![Jama-Coaque snuff tray](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Jama-Coaque_snuff_tray.jpg)
Pre-Columbian Ecuador included numerous
indigenous
Indigenous may refer to:
*Indigenous peoples
*Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention
*Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band
*Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse ...
cultures, who thrived for thousands of years before the ascent of the
Incan
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
Empire.
Las Vegas culture
"Las Vegas culture" is the name given to many Archaic settlements which flourished between 8000 BCE and 4600 BCE.(10,000 to 6,600 BP) near the coast of present-day Ecuador. The name comes from the location of the most prominent settlement, Site ...
of coastal Ecuador is one of the oldest cultures in the Americas.
The
Valdivia culture
The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE ...
in the Pacific coast region is a well-known early Ecuadorian culture. Ancient Valdivian artifacts from as early as 3500 BCE have been found along the coast north of the
Guayas Province
Guayas () is a coastal province in Ecuador. It is bordered to the west by ManabÃ, Santa Elena, and the Pacific Ocean (as the Gulf of Guayaquil); to the east by Los RÃos, BolÃvar, Chimborazo, Cañar, and Azuay; to the north by Los Rà ...
in the modern city of
Santa Elena.
Several other cultures, including the
Quitus,
Caras
The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences (CARAS) is a non-profit organization responsible for promoting Canadian music and artists. It administers the Juno Awards, the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the MusiCounts music education cha ...
and
Cañari
The Cañari (in Kichwa: Kañari) are an indigenous ethnic group traditionally inhabiting the territory of the modern provinces of Azuay and Cañar in Ecuador. They are descended from the independent pre-Columbian tribal confederation of the s ...
s, emerged in other parts of Ecuador. There are other major
archaeological sites in the coastal provinces of
Manabà and
Esmeraldas and in the middle Andean highland provinces of
Tungurahua
Tungurahua (; from Quichua ''tunguri'' (throat) and ''rahua'' (fire), "Throat of Fire")) is an active stratovolcano located in the Cordillera Oriental of Ecuador. The volcano gives its name to the province of Tungurahua. Volcanic activity rest ...
and
Chimborazo
Chimborazo () is a currently inactive stratovolcano in the Cordillera Occidental range of the Andes. Its last known eruption is believed to have occurred around 550 A.D.
Chimborazo's summit is the farthest point on the Earth's surface from t ...
. The archaeological evidence has established that Ecuador was inhabited for at least 4,500 years before the rise of the Inca.
Great tracts of Ecuador, including almost all of the ''Oriente'' (
Amazon rainforest), remain unknown to archaeologists, a fact that adds credence to the possibility of early human habitation. Scholars have studied the Amazon region recently but the forest is so remote and dense that it takes years for research teams to survey even a small area. Their belief that the river basin had complex cultures is confirmed by the recent discovery of the Mayo-Chinchipe Cultural Complex in the
Zamora-Chinchipe Province
Zamora Chinchipe (), Province of Zamora Chinchipe is a province of the Republic
of Ecuador, located at the southeastern end of the Amazon Basin, which shares borders with the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay and Morona Santiago to the north, Loja ...
.
The present Republic of Ecuador is at the heart of the region where a variety of civilizations developed for millennia. During the pre-Inca period people lived in clans, which formed great tribes, and some allied with each other to form powerful confederations, as the Confederation of Quito. But none of these confederations could resist the formidable momentum of the ''
Tawantinsuyu
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, ( Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The adm ...
''. The invasion of the Inca in the 15th century was very painful and bloody. However, once occupied by the Quito hosts of
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (with many alternative transliterations; 1464/1468–1524) was the third Sapan Inka of the Inca Empire, born in Tumipampa sixth of the Hanan dynasty, and eleventh of the Inca civilization. Subjects commonly approached Sapa Inkas add ...
, the Incas developed an extensive administration and began the colonization of the region.
The pre-Columbian era can be divided up into four eras:
* Preceramic Period;
* Formative Period;
* Period of Regional Development; and
* Period of Integration and the Arrival of the Incas.
Preceramic period
The preceramic period begins with the first human settlement at the end of the last glacial and continues until around 4200 BCE. The Las Vegas and
Inga cultures dominated this period.
Las Vegas culture
The
Las Vegas
Las Vegas (; Spanish for "The Meadows"), often known simply as Vegas, is the 25th-most populous city in the United States, the most populous city in the state of Nevada, and the county seat of Clark County. The city anchors the Las Vegas ...
is the first known culture in Ecuador. They lived on the
Santa Elena Peninsula The Santa Elena Peninsula is a peninsula in Santa Elena Province, Ecuador. The Santa Elena Peninsula contains the westernmost point on mainland Ecuador and is bordered by the Gulf of Guayaquil to the south and the Santa Elena Bay to the north.
The ...
on the coast of Ecuador between 9000 and 6000 BCE. The skeletal remains and other finds show evidence the culture once flourished in the area. Scientists have classified three phases of cultural development. The earliest people were hunter-gatherers and fishermen. At approximately 6000 BCE, the culture was among the first to begin farming (bottle gourd, ''
Lagenaria siceraria
Calabash (; ''Lagenaria siceraria''), also known as bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, long melon, birdhouse gourd, New Guinea bean, Tasmania bean, and opo squash, is a vine grown for its fruit. It can be either harvested young to be consumed ...
'', and an early type of
maize
Maize ( ; ''Zea mays'' subsp. ''mays'', from es, maÃz after tnq, mahiz), also known as corn (North American and Australian English), is a cereal grain first domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The ...
, ''
Zea mays'' L.) The best known remains of the culture are ''The Lovers of Sumpa''. These human remains and other items can be seen at Museo Los Amantes de Sumpa y Centro Cultural in Santa Elena.
El Inga
The Inga lived in the Sierra near present-day
Quito. Evidence from the archeological site El Inca date the culture to 9000–8000 BCE. Several sites were excavated around 1961. It is estimated this area is one of the most important in South America and existed along an ancient trade route. The tools used by these early nomadic hunters have provided relationships to the
Clovis culture
The Clovis culture is a prehistoric Paleoamerican culture, named for distinct stone and bone tools found in close association with Pleistocene fauna, particularly two mammoths, at Blackwater Locality No. 1 near Clovis, New Mexico, in 1936 a ...
level I at
Fell's Cave in southern Chile, and technological relationships to the late Pleistocene "fluted point" complexes of North America.
Formative Period
During the Formative Period, people of the region moved from hunting-gathering and simple farming into a more developed society, with permanent developments, an increase in agriculture and the use of ceramics. New cultures included the
Machalilla culture,
Valdivia
Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder Pedro de Valdivia and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and Cau-Cau R ...
,
Chorrera culture on the coast; Cotocollao, and The Chimba in the Sierra; and
Mayo Chinchipe (4500 BCE — CE 1532),
Pastaza,
Chiguaza and many others in the Oriente region. The
Cerro NarrÃo or Chaullabamba culture thrived from 2000 BCE to CE 600 in the southern
Cañar and
Azuay
Azuay (), Province of Azuay is a province of Ecuador, created on 25 June 1824. It encompasses an area of . Its capital is Cuenca. It is located in the south center of Ecuador in the highlands. Its mountains reach above sea level in the natio ...
provinces.
Santa Ana (La Florida) Santa Ana (La Florida) is an important archaeological site in the highlands of Ecuador, going back as early as 3,500 BC. It is located in the Palanda Canton, just to the north of its regional capital of :es:Palanda, in the Zamora-Chinchipe Province ...
is an important archaeological site in the highlands of Ecuador, going back as early as 3,500 BCE. It is located in the
Zamora-Chinchipe Province
Zamora Chinchipe (), Province of Zamora Chinchipe is a province of the Republic
of Ecuador, located at the southeastern end of the Amazon Basin, which shares borders with the Ecuadorian provinces of Azuay and Morona Santiago to the north, Loja ...
, and was discovered in 21st century. It belongs to the proposed ''Mayo Chinchipe-Marañón culture''.
Valdivia Culture
The
Valdivia culture
The Valdivia culture is one of the oldest settled cultures recorded in the Americas. It emerged from the earlier Las Vegas culture and thrived on the Santa Elena peninsula near the modern-day town of Valdivia, Ecuador between 3500 BCE and 1500 BCE ...
is the first culture where significant remains have been discovered. Their civilization dates back as early as 3500 BCE. Living in the area near The Valdivias were the first Americans to use pottery. They created bowls, jars and female statues out of clay, both for everyday life and for use in religious ceremonies. They navigated the seas on rafts with sails and established a trade network with tribes in the Andes and the Amazon. Valdivia art and artifacts have been found throughout the country. An extensive collection is on display at the ''Museo Fianco Banco Central'' in Quito and the
UEES in Guayaquil.
Machallila Culture
![Chorrera Auch 1](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Chorrera_Auch_1.jpg)
Succeeding the Valdivia, the Machallia Culture was a farming culture that thrived along the coast of Ecuador between the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. Its ceramics are easily differentiated from the Valdivia as they were painted black or white with red stripes, and figurines were rare and crudely made. These appear to be the earliest people to cultivate maize in this part of South America.
Chorrera Culture
Existing in the late Formative period, the
Chorrera culture lived in the Andes and Coastal Regions of Ecuador between 900 and 300 BCE. They were best known for their hollow ceramic animal- and plant-shaped figurines.
Period of Regional Development
The period of Regional Development is when regional differences developed in the territorial or political and social organization of the peoples. Among the main towns of this period were the cultures: JambelÃ, Guangala, BahÃa, Tejar-Daule, La Tolita, Jama Coaque in the coast of Ecuador, in the Sierras the Cerro NarrÃo AlausÃ; and in the Ecuadorian Amazon jungle the Tayos.
La BahÃa
The figurine of the
BahÃa culture (300 BCE– CE 500), La Chimba is the site of the earliest ceramic northern Andes, north of Quito, and is representative of the Formative Period in its final stage. Its inhabitants contacted several villages on the coast and the mountains, keeping close proximity to the
Cotocollao culture, located on the plateau of Quito and its surrounding valleys. The Bahia culture occupied the area that stretches from the foothills of the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, and from
BahÃa de Caráquez
BahÃa de Caráquez, officially known as San Antonio de Caraquez and founded under the name of Villa de San Antonio de la BahÃa de Caráquez or simply known today as BahÃa, formerly called BahÃa de los Caras during the period of the Spanish co ...
, to the south of Manabi. The Jama-Coaque culture inhabited areas between Cabo San Francisco in
Esmeraldas, to BahÃa de Caráquez, in Manabi, in an area of wooded hills and vast beaches of their immigrant who facilitated the gathering of resources of both the jungle and the ocean.
La Tolita Culture
The La Tolita developed in the coastal region of Southern Colombia and Northern Ecuador between 600 BCE and CE 200. Numerous archaeological sites have been discovered that show the highly artistic nature of this culture. Artifacts are characterized by gold jewelry, beautiful anthropomorphic masks and figurines that reflect a hierarchical society with complex ceremonies.
Guangala
Guangala culture thrived from CE 100 to 800 in the Manabà Province.
Period of Integration and the arrival of the Inca
Tribes throughout Ecuador integrated during this period. They built better housing that allowed them to improve their living conditions and no longer be subject to the climate. In the mountains the Cosangua-PÃllaro,
Capulà and Piartal-Tuza cultures arose; in the eastern region was the Yasunà Phase, while the Milagro, Manteña and Huancavilca cultures developed on the coast, from 500 BCE onwards.
Los Manteños
The
Manteños were the last of the pre-Columbian cultures in the coastal region and flourished between 600 and 1534. They were the first to witness the arrival of Spanish ships sailing in the surrounding Pacific Ocean. According to archaeological evidence and Spanish chronicles, the civilization extended from
BahÃa de Caráquez
BahÃa de Caráquez, officially known as San Antonio de Caraquez and founded under the name of Villa de San Antonio de la BahÃa de Caráquez or simply known today as BahÃa, formerly called BahÃa de los Caras during the period of the Spanish co ...
to Cerro de Hojas in the south. They were excellent weavers, produced textiles, articles of gold, silver spondylus shells and mother of pearls. The manteños mastered the seas and forged extensive trade routes as far as present-day Chile to the south and western Mexico to the north. The center of the culture was in the area of
Manta
Manta or mantas may refer to:
* Manta ray, large fish belonging to the genus ''Manta''
Arts and entertainment Fictional entities
* Manta (comics), a character in American Marvel Comics publications
* Manta (''Uridium''), a spaceship in the Br ...
, named in their honor.
Los Huancavilcas
The Huancavilcas constitute the most important pre-Columbian culture of Guayas, after Las Vegas. These warriors were noted for their appearance. Huancavilca culture recounts the legend of Guayas and Quiles, for which the city of
Guayaquil
, motto = Por Guayaquil Independiente en, For Independent Guayaquil
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, pushpin_map = Ecuador#South America
, pushpin_re ...
was named.
Quitu-Cara culture and the Kingdom of Quito
The
Kingdom of Quito
The Cara culture flourished in coastal Ecuador, in what is now Manabà Province, in the first millennium CE.
History
In the 10th century CE, they followed the Esmeraldas River up to the high Andean valley now developed as the city San Francisco d ...
was formed by the
Quitu
The Quitu were Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples in Ecuador who founded Quito, which is the capital of present-day Ecuador.[ ...]
s, the
Puruhaes and
Cañari
The Cañari (in Kichwa: Kañari) are an indigenous ethnic group traditionally inhabiting the territory of the modern provinces of Azuay and Cañar in Ecuador. They are descended from the independent pre-Columbian tribal confederation of the s ...
, who by then inhabited the Andean regions of present-day Ecuador. Their main settlement was in the area where they later built up the city of Quito, and its inhabitants are called Quitus. The Quitus were relatively passive, and although they formed a small kingdom, they were overpowered by the Shyris (
Cara culture
The Cara culture flourished in coastal Ecuador, in what is now Manabà Province, in the first millennium CE.
History
In the 10th century CE, they followed the Esmeraldas River up to the high Andean valley now developed as the city San Francisco ...
). These ancient indigenous people took over the Kingdom of Quito. The Shyris dominated for more than 700 years before they were invaded by the
Inca
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
''
Tupac Yupanqui''.
Cañari culture thrived from CE 400 to 1532 and the Cañari people still live in Ecuador today.
Even though cultures like
Caranqui, Cañari and Quitu existed, historians
Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño
Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (11 December 1890 – 17 August 1950) was an Ecuadorian historian, archeologist, and politician. He was the mayor of the city of Quito (the capital of Ecuador) from 1946 to 1948. He was a member of the Ecuadorian parlia ...
and
Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco
Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco (October 12, 1908 – May 1, 1993) — born Alfredo Pareja y DÃez Canseco — was a prominent Ecuadorian novelist, essayist, journalist, historian and diplomat. An innovator of the 20th-century Latin American nove ...
contested the existence of such Kingdom and pointed that it was dubious its existence because there aren't any evidence like ruins or pottery. The Quitus existence does not prove the contested Kingdom of Quito, only gives credence, and partially supports its existence.
The Incas
The
Inca civilization
The Incas were most notable for establishing the Inca Empire in Pre-Columbian America, which was centered in modern day South America in Peru and Chile. It was about 2,500 miles from the northern to southern tip. The civilization lasted from 1 ...
expansion northward from modern-day
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = National seal
, national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
during the late 15th century met with fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian tribes, particularly the Cañari, in the region around modern-day
Cuenca; the Cara (originally of Manabi) in the Sierra north of
Quito, who fought along with the
Quitu
The Quitu were Pre-Columbian indigenous peoples in Ecuador who founded Quito, which is the capital of present-day Ecuador.[ ...]
, occupants of the site of the modern capital, whom they had formed the Kingdom of Quito with. The conquest of Ecuador began in 1463 under the leadership of the ninth Inca, the great warrior
Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui. In that year, his son Tupa took over command of the army and began his march northward through the Sierra.
By 1500 Tupa's son,
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (with many alternative transliterations; 1464/1468–1524) was the third Sapan Inka of the Inca Empire, born in Tumipampa sixth of the Hanan dynasty, and eleventh of the Inca civilization. Subjects commonly approached Sapa Inkas add ...
, overcame the resistance of these populations and that of the Cara, and thus incorporated most of modern-day Ecuador into
Tawantinsuyu
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, ( Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The adm ...
, as the Inca empire was known. Different tribes also sought refugee in the then thick interior jungles. The influence of these conquerors based in
Cuzco
Cusco, often spelled Cuzco (; qu, Qusqu ()), is a city in Southeastern Peru near the Urubamba Valley of the Andes mountain range. It is the capital of the Cusco Region and of the Cusco Province. The city is the seventh most populous in Peru; ...
(modern-day Peru) was limited to about a half century, or less in some parts of Ecuador. During that period, some aspects of life remained unchanged. Traditional religious beliefs, for example, persisted throughout the period of Inca rule. In other areas, however, such as agriculture, land tenure, and social organization, Inca rule had a profound effect despite its relatively short duration.
Emperor Huayna Capac became very fond of Quito, making it a secondary capital of
Tawantinsuyu
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, ( Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The adm ...
and living out his elder years there before his death in about 1527. Huayna Capac's sudden death from a strange disease, described by one as
smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by variola virus (often called smallpox virus) which belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (WHO) c ...
, precipitated a bitter power struggle between
Huascar, whose mother was Coya (meaning Empress) Mama Rahua Occillo and legitimate heir, and
Atahualpa, a son who was born to a Quitu princess, and reputedly his father's "favorite".
This struggle raged during the half-decade before the arrival of
Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González, Marquess of the Atabillos (; ; – 26 June 1541) was a Spanish conquistador, best known for his expeditions that led to the Spanish conquest of Peru.
Born in Trujillo, Spain to a poor family, Pizarro chose ...
's conquering expedition in 1532. The key battle of this
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies ...
was fought on Ecuadorian soil, near
Riobamba
Riobamba (, full name San Pedro de Riobamba; Quechua: ''Rispampa'') is the capital of Chimborazo Province in central Ecuador, and is located in the Chambo River Valley of the Andes. It is south of Ecuador's capital Quito and located at an ele ...
, where Huascar's northbound troops were met and defeated by Atahualpa's southbound troops. Atahualpa's final victory over Huascar in the days just before the Spanish conquerors arrived resulted in large part from the loyalty of two of Huayna Capac's best generals, who were based in Quito along with Atahualpa. The victory remains a source of national pride to Ecuadorians as a rare case when "Ecuador" forcefully bettered a "neighboring country".
Ecuador under Incan rule
![Pumapungo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Pumapungo.jpg)
The history of Ecuador is better known from the point of the
Inca
The Inca Empire (also known as the Incan Empire and the Inka Empire), called ''Tawantinsuyu'' by its subjects, (Quechua for the "Realm of the Four Parts", "four parts together" ) was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The admin ...
expansion than during the
Pre-Columbian
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, ...
era. In 1463, the Inca warrior
Pachacuti and his son
Tupac Yupanqui began the incorporation of Ecuador into Inca rule. They began by defeating the people of the Sierra including the Quitus tribe (the people for whom modern-day
Quito is named). They continued by heading southwest to the coast, eventually subjugating the Ecuadorians living near the
Gulf of Guayaquil
The Gulf of Guayaquil is a large body of water of the Pacific Ocean in western South America. Its northern limit is the city of Santa Elena, in Ecuador, and its southern limit is Cabo Blanco, in Peru.
The gulf takes its name from the city of Gua ...
and the
Island of Puna to Inca rule.
By the end of the 15th century, despite fierce resistance by several Ecuadorian native tribes,
Huayna Capac
Huayna Capac (with many alternative transliterations; 1464/1468–1524) was the third Sapan Inka of the Inca Empire, born in Tumipampa sixth of the Hanan dynasty, and eleventh of the Inca civilization. Subjects commonly approached Sapa Inkas add ...
, Tupac Yupanqui's son with a Cañari princess (the people from modern-day Canar province), was able to conquer the remaining tribes and by 1500 most of Ecuador was incorporated into the Incan Empire loosely.
Huayna Capac grew up in Ecuador and loved the land, in contrast preference to his native Cuzco. He named Quito the second Inca capital and a road was built to connect the two capitals. Cities and temples were built throughout the country. He married a Quitu princess and remained in the country until his death. When Huayna Capac died, he left the northern portion of the current empire to Atahualpa to be ruled from Quito, while the Southern portion was given to Huascar to be ruled from Cuzco.
Since neither of the brothers liked the idea of a torn empire, the two sons sought the throne.
Huáscar
Huáscar Inca (; Quechua: ''Waskar Inka''; 1503–1532) also Guazcar was Sapa Inca of the Inca Empire from 1527 to 1532. He succeeded his father, Huayna Capac and his brother Ninan Cuyochi, both of whom died of smallpox while campaigning near Q ...
, born of Huayna Capac's sister in Cusco, was the legitimate heir.
Atahualpa, born in Quito according to Ecuadorian historiography, and in Cusco according to the Peruvian, was the usurper. The brothers battled for six years, killing many men and weakening the empire. Finally in 1532 near Chimborazo, Atahualpa, with the aid of two of his father's generals, defeated his brother. Huáscar was captured and put in prison. Atahualpa became emperor of a severely weakened empire only to face the Spanish conquistadors' arrival in 1532.
[Galapagosonline.com Incas in Ecuador](_blank)
During the period of Inca presence, the Ecuadorian organizations adopted agricultural practices, and a few social organization of the Inca occupants, but maintained their traditional religious beliefs and many customs.
Inca domination in Ecuador was short (≈70 years) but they left one of the best-known archaeological sites of Ecuador:
Ingapirca
Ingapirca (Kichwa: ''Inka Pirka'', "Inca wall") is a town in Cañar Province, Ecuador, and the name of the older Inca ruins and archeological site nearby.
These are the largest known Inca ruins in Ecuador. The most significant building is the ...
. They tried to conquer high Amazonian valley with only partial success, especially in the south, where the Bracamoros defeated them three times.
Objects and artifacts
Edward Whymper
Edward Whymper FRSE (27 April 184016 September 1911) was an English mountaineer, explorer, illustrator, and author best known for the first ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865. Four members of his climbing party were killed during the descent. W ...
sought
Stone Age objects while in Ecuador during 1880. Most of the items he collected from those brought to him were stone; he thought that most metal artifacts had been smelted in search of any gold they contained.
Macanas
By far the most common object was a stone star with a hole through the middle. They were found everywhere between
Ibarra and
Riobamba
Riobamba (, full name San Pedro de Riobamba; Quechua: ''Rispampa'') is the capital of Chimborazo Province in central Ecuador, and is located in the Chambo River Valley of the Andes. It is south of Ecuador's capital Quito and located at an ele ...
. The majority have six rays (and none have more), proceeding symmetrically from the center, and the whole are fashioned alike upon each side. A certain number have only five rays, and occasional examples are irregular in shape. All are pierced by a hole, which has been drilled from the two sides, and the size of this varies considerably. In dimensions they range from three to five inches in diameter and from three-quarters of an inch to two inches in thickness. Their weight is from five to twenty ounces. The larger part are made from basaltic rock and gabbro. Objects of this class were also cast in metal but these are now rarely found in Ecuador.
While they possess the general points of similarity that have been mentioned, scarcely any two are identical in form. Some are flat and thin, others are thick, or rise in the center upon each side into a shape like the hub of a wheel.
In a U.S. Naval expedition report, figures are given of two stars in bronze (found at Cuzco, Peru), one having a sixth ray prolonged into a hatchet, which suggests that it must have been a war-club or battle-axe. In
Squire
In the Middle Ages, a squire was the shield- or armour-bearer of a knight.
Use of the term evolved over time. Initially, a squire served as a knight's apprentice. Later, a village leader or a lord of the manor might come to be known as a ...
's book on Peru,
[ cited by Whymper, 1892.] there is a figure of a six-rayed object in bronze, said to have been one of several, which are designated by the author (apparently following some earlier writer) ''casse-têtes'', and he says that among the fractured skulls that were found "the larger part seemed to have been broken by blows from some such weapons". Mons. Wiener, in his book on Peru and Bolivia gives a figure of a star and was found at
Ancon (archaeological site)
Ancon (archaeological site) is located in the north of the Bay of Ancon, in the Ancón District, on the central coast of Peru. It is one of the most important centers of the Peruvian archeology and features a vast necropolis of the pre-Hispanic ...
near
Lima
Lima ( ; ), originally founded as Ciudad de Los Reyes (City of The Kings) is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, RÃmac and LurÃn Rivers, in the desert zone of the central coastal part of ...
showing a stick inserted in the central hole; and another figure of a somewhat similar from in bronze, also handled. Like Squier, he calls them ''casse-têtes''. Finally, the Doctors Reiss and Stübel remark, in their work upon the Peruvian antiquities obtained at Ancon, that "the few stone objects found here show but slight traces of workmanship, an exception being ... a stone weapon of the
morning star type ... the six-rayed stone star, here found once only, is elsewhere in Peruvian graves by no means rare."
Though all these writers appear to regard these objects as a kind of battle-axe (and are probably correct so far as those having a ray prolonged into a hatchet are concerned), there are several considerations that suggest these objects were habitually used as weapons. The larger of the stars (which are as heavy as a pound and a quarter) no doubt might be used effectively; but the smaller ones, weighing only a few ounces, would not be very formidable; and taking them as a whole they are less adapted either for offensive or defensive purposes than most of the other stone implements. To this may be added that many are uninjured, and do not seem to have been put to any use whatever. Francisco Campaña (a half-Indian who joined the latter part of Whymper's journey) had assisted in the examination of graves in Peru, and said these stars in stone were found there placed upon the breasts of corpses; and it seems likely that they were to the Children of the Sun symbols of the luminary that they worshipped.
These weapons are known as
Macana
The term macana, of TaÃno origin, refers to various wooden weapons used by the various native cultures of Central and South America.
The earliest meaning attributed to ''macana'' is a sword-like weapon made out of wood, but still sharp enough t ...
(s), used by armies of many Andean and
Mesoamerican
Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area in southern North America and most of Central America. It extends from approximately central Mexico through Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica. Withi ...
cultures during centuries until Spanish conquest. They are very effective.
Implements
A large number of stone objects were found that were undoubtedly implements.
Five types are shown in the illustration with a white background. In the top row, series A-E, the whole of the edges are rounded, except the bottom ones. In the next line (F-J) all are of a chisel type. The tops and sides of these are sometimes flat or angular, and sometimes rounded; and the lower, or cutting edges, are sharp. The examples in the next series (K-O) bear some resemblance to a bill-hook; the top edges are flat; and they are all pierced with holes drilled from the two sides. The specimens in the next row have similar holes—otherwise they approximate to the chisel type; while the type represented in the bottom series U-Y differs from all the others in having projecting shoulders, and (occasionally) in having a groove along the length of the top edge, apparently to facilitate handling.
All these five types were found in numbers, in many localities, and have evidently been among the most common and generally used implements during the Equatorial Stone Age. In minor respects they exhibit considerable variety, and there are large differences in their size, thickness, and weight. The type P-T was the most numerous. The greater part have holes drilled from each side (with the holes having less in diameter in the middle than on their surfaces), though in some the aperture is as broad internally as externally. The positions of the holes vary, some being central, although most of them are nearest to the top. The lower edge is always the sharpest; and, while many would not have cut butter, there are a few sharp enough to cut wood. Their weight ranges from 3¼ to 29 ounces, and like the stars in stone they have been fashioned from a diversity of rocks.
A large number of implements in stone were obtained, from which selections are given in the illustration with a black background. Those marked E, J, K, L, N-T are unique, and the other forms are more or less rare. The central one, marked M, was the only object for which Ecuadorian natives could assign a use, and it was pronounced to be a ''corn-pounder''. This one weighs five and a quarter pounds, and another of eleven pounds was obtained. Several examples of form I were found, considered by
Thomas Ewbank to be a "hollowing-hammer for metal" by making a handle with a pliable wood rod. It is possible those marked A, B, and C were used for the same purpose. The objects D, F, G, and H are more puzzling. The two latter somewhat resemble the two others represented here, but differ from them in not having the circular cavities in the sides. The objects of this type are highly wrought, and fashioned out of hard stone. It seems not unlikely that they were used for sharpening tools, and that the examples G, H are unused specimens. They have also been found by M. Wiener in Peru.
Among the distinctly ornamental objects in stone there are imitations of corn cobs. These were particularly mentioned in Juan & Ulloa's work, in the mid-18th century. Spanish writers say:
: "The maize has ever been the delight of the Indians; for, besides being their food, their favourite liquor
chicha was made of it; the Indian artists therefore used to shew their skill in making ears of it in a kind of very hard stone; and so perfect was the resemblance that they could hardly be distinguished by the eye from nature; especially as the colour was imitated to the greatest perfection; some represented the yellow maize, some the white ... The most surprising circumstance of the whole is, the manner of their working, which, when we consider their want of instruments and the wretched form of those they had, appears an inexplicable mystery: for either they worked with copper tools, a metal little able to resist the hardness of stones, or, to give the nice polish conspicuous on their works, other stones must have been used as tools."
Squier gives in his book on Peru
a bad representation of one of these stone maize-heads and says that they were specially mentioned "by Padre Arriaga in his rare book on the ''Extirpation of Idolatry in Peru'' under the name ''zaramama''", and were household gods of the ancient inhabitants.
Age of objects
That the principal part of these objects and implements in stone are of considerable or of great age is apparent from the fact that they are scarcely mentioned at the time of the Pizarros.
Garcilaso de la Vega says that the Indians
: "knew not the invention of putting a handle of Wood to their Hammers, but worked with certain Instruments they had made of Copper, mixed with a sort of fine Brass. Neither did they know how to make Files or Graving-tools, or Bellows for Melting down Metals ... But above all, their Carpenters seemed to be worst provided with Tools; for though ours use many Instruments made of Iron, those of ''Peru'' had no other than a Hatchet, and a Pick-axe made of Copper; they neither had Saw, nor Augre, nor Planer, nor any other Tool for the Carpenter's work, so that they could not make Arches or Portals for doors; onely they hewed and cut their Timber, and whitened it, and then it was prepared for their Building: And for making their Hatchets and Pick-axes, and some few Rakes, they made use of the Silversmiths, for as yet they had not attained to the Art of Working in Iron. Nor did they know how to make Nails, or use them, but tied all their timber with Cords of Hemp. Nor were their Hewers of Stone more artificial, for in cutting and shaping their Stones, they had no other Tool, than one made with some sharp Flints and Pebbles, with which they rather wore out the Stone by continual rubbing, than cutting."
[ cited by Whymper, 1892.]
From this passage it appears that at the time of the Pizarros the Indians used tools of metal for most purposes. The concluding sentence evidently refers solely to fashioning stones for building. Older writers in general do not indicate that they had a cognizance of a Stone Age.
Gallery
Image:MORTERO JAGUAR MACHALILLA 2.JPG, Valdivia-Machalilla jaguar mortar (c. 2000—1300 BC)
Image:Vasija con figura humana Jama-Coaque (M. Am. Madrid) 01.jpg, Ceramic vessel with a sitting human figure. Jama-Coaque Culture, of the Regional Development Period (500 BC–AD 500)
Image:Ecuador ceramic bowls.JPG, Ceramic bowls of Carchi culture (800-1500)
Image:Ecuador untesil.JPG, Utensil with a figure from Chorrera culture (900–300 BC)
Image:Tolita-Tumaco gold figure 1st century BC.jpg, Standing Figure, La Tolita/Tumaco (1st century BC — 1st century AD)
Image:Chorrera Auch 3.jpg, Statue from Chorrera Culture (1800—300 BC)
Image:Chorrera Auch 2.jpg, Statue from Chorrera Culture (1800—300 BC)
Image:Tolita-Tumaco ceramic sculpture from Ecuador.jpg, Statue from La Tolita/Tumaco
(c. 1 BC)
Image:Capulà contortionist Santiago.jpg, Capulà ceramic sculpture of a contortionist (800—1500)
Image:Cashaloma cup with dripped painting.JPG, Cashaloma cup with dripped ("goteado") painting, Museo de las Culturas Aborigenes, Cuenca, Ecuador
Santa Ana de los Cuatro RÃos de Cuenca, commonly referred to as Cuenca ( Kichwa: ''Tumipampa'') is the capital and largest city of the Azuay Province of Ecuador. Cuenca is located in the highlands of Ecuador at about above sea level, with an ur ...
File:Jama-Coaque - Figure Seated on a Bench with Hands Held to Mouth - Walters 482862.jpg, Jama-Coaque figurine, 300 BC-AD 800
See also
*
Museo Antropologico y de Arte Contemporaneo
Museo Antropologico y de Arte Contemporaneo (English: "Anthropology and Contemporary Art Museum"), or MAAC is a state-of-the-art museum in Guayaquil, Ecuador celebrating Ecuadorian, Latin American and Pre-Columbian art and culture. MAAC is a wel ...
, Guayaquil
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pre-Columbian Ecuador
History of Ecuador
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
Archaic period in the Americas
Archaeology of Ecuador
Indigenous peoples in Ecuador
Indigenous peoples of the Andes