in the flat country on the right bank of the ...
. Jupiter calls Mars to help the young Scipio after his father is killed, and he withdraws the troops to the river Trebia, where there is a large battle in which the Carthaginians prevail and the river attacks Scipio until it is burned up by
Vulcan Vulcan may refer to: Mythology * Vulcan (mythology), the god of fire, volcanoes, metalworking, and the forge in Roman mythology Arts, entertainment and media Film and television * Vulcan (''Star Trek''), name of a fictional race and their home p ...
. Juno appears as the god of
Lake Trasimene Lake Trasimeno ( , also ; it, Lago Trasimeno ; la, Trasumennus; ett, Tarśmina), also referred to as Trasimene ( ) or Thrasimene in English, is a lake in the province of Perugia, in the Umbria region of Italy on the border with Tuscany. Th ...
and tells Hannibal to march there. Hannibal refuses to allow his son to be sacrificed by lot to the gods and asks him ever to be an enemy of Rome. Book 5 The history and mythical aetiology of Lake Trasimene is presented. Hannibal lays a trap for the Romans in a ravine while an enraged
Flamininus Titus Quinctius Flamininus (c. 228 – 174 BC) was a Roman politician and general instrumental in the Roman conquest of Greece. Family background Flamininus belonged to the minor patrician '' gens'' Quinctia. The family had a glorious pla ...
goes on a rant against augury and refuses to heed the terrible sacrificial omens. The poet shudders to describe the battle from which the gods turn their faces away in obedience to fate except for a gleeful Juno.
Bellona Bellona may refer to: Places *Bellona, Campania, a ''comune'' in the Province of Caserta, Italy *Bellona Reef, a reef in New Caledonia *Bellona Island, an island in Rennell and Bellona Province, Solomon Islands Ships * HMS ''Bellona'' (1760), a 74 ...
stirs the Carthaginian lines, while Appius distinguishes himself before dying. Mago is wounded but healed by the snake charmer/physician Synhalus. The Carthaginian hero Sychaeus is slain. The Romans seek refuge in the trees where they are slaughtered and there is an earthquake. Ducarius slays Flamininus who is buried by a heap of Roman dead. Book 6 The book opens with a description of Bruttius' burial of the legionary eagle to save it from Hannibal. Serranus, a son of
Marcus Atilius Regulus Marcus Atilius Regulus () was a Roman statesman and general who was a consul of the Roman Republic in 267 BC and 256 BC. Much of his career was spent fighting the Carthaginians during the first Punic War. In 256 BC, he and Luciu ...
, escapes the battle and comes to the humble house of Marus at
Perusia The ancient Perusia, now Perugia, first appears in history as one of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria. It is first mentioned in the account of the war of 310 or 309 BC between the Etruscans and the Romans. It took, however, an important par ...
. There he is treated by Marus, who tells him the story of Regulus' battle with the Libyan snake at the river Bagradas (
Medjerda The Medjerda River ( ar, وادي مجردة), the classical Bagrada, is a river in North Africa flowing from northeast Algeria through Tunisia before emptying into the Gulf of Tunis and Lake of Tunis. With a length of , it is the longest river ...
) which leads the Naiads to demand suffering from Regulus in the future. Marus then tells Serranus about the Spartan
Xanthippus Xanthippus (; el, Ξάνθιππος, ; c. 525-475 BC) was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the 5th century BC. His name means "Yellow Horse." He was the son of Ariphron and father of Pericles. A marriage to ...
in the
First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
and the use of Regulus as an envoy for Carthage. Marcia, Serranus' mother, asks Regulus not to return, but he, respecting his oath, leaves her and is tortured to death by the Carthaginians. A bloodied Fama reports the battle at Rome, after which
Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, surnamed Cunctator ( 280 – 203 BC), was a Roman statesman and general of the third century BC. He was consul five times (233, 228, 215, 214, and 209 BC) and was appointed dictator in 221 and 217 BC. He was ...
Cunctator, whose family history is described, is elected consul. Hannibal sees at
Liternum Liternum was an ancient town of Campania, southern central Italy, near "Patria lake", on the low sandy coast between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. It was probably once dependent on Cumae. In 194 BC it became a Roman colony. Although Livy r ...
temple doors portraying scenes from the First Punic War; in a rage he orders the temple burnt. Book 7 Book 7 opens with an exploration of Fabius' tactics of delay. Hannibal learns from a prisoner the family history of the Fabii and then attempts to incite Fabius to battle as he ravages Campania and the Falernian countryside. The poet, as he says, cannot resist telling the story of Falernus'
theoxenia Xenia ( el, ξενία) is an ancient Greek concept of hospitality. It is almost always translated as 'guest-friendship' or 'ritualized friendship'. It is an institutionalized relationship rooted in generosity, gift exchange, and reciprocity. Hi ...
of Bacchus and the gods gift of wine. Hannibal, by sparing Fabius' lands tries to make the dictator suspect but becomes trapped in a defile. By setting a herd of cattle on fire, a diversion is created so the Carthaginians can escape. Fabius called to Rome hands over command to the
magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nomi ...
Marcus Minucius Rufus Marcus Minucius Rufus (died August 2, 216 BC) was a Roman consul in 221 BC. He was also Magister Equitum during the dictatorship of Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus known as ''Cunctator''. He was a political enemy of Fabius Maximus. He was against ...
. The Carthaginians land at
Cumae Cumae ( grc, Κύμη, (Kumē) or or ; it, Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC and soon becoming one of the strongest colonies. It later became a rich Ro ...
, where they frighten the
Nereid In Greek mythology, the Nereids or Nereides ( ; grc, Νηρηΐδες, Nērēḯdes; , also Νημερτές) are sea nymphs (female spirits of sea waters), the 50 daughters of the 'Old Man of the Sea' Nereus and the Oceanids, Oceanid Doris ...
s who go to
Phorcys In Greek mythology, Phorcys or Phorcus (; grc, Φόρκυς) is a primordial sea god, generally cited (first in Hesiod) as the son of Pontus and Gaia (Earth). Classical scholar Karl Kerenyi conflated Phorcys with the similar sea gods Nereus a ...
for prophecy. Phorkys tells the story of the
Judgment of Paris Judgement (or US spelling judgment) is also known as ''adjudication'', which means the evaluation of evidence to make a decision. Judgement is also the ability to make considered decisions. The term has at least five distinct uses. Aristotle ...
and the reason for the war. Minucius, given equal powers with Fabius, attacks the Carthaginians and is barely saved by Fabius' force; the armies are reunited at the conclusion. Book 8 Juno sends the spirit of Anna, the sister of
Dido Dido ( ; , ), also known as Elissa ( , ), was the legendary founder and first queen of the Phoenician city-state of Carthage (located in modern Tunisia), in 814 BC. In most accounts, she was the queen of the Phoenician city-state of Tyre (t ...
and now the nymph of the river Numicius, to Hannibal who is upset about his forced retreat. Anna tells Juno of Dido's suicide, her flight to Cyrene after
Iarbas Iarbas (or Hiarbas) was a Roman mythological character, who has appeared in works by various authors including Ovid and Virgil. The character is possibly based on a historical king of Numidia. In Roman mythology, Iarbas was the son of Jupiter H ...
' invasion, her escape to Italy and Aeneas from Pygmalion's fleet, and her transformation into a river from fear of
Lavinia In Roman mythology, Lavinia ( ; ) is the daughter of Latinus and Amata, and the last wife of Aeneas. Creation It has been proposed that the character was in part intended to represent Servilia Isaurica, Emperor Augustus's first fiancée. Stor ...
, then hastens to Hannibal and encourages him by prophesying the Battle of Cannae.
Varro Marcus Terentius Varro (; 116–27 BC) was a Roman polymath and a prolific author. He is regarded as ancient Rome's greatest scholar, and was described by Petrarch as "the third great light of Rome" (after Vergil and Cicero). He is sometimes calle ...
is elected consul and gives a haughty speech criticizing Fabius, his colleague, Paulus, reluctantly decides to go to battle. There is a catalogue of Italian soldiers and allies. The book ends with an account of bad omens and an anonymous soldier's grim prophecy. Book 9 Varro and Paulus argue about tactics, and a son, Satricus, accidentally kills his father, Sulmo, in a night skirmish, an omen of disaster for the Romans at the Battle of Cannae. After addressing their troops, Hannibal and Varro array their soldiers at Cannae. Scipio and Scaevola have their aristeiai, but Mars stirs up a storm that beats the Romans back as the other gods retire from battle. The Romans fight Hannibal's elephants, but Varro and Paulus, after discussing the crisis, are forced from the battlefield. Book 10 Paulus tries to rally the troops after Juno speaks to him in the guise of Metellus. Juno rouses Hannibal to kill Paulus to give him a glorious death; as he dies, Paulus prophesies the future of the war and sends Lentulus to support Fabius' strategy. Hannibal plans to march on Rome, but Juno sends Sleep and he dreams about Jupiter protecting Rome, so he rejects Mago's plan to march on the city. The Romans gather at Canusium and Metellus proposes to abandon Italy and escape Hannibal; Scipio takes an oath that he will allow no one to leave Italy. The horse of Cloelius attends his dead master and Cinna tells the story of Cloelia. Hannibal buries Paulus and his soldiers as an offering to the gods, while Rumor travels to Rome. Fabius creates a plan of action. Book 11 A catalogue of the Italians who join Hannibal, followed by a description of Capua. Pacuvius persuades the citizens to ask Rome if one of the consuls can be a Campanian, which is refused. Capua joins Hannibal, but Decius opposes the alliance, defying Hannibal's order that he be arrested. Hannibal speaks to Decius who accuses him of tyranny as he is arrested. The Carthaginians feast and Teuthras sings a theogonic poem. Perolla, Pacuvius' son tries to assassinate Hannibal but Pacuvius stops him. Venus sends a mob of Cupids to shoot the Carthaginians and make them lose their discipline, aided by Teuthras' song on Amphion and Orpheus. Mago reports at Carthage on Cannae, but is attacked by Hanno. Book 12 The Carthaginians, weakened by Venus, cannot take Greek cities in southern Italy. Campanian nobles tell Hannibal about famous landmarks. The Battle of Nola, in which Pedianus kills Cinyps recovering Paulus' armor, and Hannibal is defeated. The Romans revive their hopes with an oracle from Delphi that promises their victory. On Sicily, the epic poet
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia, (Ancient Calabria, ...
fights and kills Hostus. Hannibal takes the lower city of Tarentum and returns to Capua and advances on Rome where Fulvius leads out the troops and Jupiter creates a storm and defends the city from him. Hannibal attacks again, but Jupiter sends Juno to stop him. After he leaves, the Romans run to view his deserted campsite. Book 13 Hannibal criticizes his troops for failing to take Rome, but Dasius responds with a story about the palladium and how Diomedes gave it to Aeneas when he was founding Livinium, so a dejected Hannibal sacks the temple of Feronia. Fulvius attacks Capua and wolves kill the deer of Capys, which portends the city's fall. The Capuans resist and the goddess Fides praises loyalty. Virrius burns himself alive and the Capuans admit the Romans; Pan saves the city from burning but Taurea kills himself in defiance of the Romans. Scipio learns that his father and uncle have died in battle which spurs him visit the Underworld. He goes to Cumae where the priestess raises Appius Claudius, who asks for burial (an account of funeral customs follows). The Sibyl's ghost prophesies Scipio's success and discusses the ten gates of the underworld, each associated with a type of death, the ghosts of the wicked and allegories, the tree of evil birds, and the palace of judgment. Scipio speaks to Pomponia, his mother, who tells him that his real father is Jupiter. His father tells him about virtue and warns him about Carthaginians. His uncle describes his own death. Paulus calls for vengeance and hears about his burial. He speaks to Hannibal's father who praises his son. In the throng, Scipio speaks to Alexander who advises him to virtue and swift action. Scipio then meets Homer and asks for a poet of his deeds to match Homer; he then views the Greek heroes and comes to a catalog of Roman women. He sees the souls of Sulla, Marius, and Pompey preparing to ascend and then learns from the Sibyl of Hannibal's fate. Book 14 This book begins with a new invocation and a long description of Sicily's history and the Syracusan monarchy. Marcellus begins his campaign and Silius adds a catalog of Sicilian allies and cities. Archimedes attacks the Romans with his machines and is praised as he burns the Romans' ships with his mirrors. There is an elaborate sea battle, but Silius describes an outbreak of plague that causes the city to fall. Marcellus looks over the riches of Syracuse, decides to spare the city, and is praised for his clementia. Book 15 The Senate debates whom to send to Spain. Scipio is eager to go and is visited by Virtue and Pleasure who contend for his allegiance. Persuaded by Virtue he asks for and receives command of the army. After receiving good omens, his fleet lands at Tarraco and in a dream his father's ghost encourages him to take New Carthage, which he does. He sacrifices to the gods and distributes the spoils to his soldiers. Silius relates the war against Philip of Macedon and how Fabius captures Tarentum. Then the Romans receive news that the consuls Marcellus and Crispinus were killed in battle against Hannibal. However, Scipio manages to rout Hasdrubal in Spain. Hasdrubal then crosses the Alps to join his brother in Italy. The personification of Italy warns the consul Claudius Nero in a dream of Hasdrubal's invasion. He joins the other consul Livius and they defeat Hasdrubal at the battle of the Metaurus. Claudius Nero returns and displays to Hannibal his brother's dead on a spike. Book 16 While Hannibal travels around southern Italy, the Carthaginians are driven out of Spain by Scipio and flee to Carthage. Scipio takes Hanno captive and the army of
Hasdrubal Hasdrubal ( grc-gre, Ἀσδρούβας, ''Hasdroúbas'') is the Latinized form of the Carthaginian name ʿAzrubaʿal ( xpu, 𐤏𐤆𐤓𐤁𐤏𐤋 , , "Help of Baal"). It may refer to: * Hasdrubal I of Carthage was the Magonid king of Ancient ...
, son of Gisgo, is destroyed. Scipio travels to Africa and
Masinissa Masinissa ( nxm, , ''MSNSN''; ''c.'' 238 BC – 148 BC), also spelled Massinissa, Massena and Massan, was an ancient Numidian king best known for leading a federation of Massylii Berber tribes during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), ulti ...
, a Numidian prince, joins the Roman side. Scipio makes a treaty with Syphax, a Numidian king, but it is accompanied by evil omens. Scipio returns to Spain and holds funeral games in honor of his father and uncle. Scipio returns to Rome and is elected consul. Despite Fabius' opposition, he receives permission to cross to Africa and attack Carthage. Book 17 The image of
Cybele Cybele ( ; Phrygian: ''Matar Kubileya/Kubeleya'' "Kubileya/Kubeleya Mother", perhaps "Mountain Mother"; Lydian ''Kuvava''; el, Κυβέλη ''Kybele'', ''Kybebe'', ''Kybelis'') is an Anatolian mother goddess; she may have a possible forer ...
is brought from Phrygia to Rome and received in Ostia. Meanwhile, Scipio crosses to Africa and takes Syphax prisoner for breaking his oath to support the Romans. Hasdrubal retreats to Carthage and Hannibal is recalled from Italy. Hannibal's sleep is disturbed by nightmares before receiving the summons to return to Carthage. His departure is delayed by a storm but he lands in Africa and encourages his soldiers despite their retreat from Italy. In the heavens, Juno and Jupiter discuss the fates of Carthage and Hannibal. Juno agrees that she cannot change fate but asks Jupiter to spare Hannibal's life and to let Carthage stay standing. Jupiter agrees but warns that soon another Scipio will come who will destroy Carthage. The Carthaginian and Roman armies then join battle at Zama. The battle rages with Hannibal and Scipio both killing many soldiers. As Scipio searches for Hannibal, Juno fashions a phantom Scipio which she tricks Hannibal into chasing so that he might not face Scipio in battle and die. Hannibal chases the phantom and his horse falls down and dies. Juno, disguised as a shepherd, says she will guide him back to the battle but deceives him again. The Carthaginian army, deprived of their leader, falls apart and Hannibal returns just in time to see his army routed. He flees ignominiously to the mountains with some of his soldiers. Scipio returns to Rome victorious and celebrates a triumph through the city with a long train of captives including Syphax and Hanno along with images of the places he conquered. As Scipio, in purple and gold, rides through Rome in a chariot, Silius compares him to Hercules and declares that it is no lie that he is the son of Jupiter.


Editions

The poem was discovered in a manuscript, possibly at
Constance Constance may refer to: Places *Konstanz, Germany, sometimes written as Constance in English *Constance Bay, Ottawa, Canada * Constance, Kentucky * Constance, Minnesota * Constance (Portugal) * Mount Constance, Washington State People * Consta ...
, by
Poggio Bracciolini Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini (11 February 1380 – 30 October 1459), usually referred to simply as Poggio Bracciolini, was an Italian scholar and an early Renaissance humanist. He was responsible for rediscovering and recovering many classi ...
, in 1416 or 1417; from this now lost manuscript all existing manuscripts, which belong entirely to the 15th century, are derived. A valuable manuscript of the 8th or 9th century, found at
Cologne Cologne ( ; german: Köln ; ksh, Kölle ) is the largest city of the German western States of Germany, state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with 1.1 m ...
by L. Carrion in the latter part of the 16th century, disappeared soon after its discovery. Two ''editiones principes'' appeared at Rome in 1471; the principal editions since have been those of Heinsius (1600),
Drakenborch Arnold Drakenborch (1 January 168416 January 1748) was a Dutch classical scholar. Early life Drakenborch was born at Utrecht. Having studied philology under Graevius and Burmann the elder, and law under Cornelius Van Eck, in 1716 he succeeded B ...
(1717), Ernesti (Leipzig, 1791) and L. Bauer (1890). The ''Punica'' is included in the second edition of the ''Corpus poetarum Latinorum''. A useful
variorum A variorum, short for ''(editio) cum notis variorum'', is a work that collates all known variants of a text. It is a work of textual criticism, whereby all variations and emendations are set side by side so that a reader can track how textual deci ...
edition is that of Lemaître (Paris, 1823). Delz's 1987 edition of the ''Punica'' is the current standard text. In 1927 the ''Punica'' was edited, translated, and published in Loeb Classical Editions.


Commentaries

Pietro Marso (1442–1512) published a commentary on the ''Punica'' in 1483. More recent commentaries include Neil Bernstein's commentary on book 2, Joy Littlewood's commentaries on books 7 and 10, and Michiel van der Keur's commentary on book 13.


Monographs

Studies of the ''Punica'' have flourished with many new monographs published about the poem, for example by Antony Augoustakis, Ray Marks, and Claire Stocks.Stocks, Claire. 2014. ''The Roman Hannibal: Remembering the Enemy in Silius Italicus’ ‘Punica’''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.


References


External links


Latin and English text of the ''Punica''
Vol. 1
Latin and English text of the ''Punica''
Vol. 2

in the Latin Library

{{Authority control 1st-century Latin books Epic poems in Latin Historical poems Second Punic War