Porus or Poros ( grc, Πῶρος ; 326–321 BC) was an ancient
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n king whose territory spanned the region between the
Jhelum River
The Jhelum River (/dʒʰeːləm/) is a river in the northern Indian subcontinent. It originates at Verinag and flows through the Indian administered territory of Jammu and Kashmir, to the Pakistani-administered territory of Kashmir, and then ...
(Hydaspes) and
Chenab River
The Chenab River () is a major river that flows in India and Pakistan, and is one of the 5 major rivers of the Punjab region. It is formed by the union of two headwaters, Chandra and Bhaga, which rise in the upper Himalayas in the Lahaul regi ...
(Acesines), in the
Punjab region
Punjab (; Punjabi Language, Punjabi: پنجاب ; ਪੰਜਾਬ ; ; also Romanization, romanised as ''Panjāb'' or ''Panj-Āb'') is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the northern part of the I ...
of the
Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a list of the physiographic regions of the world, physiographical region in United Nations geoscheme for Asia#Southern Asia, Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian O ...
. He is only mentioned in Greek sources.
Credited to have been a legendary warrior with exceptional skills, Porus unsuccessfully fought against
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, wikt:Ἀλέξανδρος, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Maced ...
in the
Battle of the Hydaspes
The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought between Alexander the Great and king Porus in 326 BC. It took place on the banks of the Jhelum River (known to the ancient Greeks as Hydaspes) in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent (modern-day Pu ...
(326 BC).
[Fuller, pg 198 ]
In the aftermath, an impressed Alexander not only reinstated him as his
satrap
A satrap () was a governor of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.
The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with consid ...
but also granted him dominion over lands to the south-east extending until the Hyphasis (
Beas
Beas is a riverfront town in the Amritsar district of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Punjab, India, Punjab. Beas lies on the banks of the Beas River. Beas town is mostly located in revenue boundary of Budha Theh wit ...
).
[p. xl, Historical Dictionary of Ancient Greek Warfare, J, Woronoff & I. Spence][Arrian Anabasis of Alexander, V.29.2] Porus reportedly died sometime between 321 and 315 BC.
Sources
The only contemporary information available on Porus and his kingdom is from Greek sources, whereas
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
n sources do not mention him. These Greek sources differ considerably among themselves.
Identification
Purus
Michael Witzel
Michael Witzel (born July 18, 1943) is a German-American philologist, comparative mythologist and Indologist. Witzel is the Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University and the editor of the Harvard Oriental Series (volumes 50–80).
Witze ...
conjectures Porus to have been a king of the Pūrus, who existed as a marginal power in Punjab since their defeat in the
Battle of the Ten Kings
The Battle of the Ten Kings ( sa, दाशराज्ञ युद्ध, translit=Dāśarājñá yuddhá) is a battle, first alluded to in the 7th Mandala of the Rigveda (RV), between a Bharata king and a confederation of tribes. It resulte ...
notwithstanding (probable) political realignment with the Bharatas.
Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri
Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri ( bn, হেম চন্দ্র রায়চৌধুরী) (8 April 1892 – 4 May 1957Raychaudhuri, Hemchandra (1972). ''Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of ...
had largely agreed with this identification.
Sourasenis
Multiple histories —
Indica by
Arrian
Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; )
was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period.
''The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...
,
Geographica
The ''Geographica'' (Ancient Greek: Γεωγραφικά ''Geōgraphiká''), or ''Geography'', is an encyclopedia of geographical knowledge, consisting of 17 'books', written in Ancient Greek, Greek and attributed to Strabo, an educated citizen ...
by
Strabo
Strabo''Strabo'' (meaning "squinty", as in strabismus) was a term employed by the Romans for anyone whose eyes were distorted or deformed. The father of Pompey was called "Pompeius Strabo". A native of Sicily so clear-sighted that he could see ...
, and
Bibliotheca historica
''Bibliotheca historica'' ( grc, Βιβλιοθήκη Ἱστορική, ) is a work of universal history by Diodorus Siculus. It consisted of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, ...
by
Diodorus Siculus
Diodorus Siculus, or Diodorus of Sicily ( grc-gre, Διόδωρος ; 1st century BC), was an ancient Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history ''Bibliotheca historica'', in forty books, fifteen of which su ...
— mention
Megasthenes
Megasthenes ( ; grc, Μεγασθένης, c. 350 BCE– c. 290 BCE) was an ancient Greek historian, diplomat and Indian ethnographer and explorer in the Hellenistic period. He described India in his book '' Indica'', which is now lost, but has ...
to have described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi: they worshiped one "Herakles" and originated from a land having the city of
Mathura
Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located approximately north of Agra, and south-east of Delhi; about from the town of Vrindavan, and from Govardhan. ...
and the river of
Yamuna
The Yamuna (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), also spelt Jumna, is the second-largest tributary river of the Ganges by discharge and the longest tributary in List of major rivers of India, India. Originating from the Yamunotri Glacier at a ...
.
[Krishna: a sourcebook, pp 5, Edwin Francis Bryant, Oxford University Press US, 2007] The Greeks often chronicled foreign gods in terms of their
own divinities; thus multiple scholars have understood "Herakles" to mean "Hari-Krishna".
That
Quintus Curtius Rufus
Quintus Curtius Rufus () was a Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alexandri Magni Macedon ...
mentions Porus' vanguard soldiers to have carried a banner of "Heracles" during the face-off with Alexander,
Ishwari Prasad argues Porus to be a
Shurasena
Shurasena ( sa, शूरसेन, ) was an ancient Yadava ruler of Mathura. He was married to a Nāga (or serpent) woman named Marisha. She bore all of his children and was the cause for Vasuki’s boon to Bhima."''Surasena or shoorsaini was ...
.
However, the identification with "Hari-Krishna" is not well-settled; there is no evidence of Krishna worship as early as 4th century BC.
Modern scholars increasingly equate "Herakles" to Indra but even this identification is not widely accepted.
Miscellaneous
H. C. Seth had identified Porus with ''Parvataka'', a king mentioned in the Sanskrit play ''
Mudrarakshasa
The Mudrarakshasa (मुद्राराक्षस, IAST: ''Mudrārākṣasa'', ) is a Sanskrit-language play by Vishakhadatta that narrates the ascent of the king Chandragupta Maurya ( BCE) to power in India. The play is an example of c ...
'', the Jain text ''
Parishishtaparvan The Parishishtaparvan () also known as the Sthaviravalicharitra () is a 12th-century Sanskrit mahakavya by Hemachandra which details the histories of the earliest Jain teachers. The poem comprises 3,460 verse couplets divided into 13 cantos of une ...
'', and some other sources including royal genealogies of Nepal.
However, there is little evidence in support: Parishishtaparvan assigns him the territory of Himavatkuta while Greek sources have Porus rule in the present-day Punjab region, and ''Mudrarakshasa'' attributes his death to poisoning planned by
Chanakya
Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya o ...
while Greek sources state that Porus was killed by
Eudemus (or Alexander, himself).
Rule
Background
Porus ruled over the tracts between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo noted the territory to contain almost 300 cities.
He had a hostile relationship with the neighboring polity of
Taxila
Taxila or Takshashila (; sa, तक्षशिला; pi, ; , ; , ) is a city in Punjab, Pakistan. Located in the Taxila Tehsil of Rawalpindi District, it lies approximately northwest of the Islamabad–Rawalpindi metropolitan area and ...
having assassinated their erstwhile ruler Ambhiraj, who was his maternal uncle.
Porus's
nephew
In the lineal kinship system used in the English-speaking world, a niece or nephew is a child of the subject's sibling or sibling-in-law. The converse relationship, the relationship from the niece or nephew's perspective, is that of an ...
, also called Porus in Greek sources, ruled a territory between the
Irāvatī (Hydraōtēs) and
Asikni (Akesinēs) rivers.
When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably in
Udabhandapura
Hund (Pashto: ), known in antiquity as Udabhandapura, is a small village in Swabi district, situated on the right bank of the Indus River in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. It is about 15 km upstream of Attock Fort and is locat ...
, he was greeted by then ruler of Taxila,
Omphis
Taxiles (in Greek language, Greek Tαξίλης or Ταξίλας; lived 4th century BC) was the Greece, Greek chroniclers' name for the ruler who reigned over the tract between the Indus River, Indus and the Jhelum River, Jhelum (Hydaspes) Riv ...
/Ambhi, son of Ambhiraj.
Omphis had visited Alexander in Sogdiana and was treated as an ally; his rule was confirmed and gifts lavished but a Macedonian satrap was installed.
Omphis hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and dispatched diplomatic missions to such effects.
In response, Abisares offered submission but Porus refused, leading Alexander to seek for a face-off on the bank of Jhelum.
Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown and the exact strength of the armies cannot be determined either due to major discrepancies in sources.
Battle of the Hydaspes
Alexander re-used the same vessels which were used for crossing the Indus, some 300 km away at Udabhandapura.
Small scale attempts at intrusion were frequently mounted by Alexander's forces and even before the battle had started, skirmishes were reported in riverine islands.
Alexander eventually decided on accompanying a striking force to cross via the densely forested headlands; the base camp with substantial cavalry and infantry units was left under Craterus to follow him upon a successful passage whilst the remaining forces were distributed along the length of the river under three phalanx officers to distract Porus' forces.
The strategy was successful and they crossed Jhelum unobstructed, in a stormy night, on the eve of dawn.
A band of horsemen on chariots led by Porus' son did detect the intrusion and mounted a charge but was repelled by Alexander's superior cavalry.
Informed of Alexander's passage, Porus became concerned with tackling those who have already crossed, rather than prevent passage of the remaining majority.
He took a defensive position in the plains, interspersing infantry units with elephants on the front-lines and stationing the cavalry and chariots in the wings.
Alexander chose to shield his infantry and instead led a devastating cavalry charge on Porus' left wing, forcing reinforcements from the right; however, this rear-transit came under attack by Coenus' cavalry and Porus' cavalry was compelled to take refuge within the infantry frontlines causing confusion.
This led to an all-out attack from both sides but Porus' plans proved futile.
While, on the front, not only were Porus' cavalry charges repelled but also the
''mahouts'' assassinated using ''
sarissa
The sarisa or sarissa ( el, σάρισα) was a long spear or pike about in length. It was introduced by Philip II of Macedon and was used in his Macedonian phalanxes as a replacement for the earlier dory, which was considerably shorter. Thes ...
'' and the elephants pushed back into Porus' columns, wrecking havoc, on the rear, Alexander's cavalry kept on charging and inflicting disorder.
Soon enough, Porus' army was surrounded from all sides, and became easy fodder for Alexander's forces with the cavalry being exterminated and most of the elephants being captured.
Still, Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.
A fraction of infantry had successfully escaped and probably planned to regroup but Craterus pursued them to death.
Result
The battle resulted in a decisive
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were obviously exaggerative.
Alexander held athletic and gymnastic games at the site, and even commissioned two cities—''
Nicaea
Nicaea, also known as Nicea or Nikaia (; ; grc-gre, Νίκαια, ) was an ancient Greek city in Bithynia, where located in northwestern Anatolia and is primarily known as the site of the First and Second Councils of Nicaea (the first and seve ...
'' at the site of victory and
''Bucephalous'' at the battle-ground (in memory of
his horse)—in commemoration.
Later, decadrachms would be minted by the Babylonian mint depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a ''sarissa'' and attacking a pair of Indians atop an elephant.
Aftermath
Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.
Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.
Further, Omphis was reconciled with Porus.
A joint expedition was then mounted against a territory east of Chenab, which was ruled by an enemy-cousin of Porus; he had earlier submitted to Alexander but suspicious of Porus' rise in ranks, chose to flee with his army.
The date of this battle remains disputed; Alexander's forces overran his lands before meeting stiff resistance at a walled Sangala on the other side of Ravi.
Siege warfare was executed to brilliant effect and the full-fledged attack began, once Porus had joined with his elephants.
As Sangala and allying cities were razed, Porus was allowed to station his garrisons.
Thereafter, Alexander proceeded unopposed to Beas and even intended to cross it towards mainland India; however, the monsoon was in its peak and the much-weary troops remained stubborn despite a variety of cajoling and threats.
An unwilling Alexander had to renounce his plans and turn back.
Porus was thus ratified as the de facto ruler of the entire territory east of Jhelum — he was given no European ''satrap'' to co-rule with, unlike Ambhi and Abisares.
The crossing-back of Jhelum was a prolonged affair; filled with festivities, it attracted thousands.
Death
After Alexander's death in 323 BC,
Perdiccas
Perdiccas ( el, Περδίκκας, ''Perdikkas''; 355 BC – 321/320 BC) was a general of Alexander the Great. He took part in the Macedonian campaign against the Achaemenid Empire, and, following Alexander's death in 323 BC, rose to becom ...
became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BC,
Antipater
Antipater (; grc, , translit=Antipatros, lit=like the father; c. 400 BC319 BC) was a Macedonian general and statesman under the subsequent kingships of Philip II of Macedon and his son, Alexander the Great. In the wake of the collaps ...
became the new regent. According to
Diodorus
Diodorus Siculus, or Diodorus of Sicily ( grc-gre, Διόδωρος ; 1st century BC), was an ancient Greek historian. He is known for writing the monumental universal history ''Bibliotheca historica'', in forty books, fifteen of which su ...
, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the
Indus River
The Indus ( ) is a transboundary river of Asia and a trans-Himalayan river of South and Central Asia. The river rises in mountain springs northeast of Mount Kailash in Western Tibet, flows northwest through the disputed region of Kashmir, ...
. However,
Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's
satrap
A satrap () was a governor of the provinces of the ancient Median and Achaemenid Empires and in several of their successors, such as in the Sasanian Empire and the Hellenistic empires.
The satrap served as viceroy to the king, though with consid ...
in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.
See also
*
Indian campaign of Alexander the Great
The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 327 BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, the Macedonian king Alexander launched a campaign into the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent (precisely in present-day ...
*
Taxiles
Taxiles (in Greek language, Greek Tαξίλης or Ταξίλας; lived 4th century BC) was the Greece, Greek chroniclers' name for the ruler who reigned over the tract between the Indus River, Indus and the Jhelum River, Jhelum (Hydaspes) Riv ...
*
Abisares
Abisares (or Abhisara; in Greek Ἀβισάρης), called Embisarus (Ἐμβίσαρος,) by Diodorus, was a king of Abhira descent whose territory lay in the river Hydaspes beyond the mountains. On his death in 325 Alexander appointed Abisar ...
*
Cleophis
Cleophis (Sanskrit: ''Kripa'' ) was an Assacani ruler and key figure in the war between the Assacani people and Alexander the Great. Cleophis was the mother of Assacanus, the Assacanis' war-leader at the time of Alexander's invasion in 326 BCE. ...
*
Pauravas
The Pauravas were an ancient dynasty on the Indus (present-day India and Pakistan) to which King Porus may have belonged.
Porus and the Pauravas
The origins of the Pauravas are still disputed. The Pauravas may be related to the Puru tribe, du ...
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
*
Further reading
*
* Lendring, Jona. ''Alexander de Grote - De ondergang van het Perzische rijk'' (Alexander the Great. The demise of the Persian empire), Amsterdam: Athenaeum - Polak & Van Gennep, 2004.
* Holt, Frank L. ''Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions'', California: University of California Press, 2003, 217pgs.
*
External links
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Porus
317 BC deaths
Satraps of the Alexandrian Empire
History of Punjab
4th-century BC Indian monarchs
Year of birth unknown
Yadava kingdoms