Pompeii (, ) was an ancient city located in what is now the ''
comune
The (; plural: ) is a local administrative division of Italy, roughly equivalent to a township or municipality. It is the third-level administrative division of Italy, after regions ('' regioni'') and provinces (''province''). The can also ...
'' of
Pompei near
Naples
Naples (; it, Napoli ; nap, Napule ), from grc, Νεάπολις, Neápolis, lit=new city. is the regional capital of Campania and the third-largest city of Italy, after Rome and Milan, with a population of 909,048 within the city's adminis ...
in the
Campania
(man), it, Campana (woman)
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, demog ...
region of
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
. Pompeii, along with
Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area (e.g. at
Boscoreale
Boscoreale (; "Royal Grove") is an Italian '' comune ''and town in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, with a population of 27,457 in 2011. Located in the Vesuvius National Park, under the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, it is known for the fru ...
,
Stabiae), was buried under of
volcanic ash
Volcanic ash consists of fragments of rock, mineral crystals, and volcanic glass, created during volcanic eruptions and measuring less than 2 mm (0.079 inches) in diameter. The term volcanic ash is also often loosely used to refer ...
and
pumice
Pumice (), called pumicite in its powdered or dust form, is a volcanic rock that consists of highly vesicular rough-textured volcanic glass, which may or may not contain crystals. It is typically light-colored. Scoria is another vesicular v ...
in the
Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD
Of the many eruptions of Mount Vesuvius, a major stratovolcano in southern Italy, the best-known is its eruption in 79 AD, which was one of the deadliest in European history. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD is one of the best-known in ...
.
Largely preserved under the ash, the excavated city offered a unique snapshot of
Roman life, frozen at the moment it was buried, although much of the detailed evidence of the everyday life of its inhabitants was lost in the excavations. It was a wealthy town, with a population of ca. 11,000 in AD 79,
enjoying many fine public buildings and luxurious private houses with lavish decorations, furnishings and works of art which were the main attractions for the early excavators. Organic remains, including wooden objects and human bodies, were interred in the ash. Over time, they decayed, leaving voids that archaeologists found could be used as
moulds to make plaster casts of unique, and often gruesome, figures in their final moments of life. The numerous
graffiti
Graffiti (plural; singular ''graffiti'' or ''graffito'', the latter rarely used except in archeology) is art that is written, painted or drawn on a wall or other surface, usually without permission and within public view. Graffiti ranges from s ...
carved on the walls and inside rooms provide a wealth of examples of the largely lost
Vulgar Latin
Vulgar Latin, also known as Popular or Colloquial Latin, is the range of non-formal registers of Latin spoken from the Late Roman Republic onward. Through time, Vulgar Latin would evolve into numerous Romance languages. Its literary counterpa ...
spoken colloquially at the time, contrasting with the formal language of the classical writers.
Pompeii is a
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
World Heritage Site
A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for h ...
and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors annually.
After many excavations prior to 1960 that had uncovered most of the city but left it in decay, further major excavations were banned or limited to targeted, prioritised areas. In 2018, these led to new discoveries in some previously unexplored areas of the city.
Name
''Pompeii'' in Latin is a second
declension
In linguistics, declension (verb: ''to decline'') is the changing of the form of a word, generally to express its syntactic function in the sentence, by way of some inflection. Declensions may apply to nouns, pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, and ...
masculine plural noun (''Pompeiī, -ōrum''). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the
Oscan
Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy. The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of the Italic languages. Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian.
Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including ...
word for the number five, ''pompe'', which suggests that either the community consisted of five
hamlets
A hamlet is a human settlement that is smaller than a town or village. Its size relative to a parish can depend on the administration and region. A hamlet may be considered to be a smaller settlement or subdivision or satellite entity to a lar ...
or perhaps it was settled by a family group (''
gens Pompeia
The gens Pompeia was a plebs, plebeian family at ancient Rome, first appearing in history during the second century BC, and frequently occupying the highest offices of the Roman state from then until Roman Empire, imperial times. The first of the ...
'')."
Geography
Pompeii was built approximately above sea level on a coastal lava plateau created by earlier eruptions of
Mount Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of ...
( distant). The plateau fell steeply to the south and partly to the west into the sea. Three layers of sediment from large
landslides lie on top of the lava, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall. The city, once by the shoreline, is today circa inland. The mouth of the navigable
Sarno River
The Sarno, known as ''Sarnus'' to the Romans, is a stream that passes through Pompeii to the south of the Italian city of Naples. It is considered the most polluted river in Europe. It flows about from the base of Mt. Sarno to the Bay of Naples ...
, adjacent to the city, was protected by lagoons and served early Greek and Phoenician sailors as a haven port, later developed by the Romans.
Pompeii covered a total of – or about mile² – and was home to 11,000 to 11,500 people, based on household counts.
History
![Map of setteling phases of Pompeii](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Map_of_setteling_phases_of_Pompeii.png)
Although best known for its Roman remains visible today, dating from AD 79, it was built upon a substantial city dating from much earlier times. Expansion of the city from an early nucleus (the
old town) accelerated already from 450 BC under the Greeks after the
battle of Cumae
The Battle of Cumae is the name given to at least two battles between Cumae and the Etruscans:
* In 524 BC an invading army of Umbrians, Daunians, Etruscans, and others were defeated by the Greeks of Cumae.
* The naval battle in 474 BC was bet ...
.
Early history
The first stable settlements on the site date back to the 8th century BC when the
Oscans
The Osci (also called Oscans, Opici, Opsci, Obsci, Opicans) were an Italic people of Campania and Latium adiectum before and during Roman times. They spoke the Oscan language, also spoken by the Samnites of Southern Italy. Although the language ...
, a population of central Italy, founded five villages in the area.
![Templo dórico Pompeya 07](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Templo_d%C3%B3rico_Pompeya_07.jpg)
With the arrival of the Greeks in Campania from around 740 BC, Pompeii entered the orbit of the Hellenic people. The most important building of this period is the
Doric Temple, built away from the centre in what would later become the Triangular Forum.
At the same time the cult of Apollo was introduced. Greek and
Phoenicia
Phoenicia () was an ancient thalassocratic civilization originating in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily located in modern Lebanon. The territory of the Phoenician city-states extended and shrank throughout their histor ...
n sailors used the location as a safe port.
In the early 6th century BC, the settlement merged into a single community centred on the important crossroad between
Cumae
Cumae ( grc, Κύμη, (Kumē) or or ; it, Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC and soon becoming one of the strongest colonies. It later became a rich Ro ...
,
Nola
Nola is a town and a municipality in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, southern Italy. It lies on the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. It is traditionally credited as the diocese that introduced bells to Christian wor ...
, and
Stabiae and was surrounded by a
tufa
Tufa is a variety of limestone formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of water in unheated rivers or lakes. Geothermally heated hot springs sometimes produce similar (but less porous) carbonate deposits, which are known as travertin ...
city wall (the ''pappamonte'' wall). The first wall (which was also used as a base for the later wall) unusually enclosed a much greater area than the early town together with much agricultural land. That such an impressive wall was built at this time indicates that the settlement was already important and wealthy. The city began to flourish and maritime trade started with the construction of a small port near the mouth of the river.
The earliest settlement was focused in regions VII and VIII of the town (the old town) as identified from
stratigraphy below the Samnite and Roman buildings, as well as from the different and irregular street plan.
![Pompeii Tempel van Apollo](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Pompeii_Tempel_van_Apollo.jpg)
By 524 BC the Etruscans had settled in the area, including Pompeii, finding in the river Sarno a communication route between the sea and the interior. Like the Greeks, the Etruscans did not conquer the city militarily, but simply controlled it, and Pompeii enjoyed a sort of autonomy.
Nevertheless, Pompeii became a member of the
Etruscan League of cities. Excavations in 1980–1981 have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th-century BC
necropolis. Under the Etruscans, a primitive
forum
Forum or The Forum (plural forums or fora) may refer to:
Common uses
* Forum (legal), designated space for public expression in the United States
*Forum (Roman), open public space within a Roman city
**Roman Forum, most famous example
*Internet ...
or simple market square was built, as well as the
Temple of Apollo, in both of which objects including fragments of ''
bucchero
Bucchero () is a class of ceramics produced in central Italy by the region's pre-Roman Etruscan population. This Italian word is derived from the Latin ''poculum'', a drinking-vessel, perhaps through the Spanish ''búcaro'', or the Portuguese '' ...
'' were found by
Maiuri. Several houses were built with the so-called Tuscan
atrium
Atrium may refer to:
Anatomy
* Atrium (heart), an anatomical structure of the heart
* Atrium, the genital structure next to the genital aperture in the reproductive system of gastropods
* Atrium of the ventricular system of the brain
* Pulmona ...
, typical of this people.
![Ancient Roman Pompeii - Pompeji - Campania - Italy - July 10th 2013 - 46](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Ancient_Roman_Pompeii_-_Pompeji_-_Campania_-_Italy_-_July_10th_2013_-_46.jpg)
The city wall was strengthened in the early 5th century BC with two façades of relatively thin, vertically set slabs of Sarno limestone some apart filled with earth (the ''orthostate'' wall).
In 474 BC, the Greek city of
Cumae
Cumae ( grc, Κύμη, (Kumē) or or ; it, Cuma) was the first ancient Greek colony on the mainland of Italy, founded by settlers from Euboea in the 8th century BC and soon becoming one of the strongest colonies. It later became a rich Ro ...
, allied with
Syracuse, defeated the Etruscans at the
Battle of Cumae
The Battle of Cumae is the name given to at least two battles between Cumae and the Etruscans:
* In 524 BC an invading army of Umbrians, Daunians, Etruscans, and others were defeated by the Greeks of Cumae.
* The naval battle in 474 BC was bet ...
and gained control of the area.
The Samnite period
The period between about 450–375 BC witnessed large areas of the city being abandoned while important sanctuaries such as the Temple of Apollo show a sudden lack of votive material remains.
The
Samnites, people from the areas of
Abruzzo and
Molise
it, Molisano (man) it, Molisana (woman)
, population_note =
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, demographics1_info1 ...
, and allies of the Romans, conquered Greek Cumae between 423 and 420 BC. It is likely that all the surrounding territory, including Pompeii, was already conquered around 424 BC. The new rulers gradually imposed their architecture and enlarged the town.
From 343 to 341 BC in the
Samnite Wars
The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains south of Rome and north of the Lucanian tribe. ...
, the first Roman army entered the Campanian plain bringing with it the customs and traditions of Rome, and in the Roman
Latin War
The (Second) Latin War (340–338 BC)The Romans customarily dated events by noting the consuls who held office that year. The Latin War broke out in the year that Titus Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus and Publius Decius Mus were consuls and ended ...
from 340 BC, the Samnites were faithful to Rome. Although governed by the Samnites, Pompeii entered the Roman orbit, to which it remained faithful even during the third Samnite war and in the war against
Pyrrhus. In the late 4th century BC, the city began expanding from its nucleus into the open-walled area. The street plan of the new areas was more regular and more conformal to
Hippodamus
Hippodamus of Miletus (; Greek: Ἱππόδαμος ὁ Μιλήσιος, ''Hippodamos ho Milesios''; 498 – 408 BC) was an ancient Greek architect, urban planner, physician, mathematician, meteorologist and philosopher, who is considered to b ...
's street plan. The city walls were reinforced in
Sarno
Sarno is a town and ''comune'' and former Latin Catholic bishopric of Campania, Italy, in the province of Salerno, 20 km northeast from the Salerno, city of Salerno and 60 km east of Naples by the main railway.
Overview
It lies at ...
stone in the early 3rd century BC (the limestone ''enceinte'', or the "first Samnite wall"). It formed the basis for the currently visible walls with an outer wall of rectangular limestone blocks as a terrace wall supporting a large ''
agger'', or earth embankment, behind it.
After the
Samnite Wars
The First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars (343–341 BC, 326–304 BC, and 298–290 BC) were fought between the Roman Republic and the Samnites, who lived on a stretch of the Apennine Mountains south of Rome and north of the Lucanian tribe. ...
from 290 BC, Pompeii was forced to accept the status of ''
socii
The ''socii'' ( in English) or '' foederati'' ( in English) were confederates of Rome and formed one of the three legal denominations in Roman Italy (''Italia'') along with the Roman citizens (''Cives'') and the '' Latini''. The ''Latini'', who ...
'' of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy.
![Ancient Roman Pompeii - Pompeji - Campania - Italy - July 10th 2013 - 26](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Ancient_Roman_Pompeii_-_Pompeji_-_Campania_-_Italy_-_July_10th_2013_-_26.jpg)
From the outbreak of the
Second Punic War (218–201 BC) in which
Hannibal's invasion threatened many cities, Pompeii remained faithful to Rome unlike many of the southern cities. As a result, an additional internal wall was built of
tufa
Tufa is a variety of limestone formed when carbonate minerals precipitate out of water in unheated rivers or lakes. Geothermally heated hot springs sometimes produce similar (but less porous) carbonate deposits, which are known as travertin ...
and the internal ''agger'' and outer façade raised, resulting in a double parapet with a wider wall-walk.
Despite the political uncertainty of these events and the progressive migration of wealthy men to quieter cities in the eastern Mediterranean, Pompeii continued to flourish due to the production and trade of wine and oil with places like
Provence
Provence (, , , , ; oc, Provença or ''Prouvènço'' , ) is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which extends from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the Italian border to the east; it is bor ...
and Spain, as well as to intensive agriculture on farms around the city.
In the 2nd century BC, Pompeii enriched itself by taking part in Rome's conquest of the east, as shown by a statue of Apollo in the Forum erected by
Lucius Mummius
Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC), was a Roman statesman and general. He was consul in the year 146 BC along with Scipio Aemilianus. Mummius was the first of his family to rise to the rank of consul thereby making him a novus homo. He received the ...
in gratitude for their support in the sack of
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese (region), Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government refor ...
and the eastern campaigns. These riches enabled Pompeii to bloom and expand to its ultimate limits. The Forum and many public and private buildings of high architectural quality were built, including
The Large Theatre, the
Temple of Jupiter, the Basilica, the Comitium, the Stabian Baths, and a new two-story portico.
The Roman period
![Porta Herculaneum Pompeii](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Porta_Herculaneum_Pompeii.jpg)
Pompeii was one of the towns of Campania that rebelled against Rome in the
Social Wars and in 89 BC it was besieged by
Sulla, who targeted the strategically vulnerable Porta Ercolano with his artillery as can still be seen by the impact craters of thousands of
ballista
The ballista (Latin, from Greek βαλλίστρα ''ballistra'' and that from βάλλω ''ballō'', "throw"), plural ballistae, sometimes called bolt thrower, was an ancient missile weapon that launched either bolts or stones at a distant ...
shots in the walls. Many nearby buildings inside the walls were also destroyed. Although the battle-hardened troops of the Social League, headed by
Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola. The result was that Pompeii became a
Roman colony
A Roman (plural ) was originally a Roman outpost established in conquered territory to secure it. Eventually, however, the term came to denote the highest status of a Roman city. It is also the origin of the modern term ''colony''.
Character ...
named Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. Many of Sulla's veterans were given land and property in and around the city, while many who opposed Rome were dispossessed of their property. Despite this, the Pompeians were granted
Roman citizenship
Citizenship in ancient Rome (Latin: ''civitas'') was a privileged political and legal status afforded to free individuals with respect to laws, property, and governance. Citizenship in Ancient Rome was complex and based upon many different laws, t ...
and quickly assimilated into the Roman world. The main language in the city became Latin,
and many of Pompeii's old aristocratic families Latinized their names as a sign of assimilation.
The area around Pompeii became very prosperous due to the desirability of living on the Bay of Naples for wealthy Romans and due to the rich agricultural land. Many farms and villas were built nearby, outside the city and many have been excavated. These include the
Villa of the Mysteries
The Villa of the Mysteries ( it, Villa dei Misteri) is a well-preserved suburban ancient Roman villa on the outskirts of Pompeii, southern Italy. It is famous for the series of exquisite frescos in Room 5, which are usually interpreted as showin ...
,
Villa of Diomedes
The Villa of Diomedes is an ancient Roman villa near Pompeii, Italy.
It is located outside the walls of Pompeii on the Via dei Sepolcri to the Gate of Herculaneum.
It was excavated from 1771 to 1774 by Francesco La Vega.
It was named after Ma ...
, several at
Boscoreale
Boscoreale (; "Royal Grove") is an Italian '' comune ''and town in the Metropolitan City of Naples, Campania, with a population of 27,457 in 2011. Located in the Vesuvius National Park, under the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, it is known for the fru ...
,
Boscotrecase,
Oplontis
Oplontis is an ancient Roman archaeological site located in the town of Torre Annunziata, south of Naples in the Campania region of southern Italy. The excavated site comprises two Roman villas, the best-known of which is Villa A, the so-called ...
,
Terzigno
Terzigno is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Naples in the Italian region Campania, located about 20 km east of Naples. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 16,977 and an area of 23.5 km2.All demographics ...
, and Civita Guiliana.
The city became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or
Southern Italy along the nearby
Appian Way
The Appian Way (Latin and Italian: ''Via Appia'') is one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy. Its importance is indicated by its common name, ...
. Many public buildings were constructed or refurbished and improved under the new order; new buildings included the
Amphitheatre of Pompeii
The Amphitheatre of Pompeii is one of the oldest surviving Roman amphitheatres. It is located in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii, and was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD, that also buried the city of Pompeii and the neighbouring to ...
in 70 BC, the Forum Baths, and the
Odeon. In comparison, the Forum was embellished with the colonnade of Popidius before 80 BC. These buildings raised the status of Pompeii as a cultural centre in the region as it outshone its neighbours in the number of places for entertainment which significantly enhanced the social and economic development of the city.
Under
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
, from about 30 BC, a major expansion in new public buildings, as in the rest of the empire, included the
Eumachia Building, the Sanctuary of Augustus and the
Macellum
A macellum (plural: ''macella''; ''makellon'') is an ancient Roman indoor market building that sold mostly provisions (especially meat and fish). The building normally sat alongside the forum and basilica, providing a place in which a market cou ...
. From about 20 BC, Pompeii was fed with running water by a spur from the
Serino Aqueduct, built by
Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa.
![Pittura di pompei con zuffa tra pompeiani e nocerini](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Pittura_di_pompei_con_zuffa_tra_pompeiani_e_nocerini.jpg)
In AD 59, there was a serious riot and bloodshed in the amphitheatre between Pompeians and
Nuceria
Nocera Inferiore ( nap, Nucèrä Inferiórë or simply , , locally ) is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Salerno, in Campania in southern Italy. It lies west of Nocera Superiore, at the foot of Monte Albino, some 20 km east-so ...
ns (which is recorded in a fresco) and which led the Roman Senate to send the
Praetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard (Latin: ''cohortēs praetōriae'') was a unit of the Imperial Roman army that served as personal bodyguards and intelligence agents for the Roman emperors. During the Roman Republic, the Praetorian Guard were an escort fo ...
to restore order and to ban further events for ten years.
AD 62–79
The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor earthquakes (indeed, the writer
Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania"), but on 5 February 62 a
severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between 5 and 6 on the
Richter magnitude scale
The Richter scale —also called the Richter magnitude scale, Richter's magnitude scale, and the Gutenberg–Richter scale—is a measure of the strength of earthquakes, developed by Charles Francis Richter and presented in his landmark 1935 ...
.
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of
Augustus
Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pr ...
being named ''
Pater Patriae
''Pater Patriae'' (plural ''Patres Patriae''), also seen as ''Parens Patriae'', is a Latin honorific meaning "Father of the Country", or more literally, "Father of the Fatherland". It is also used of U.S. President George Washington, the Swed ...
'' ("Father of the Country") and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake; fires caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake added to the panic. The nearby cities of
Herculaneum and
Nuceria
Nocera Inferiore ( nap, Nucèrä Inferiórë or simply , , locally ) is a town and ''comune'' in the province of Salerno, in Campania in southern Italy. It lies west of Nocera Superiore, at the foot of Monte Albino, some 20 km east-so ...
were also affected.
Between 62 AD and the eruption in 79 AD, most rebuilding was done in the private sector and older, damaged frescoes were often covered with newer ones, for example. In the public sector, the opportunity was taken to improve buildings and the city plan, e.g. in the Forum.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were restored between the earthquake of 62 and the eruption. It was thought until recently that some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption, but this is doubtful as the evidence of missing forum statues and marble wall veneers are most likely due to robbers after the city's burial. The public buildings on the east side of the Forum were largely restored and were even enhanced by beautiful marble veneers and other modifications to the architecture.
Some buildings like the Central Baths were only started after the earthquake and were built to enhance the city with modern developments in their architecture, as had been done in Rome, in terms of wall-heating and window glass, and with well-lit spacious rooms. The new baths took over a whole ''
insula'' by demolishing houses, which may have been made easier by the earthquake that had damaged these houses. This shows that the city was still flourishing rather than struggling to recover from the earthquake.
In about 64,
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unti ...
and his wife
Poppaea
Poppaea Sabina (AD 30 – 65), also known as Ollia, was a Roman empress as the second wife of the Emperor Nero. She had also been wife to the future emperor Otho. The historians of antiquity describe her as a beautiful woman who used intrigues ...
visited Pompeii and made gifts to the temple of Venus (the city's patron deity), probably when he performed in the theatre of Naples.
By 79, Pompeii had a population of 20,000, which had prospered from the region's renowned agricultural fertility and favourable location.
Eruption of Vesuvius
![Mt Vesuvius 79 AD eruption 3](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Mt_Vesuvius_79_AD_eruption.svg)
The eruption lasted for two days. The first phase was of pumice rain ''(
lapilli)'' lasting about 18 hours, allowing most inhabitants to escape. Only approximately 1,150 bodies have so far been found on site, which seems to confirm this theory, and most escapees probably managed to salvage some of their most valuable belongings; many skeletons were found with jewellery, coins, and silverware.
At some time in the night or early the next day,
pyroclastic flow
A pyroclastic flow (also known as a pyroclastic density current or a pyroclastic cloud) is a fast-moving current of hot gas and volcanic matter (collectively known as tephra) that flows along the ground away from a volcano at average speeds of b ...
s began near the volcano, consisting of high speed, dense, and scorching ash clouds, knocking down wholly or partly all structures in their path, incinerating or suffocating the remaining population and altering the landscape, including the coastline. By the evening of the second day, the eruption was over, leaving only haze in the atmosphere through which the sun shone weakly.
A multidisciplinary
volcanological and
bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash
suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least hot pyroclastic flows at a distance of from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings. The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to twelve different layers of
tephra
Tephra is fragmental material produced by a volcanic eruption regardless of composition, fragment size, or emplacement mechanism.
Volcanologists also refer to airborne fragments as pyroclasts. Once clasts have fallen to the ground, they re ...
, in total, up to deep.
Pliny the Younger provided a first-hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the
Bay of Naples at
Misenum
Miseno is one of the ''frazioni'' of the municipality of Bacoli in the Italian Province of Naples. Known in ancient Roman times as Misenum, it is the site of a great Roman port.
Geography
Nearby Cape Miseno marks the northwestern end of the Ba ...
, but it was written 25 years after the event. His uncle,
Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (AD 23/2479), called Pliny the Elder (), was a Roman author, naturalist and natural philosopher, and naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and a friend of the emperor Vespasian. He wrote the encyclopedic ' ...
, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger's account of the eruption by calling similar events "
Plinian". It had long been thought that the eruption was an August event based on one version of the letter, but another version
[.] gives a date of the eruption as late as 23 November. A later date is consistent with a charcoal inscription at the site, discovered in 2018, which includes the date of 17 October and which must have been recently written. A collaborative study in 2022 determined a date of 24–25 October.
An October/November eruption is clearly supported by many pieces of evidence: the fact that people buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August; the fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of Octoberand conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form; nuts from chestnut trees were found at
Oplontis
Oplontis is an ancient Roman archaeological site located in the town of Torre Annunziata, south of Naples in the Campania region of southern Italy. The excavated site comprises two Roman villas, the best-known of which is Villa A, the so-called ...
, which would not have been mature before mid-September; wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October; coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th
imperatorial acclamation among the
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereignty, sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), ...
's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September.
Rediscovery and excavations
Titus
Titus Caesar Vespasianus ( ; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81 AD) was Roman emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death.
Before becoming emperor, Titus gained renown as a mili ...
appointed two ex-consuls to organise a relief effort while donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. He visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year but no work was done on recovery.
Soon after the city's burial, survivors and possibly thieves came to salvage valuables, including the marble statues from the Forum and other precious materials from buildings. There is wide evidence of post-eruption disturbance, including holes made through walls. The city was not completely buried, and the tops of larger buildings would have been visible above the ash, making it obvious where to dig or salvage
building material
Building material is material used for construction. Many naturally occurring substances, such as clay, rocks, sand, wood, and even twigs and leaves, have been used to construct buildings. Apart from naturally occurring materials, many man-ma ...
. The robbers left traces of their passage, as in a house where modern archaeologists found a wall graffito saying "house dug".
Over the following centuries, its name and location were forgotten, though it still appeared on the ''
Tabula Peutingeriana
' (Latin for "The Peutinger Map"), also referred to as Peutinger's Tabula or Peutinger Table, is an illustrated ' (ancient Roman road map) showing the layout of the '' cursus publicus'', the road network of the Roman Empire.
The map is a 13th-ce ...
'' of the 4th century. Further eruptions, particularly in 471–473 and 512, covered the remains more deeply. The area became known as the ''La Civita'' (the city) due to the features in the ground.
![Pompeii Garden of the Fugitives 02](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg)
The next known date that any part was unearthed was in 1592, when architect
Domenico Fontana
Domenico Fontana (154328 June 1607) was an Italian architect of the late Renaissance, born in today's Ticino. He worked primarily in Italy, at Rome and Naples.
Biography
He was born at Melide, a village on the Lake Lugano, at that time joint p ...
, while digging an underground aqueduct to the mills of
Torre Annunziata
Torre Annunziata (; nap, Torr'Annunziata) is a city and commune in the Metropolitan City of Naples, region of Campania in Italy. It is located on the Gulf of Naples at the foot of Mount Vesuvius.
History
The city was destroyed in the Vesuvius ...
, ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. His aqueduct passed through and underneath a large part of the city and would have had to pass through many buildings and foundations, as they still can be seen in many places today. However, he kept the finding secret.
In 1689, Francesco Picchetti saw a wall inscription mentioning ''decurio Pompeiis'' ("town councillor of Pompeii"), but he associated it with a villa of
Pompey
Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey or Pompey the Great, was a leading Roman general and statesman. He played a significant role in the transformation of ...
. Francesco Bianchini pointed out the true meaning, and he was supported by Giuseppe Macrini, who in 1693 excavated some walls and wrote that Pompeii lay beneath La Civita.
Herculaneum itself was rediscovered in 1738 by workers digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples,
Charles of Bourbon. Due to the spectacular quality of the finds, the Spanish military engineer
Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre
Roque Joaquín de Alcubierre (16 August 1702 – 14 March 1780) was a military engineer in the Spanish Army who discovered architectural remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Early life
Alcubierre was born and studied in Zaragoza, Spain. When he rea ...
made excavations to find further remains at the site of Pompeii in 1748, even if the city was not identified.
[.] Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the finds, even after leaving to become king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced Naples' political and cultural prestige. On 20 August 1763, an inscription ''
..Rei Publicae Pompeianorum
..' was found and the city was identified as Pompeii.
Karl Weber directed the first scientific excavations. He was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega, who was succeeded by his brother,
Pietro, in 1804.
There was much progress in exploration when the French occupied Naples in 1799 and ruled over Italy from 1806 to 1815. The land on which Pompeii lies was confiscated, and up to 700 workers were employed in the excavations. The excavated areas in the north and south were connected. Parts of the Via dell'Abbondanza were also exposed in the west-east direction, and for the first time, an impression of the size and appearance of the ancient town could be appreciated. In the following years, the excavators struggled with a lack of money. Excavations progressed slowly, but with significant finds such as the houses of the
Faun
The faun (, grc, φαῦνος, ''phaunos'', ) is a half-human and half-goat mythological creature appearing in Greek and Roman mythology.
Originally fauns of Roman mythology were spirits (genii) of rustic places, lesser versions of their c ...
, of
Menandro, of the
Tragic Poet and the
Surgeon.
Giuseppe Fiorelli
Giuseppe Fiorelli (7 June 1823 – 28 January 1896) was an Italian archaeologist. His excavations at Pompeii helped preserve the city.
Biography
Fiorelli was born on 7 June 1823 in Naples. His initial work at Pompeii was completed in 1848. He ...
took charge of the excavations in 1863 and made greater progress. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. Fiorelli realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies, and so devised the technique of injecting
plaster
Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "re ...
into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear
resin
In polymer chemistry and materials science, resin is a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is typically convertible into polymers. Resins are usually mixtures of organic compounds. This article focuses on n ...
now used instead of plaster because it is more durable and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
Fiorelli also introduced scientific documentation. He divided the city into today's nine areas (''regiones'') and blocks (''
insulae
The Latin word ''insula'' (literally meaning "island", plural ''insulae'') was used in Roman cities to mean either a city block in a city plan, i.e. a building area surrounded by four streets, or, later, a type of apartment building that occup ...
'') and numbered the entrances of the individual houses (''domus''). Fiorelli also published the first periodical with excavation reports. Under his successors, the entire west section of the city was exposed.
Modern archaeology
![Pompeii map-en](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Pompeii_map-en.svg)
After those of Fiorelli, excavations continued in an increasingly more systematic and considered manner under several directors of archaeology though still with the main interest in making spectacular discoveries and uncovering more houses rather than answering the main questions about the city and its long term preservation.
In the 1920s,
Amedeo Maiuri
Amedeo Maiuri (January 7, 1886 – April 7, 1963) was an Italian archaeologist, famous for his archaeological investigations of the Roman city of Pompeii which was destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in August of AD 79. He was the first ...
excavated older layers beneath those of 79 AD for the first time to learn about the settlement history. Maiuri made the last excavations on a grand scale in the 1950s, and the area south of the Via dell'Abbondanza and the city wall was almost completely uncovered, but they were poorly documented scientifically. Preservation was haphazard, and his reconstructions were difficult to distinguish from the original ruins, which is a great handicap for studying genuine antique remains. Questionable reconstruction was also done after the severe earthquake of 1980, which caused great destruction. Since then, work has been confined to the excavated areas except for targeted soundings and excavations. Further excavations on a large scale are not planned, and today archaeologists are more engaged in reconstructing, documenting and slowing the decay of the ruins.
In December 2018, archaeologists discovered the remains of harnessed horses in the
Villa of the Mysteries
The Villa of the Mysteries ( it, Villa dei Misteri) is a well-preserved suburban ancient Roman villa on the outskirts of Pompeii, southern Italy. It is famous for the series of exquisite frescos in Room 5, which are usually interpreted as showin ...
.
![Pompei - panoramio (26)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Pompei_-_panoramio_%2826%29.jpg)
Under the 'Great Pompeii Project' over of ancient walls within the city were relieved of danger of collapse by treating the unexcavated areas behind the street fronts in order to increase drainage and reduce the pressure of groundwater and earth on the walls, a problem especially in the rainy season. These excavations resumed on unexcavated areas of ''Regio V''. In November 2020 the remains of two men, thought to be a rich man and his slave, were found in a layer of ash. They appeared to have escaped the first eruption but were killed by a second blast the next day. A study of the bones showed that the younger one appeared to have done manual labour and hence was likely a slave.
In December 2020, a
thermopolium
In the ancient Greco-Roman world, a thermopolium (plural ''thermopolia''), from Greek (''thermopōlion''), i.e. cook-shop, literally "a place where (something) hot is sold", was a commercial establishment where it was possible to purchase ready ...
, an inn or snack-bar, was excavated in Regio V. In addition to brightly coloured
frescoes depicting some of the food on offer, archaeologists found eight
dolia (terracotta pots) still containing remnants of meals, including duck, goat, pig, fish, and snails.
They also found a decorated bronze drinking bowl known as a ''
patera
In the material culture of classical antiquity, a ''phiale'' ( ) or ''patera'' () is a shallow ceramic or metal libation bowl. It often has a bulbous indentation (''omphalos'', "bellybutton") in the center underside to facilitate holding it, in ...
'', wine flasks,
amphora, and ceramic jars used for cooking stews and soups. One fresco depicts a dog with a collar on a leash, possibly reminding customers to leash their pets. The complete skeleton of a tiny adult dog was also discovered, measuring only about at the shoulder, which provides evidence of the highly selective breeding of dogs in Roman times.
In January 2021 a well-preserved "large, four-wheel ceremonial chariot" was uncovered by archaeologists headed by Massimo Osanna at a villa in Civita Giuliana, north of Pompeii, where a stable had previously been discovered in 2018.
The carriage is made of bronze and black and red wooden panels, with engraved metal medallions at the back.
In 2021 an exceptional 1st century AD painted tomb of a freed-slave,
Marcus Venerius Secundio, containing mummified human remains, was discovered outside the Porta Sarno gate. Its inscription records he achieved custodianship of the Temple of Venus and membership of the Augustales, priests of the Imperial Cult. Also, he organised Greek and Latin performances lasting four days, the first evidence of Greek cultural events in Pompeii.
Conservation
![Pompeii - Via dell'Abbondanza](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Pompeii_-_Via_dell%27Abbondanza.jpg)
Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well-preserved for almost 2,000 years as the lack of air and moisture allowed little to no deterioration. However, Pompeii has been exposed to natural and anthropic deterioration following excavation.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. The lack of adequate weather protection for all but the most interesting and important buildings has allowed original interior decoration to fade or be lost. Two-thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
Furthermore, during
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
many buildings were badly damaged or destroyed by bombs dropped in several raids by the
Allied forces.
The conservation concern has constantly worried archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the
1996 World Monuments Watch by the
World Monuments Fund
World Monuments Fund (WMF) is a private, international, non-profit organization dedicated to the preservation of historic architecture and cultural heritage sites around the world through fieldwork, advocacy, grantmaking, education, and trainin ...
, and again in
1998
1998 was designated as the ''International Year of the Ocean''.
Events January
* January 6 – The ''Lunar Prospector'' spacecraft is launched into orbit around the Moon, and later finds evidence for frozen water, in soil in permanently s ...
and in
2000
File:2000 Events Collage.png, From left, clockwise: Protests against Bush v. Gore after the 2000 United States presidential election; Heads of state meet for the Millennium Summit; The International Space Station in its infant form as seen from S ...
. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need
drepair" and called for the drafting of a general plan of
restoration
Restoration is the act of restoring something to its original state and may refer to:
* Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
** Audio restoration
** Film restoration
** Image restoration
** Textile restoration
* Restoration ecology
...
and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from
American Express and the
Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
The ''Schola Armatorum'' ('House of the Gladiators') collapsed in 2010 caused by heavy rainfall and lack of proper drainage.
The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. A 2012 study recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost-effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
In June 2013,
UNESCO
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture. It ...
warned that if restoration and preservation works "fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years," Pompeii could be placed on the
List of World Heritage in Danger
The List of World Heritage in Danger is compiled by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) through the World Heritage Committee according to Article 11.4 of the World Heritage Convention,Full title: ''Conv ...
. A "Grande Progetto Pompei" project of about five years had begun in 2012 with the
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been de ...
and included stabilization and conservation of buildings in the highest risk areas. In 2014,
UNESCO headquarters received a new management plan to help integrate the property's management, conservation, and maintenance programs.
In 2020 many ''
domus'' gardens, orchards and vineyards were carefully recreated using depictions in frescoes and archaeological finds to give better insights into what they were like before the catastrophe. These include the
House of Julia Felix
The House of Julia Felix, also referred to as the ''praedia'' (Latin for an estate, or land) of Julia Felix, is a large Roman property on the Via dell'Abbondanza in the city of Pompeii. It was originally the residence of Julia Felix, who conve ...
, the House of the Golden Cupids, the
House of Loreius Tiburtinus, the House of Cornelius Rufus and
the Garden of the Fugitives
The Garden of the Fugitives ( it, Orto dei Fuggiaschi) is an archaeological site located in the ancient destroyed city of Pompeii, in Regio 1 Insula 21. It contains the casts of 13 victims of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD.
The '' ins ...
.
In 2021 several long-closed ''domus'' were re-opened after restoration including the House of the Ship Europa, House of the Orchard and House of the Lovers. Also the newly excavated House of Leda and the Swan has opened.
Roman city development
![Columns forum Pompeii](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Columns_forum_Pompeii.jpg)
Owing to its wealth and its Greek, Etruscan and Roman history, Pompeii is of great interest for the study of
Ancient Roman architecture
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external language of classical Ancient Greek Architecture, Greek architecture for the purposes of the ancient Romans, but was different from Greek buildings, becoming a new architecture, architectural style ...
in terms of building methods and urban planning. However, it was a relatively small provincial city and, except for the
Amphitheatre
An amphitheatre (British English) or amphitheater (American English; both ) is an open-air venue used for entertainment, performances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient Greek ('), from ('), meaning "on both sides" or "around" and ...
, it did not have large monuments on the scale of other Roman cities. It also missed the large building schemes of the early Empire and kept much of its urban architecture dating from as early as the 4th century BC.
The evolution of Pompeii's private and public buildings is often unclear because of the lack of excavations beneath the levels of 79. It is, however, clear that by the time of the conquest by Sulla in 89 BC, the development of the street layout was largely complete, and most of the ''
insulae
The Latin word ''insula'' (literally meaning "island", plural ''insulae'') was used in Roman cities to mean either a city block in a city plan, i.e. a building area surrounded by four streets, or, later, a type of apartment building that occup ...
'' were built up.
Public buildings
![Pompeya](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Pompeya.Anfiteatro_y_palestra_retouched.jpg)
Under the Romans, Pompeii underwent a process of urban development which accelerated in the Augustan period from about 30 BC. New public buildings included the Amphitheatre with
palaestra
A palaestra ( or ;
also (chiefly British) palestra; grc-gre, παλαίστρα) was any site of an ancient Greek wrestling school. Events requiring little space, such as boxing and wrestling, took place there. Palaestrae functioned both indep ...
or gymnasium with a central
natatorium
A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, paddling pool, or simply pool, is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground (in-ground pools) or built above ground (as ...
(''cella natatoria'') or swimming pool, two theatres, the
Eumachia Building and at least four public baths. The amphitheatre has been cited by scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
Other service buildings were the
Macellum
A macellum (plural: ''macella''; ''makellon'') is an ancient Roman indoor market building that sold mostly provisions (especially meat and fish). The building normally sat alongside the forum and basilica, providing a place in which a market cou ...
("meat market"); the
Pistrinum (baker); the
thermopolia (inns or snack-bars that served hot and cold dishes and drinks), and
cauponae ("pubs" or "dives" with a seedy reputation as hangouts for thieves and prostitutes). At least one building, the
Lupanar
The Lupanar of Pompeii is the ruins of a brothel in the Ancient Roman city of Pompeii. It is of particular interest for the erotic paintings on its walls. ''Lupanar'' is Latin for "brothel". The Pompeii lupanar is also known as ''Lupanare Grande ...
, was dedicated to
prostitution. A large hotel or ''
hospitium
Hospitium (; gr, ξενία, '' xenia'', προξενία) is the ancient Greco-Roman concept of hospitality as a divine right of the guest and a divine duty of the host. Similar or broadly equivalent customs were and are also known in other cult ...
'' (of 1,000 m
2) was found at Murecine, a short distance from Pompeii, when the
Naples-Salerno motorway was being built, and the Murecine Silver Treasure and the Tablets (providing a unique record of business transactions) were discovered there.
An
aqueduct provided water to the public baths, to more than 25 street fountains, and to many private houses and businesses. The aqueduct was a branch of the great
Serino Aqueduct built to serve the other large towns in the Bay of Naples region and the important naval base at
Misenum
Miseno is one of the ''frazioni'' of the municipality of Bacoli in the Italian Province of Naples. Known in ancient Roman times as Misenum, it is the site of a great Roman port.
Geography
Nearby Cape Miseno marks the northwestern end of the Ba ...
. The ''
castellum aquae
A ''castellum'' in Latin is usually:
* a small Roman fortlet or tower,C. Julius Caesar, Gallic War; 2,30 a diminutive of (' military camp'), often used as a watchtower or signal station like on Hadrian's Wall. It should be distinguished from a ...
'' is well preserved and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.
Shops and workshops
![Another view of a bakery in Region VIII Pompeii Walk (51813493084)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Another_view_of_a_bakery_in_Region_VIII_Pompeii_Walk_%2851813493084%29.jpg)
There were at least 31 bakeries in the town, each with wood-burning ovens, millstones and a sales counter. The Modestus bakery, or House of the Oven, was the largest in the city and Sotericus's bakery, also among the largest, preserves the room for kneading bread.
Thermopolia were inns or snack-bars in which hot food and drinks were sold and in Pompeii there were nearly 100. The thermopolium of Vetutius Placidus overlooked the street directly, had a counter and several
dolia, as well as a room behind the shop where customers could eat their meals: the
lararium
Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these.
Lares ...
with frescoes of the
Lares
Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ''Lar'') were guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an amalgam of these.
Lare ...
and
Mercury and
Dionysus
In ancient Greek religion and myth, Dionysus (; grc, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, festivity, and theatre. The Roma ...
and a
triclinium
A ''triclinium'' (plural: ''triclinia'') is a formal dining room in a Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek ()—from (), "three", and (), a sort of couch or rather chaise longue. Each couch was sized to accommodate a diner who ...
decorated in the
Third style may be of interest. In the thermopolium of Asellina, with three sales counters and a lararium with depictions of Mercury and
Bacchus
In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, myth, Dionysus (; grc, wikt:Διόνυσος, Διόνυσος ) is the god of the grape-harvest, winemaking, orchards and fruit, vegetation, fertility, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstas ...
, numerous furnishings have been found, both in bronze and terracotta, as well as 683
sesterces; the external façade bears a representation of jugs and funnels and an electoral inscription referring to Asellina, probably the owner of the inn.
Wool processing was well developed with 13 workshops that worked the raw material, seven that did the spinning, nine the dyeing, and 18 the washing: the Building of Eumachia, from the name of the priestess who built it, was the wool market, or the seat of the fullers guild; construction took place after 62 and was entirely in brickwork. Inside it has numerous niches in which statues were housed, mostly concerning the imperial family, a colonnade, and near the entrance, there was a jar in which urine was collected for use as a detergent for clothes. The
fullo
A ''fullo'' was a Roman fuller or laundry worker (plural: ''fullones''), known from many inscriptions from Italy and the western half of the Roman Empire and references in Latin literature, e.g. by Plautus, Martialis and Pliny the Elder. A '' ...
nica of Stephanus, named after the owner or manager, was originally a house that was transformed into a workshop for the processing of fabrics: on the lower floor the working and washing activities took place, carried out in large tanks with water, soda and urine while on the upper floor the clothes were dried.
The
garum
Garum is a fermented fish sauce that was used as a condiment in the cuisines of Phoenicia, ancient Greece, Rome, Carthage and later Byzantium. Liquamen is a similar preparation, and at times they were synonymous. Although garum enjoyed its gre ...
workshop made the sauce obtained from the fermentation of the entrails of fish; in the building some containers were found, closed by lids, with the sauce inside while in the nearby garden there was a large deposit of ''
amphorae
An amphora (; grc, ἀμφορεύς, ''amphoreús''; English plural: amphorae or amphoras) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storag ...
''.
Lists of buildings
Agriculture and horticulture
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples of Pompeii's economy. Pompeii was fortunate to have had fertile soil for crop cultivation. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius preceding its eruption have been revealed to have had good water-retention capabilities, implying productive agriculture. The
Tyrrhenian Sea
The Tyrrhenian Sea (; it, Mar Tirreno , french: Mer Tyrrhénienne , sc, Mare Tirrenu, co, Mari Tirrenu, scn, Mari Tirrenu, nap, Mare Tirreno) is part of the Mediterranean Sea off the western coast of Italy. It is named for the Tyrrhenian pe ...
's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.
Barley
Barley (''Hordeum vulgare''), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains, particularly in Eurasia as early as 10,000 years ago. Globally 70% of barley p ...
,
wheat
Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain that is a worldwide staple food. The many species of wheat together make up the genus ''Triticum'' ; the most widely grown is common wheat (''T. aestivum''). The archaeologi ...
, and
millet were all produced along with wine and olive oil, in abundance for export to other regions.
![Vigneto Foro Boario](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Vigneto_Foro_Boario.jpg)
Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome.
For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii's economy. Agricultural policymaker
Columella
Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (; Arabic: , 4 – ) was a prominent writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire.
His ' in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture, together with the wo ...
suggested that each vineyard in Rome produce a quota of three
cullei of wine per
jugerum
The jugerum or juger ( la, iūgerum, ', ', or ') was a Roman unit of area, equivalent to a rectangle 240 Roman feet in length and 120 feet in width (about 71×35½m), i.e. 28,800 square Roman feet ( la, pedes quadratum) or about hectare (0.62 ...
; otherwise, the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient and often capable of largely exceeding these requirements, providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves.
While wine was exported for Pompeii's economy, most other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities sufficient for the city's consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in the Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius.
It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens have been found in gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum, and a Roman villa at
Torre Annunziata
Torre Annunziata (; nap, Torr'Annunziata) is a city and commune in the Metropolitan City of Naples, region of Campania in Italy. It is located on the Gulf of Naples at the foot of Mount Vesuvius.
History
The city was destroyed in the Vesuvius ...
. They revealed that
emmer
Emmer wheat or hulled wheat is a type of awned wheat. Emmer is a tetraploid (4''n'' = 4''x'' = 28 chromosomes). The domesticated types are ''Triticum turgidum'' subsp. ''dicoccum'' and ''Triticum turgidum ''conv.'' durum''. The wild plant is ...
wheat,
Italian millet,
common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas,
bitter vetch Bitter vetch is a common name for several plants and may refer to:
* ''Vicia ervilia'', called bitter vetch or ervil, an ancient grain legume crop of the Mediterranean region.
*'' Vicia orobus'', called wood-bitter vetch, a legume found in Atlantic ...
, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All but the dates could have been produced locally.
Erotic art
![Pompeii - Casa di Marte e Venere - MAN](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Pompeii_-_Casa_di_Marte_e_Venere_-_MAN.jpg)
The discovery of
erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum has been both exhibited as art and censored as pornography. The Roman cities around the bay of Naples were destroyed by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, thereby preserving their buildings and artefa ...
left the archaeologists with a dilemma stemming from the
clash of cultures between the mores of
sexuality in ancient Rome
Sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Rome are indicated by art, literature, and inscriptions, and to a lesser extent by archaeological remains such as erotic artifacts and architecture. It has sometimes been assumed that "unlimited sexual ...
and in Counter-Reformation Europe. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting
Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his grotesquely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness" and opened only on request – and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall. In 2018, an ancient fresco depicting an erotic scene of "
Leda and the Swan
Leda and the Swan is a story and subject in art from Greek mythology in which the god Zeus, in the form of a swan, seduces or rapes Leda. According to later Greek mythology, Leda bore Helen and Polydeuces, children of Zeus, while at the sa ...
" was discovered at Pompeii.
Many
artefacts from the buried cities are preserved in the
Naples National Archaeological Museum
The National Archaeological Museum of Naples ( it, Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, italic=no, sometimes abbreviated to MANN) is an important Italian archaeological museum, particularly for ancient Roman remains. Its collection includes wo ...
. In 1819, when
King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he had it locked away in a "secret cabinet" (''gabinetto segreto''), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals". Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the
Naples "Secret Museum" was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the
sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.
Tourism
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the
Grand Tour
The Grand Tour was the principally 17th- to early 19th-century custom of a traditional trip through Europe, with Italy as a key destination, undertaken by upper-class young European men of sufficient means and rank (typically accompanied by a tut ...
. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of Italy's most popular tourist sites. It is part of a larger
Vesuvius National Park
Vesuvius National Park ( it, Parco Nazionale del Vesuvio) is an Italian national park centered on the active volcano Vesuvius, southeast from Naples. The park was founded on June 5, 1995, and covers an area of around 135 square kilometers all lo ...
and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the 'Soprintendenza Archeologica di Pompei', has begun issuing new tickets that allow tourists to visit cities such as
Herculaneum and
Stabiae as well as the
Villa Poppaea
The Villa Poppaea is an ancient luxurious Roman seaside villa (''villa maritima'') located in Torre Annunziata between Naples and Sorrento, in Southern Italy. It is also called the Villa Oplontis or Oplontis Villa A. as it was situated in the ...
, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.
Pompeii is a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of
Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality industry, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters, or hotel staff.
Excavations at the site have generally ceased due to a moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. The site is generally less accessible to tourists than in the past, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s available for public viewing today.
Antiquarium of Pompeii
Originally built by
Giuseppe Fiorelli
Giuseppe Fiorelli (7 June 1823 – 28 January 1896) was an Italian archaeologist. His excavations at Pompeii helped preserve the city.
Biography
Fiorelli was born on 7 June 1823 in Naples. His initial work at Pompeii was completed in 1848. He ...
between 1873 and 1874, the Antiquarium of Pompeii began as an exhibition venue displaying archaeological finds that represented the daily life of the ancient city. The building suffered extensive damage in 1943 during the
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposing ...
bombings and again in 1980 due to an earthquake. The museum was closed to the public for 36 years before reopening in 2016 as a space for temporary exhibitions. The museum was re-opened on 25 January 2021 as a permanent exhibition venue. Visitors can see archaeological discoveries from the excavations, casts of the victims of the Mount Vesuvius eruption as well as displays documenting Pompeii's settlement history before becoming a thriving Roman city.
In popular culture
![Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Karl_Brullov_-_The_Last_Day_of_Pompeii_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
The 1954 film ''
Journey to Italy'', starring
George Sanders
George Henry Sanders (3 July 1906 – 25 April 1972) was a British actor and singer whose career spanned over 40 years. His heavy, upper-class English accent and smooth, bass voice often led him to be cast as sophisticated but villainous chara ...
and
Ingrid Bergman, includes a scene at Pompeii in which they witness the excavation of a cast of a couple who perished in the eruption.
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy
television series
A television show – or simply TV show – is any content produced for viewing on a television set which can be broadcast via over-the-air, satellite, or cable, excluding breaking news, advertisements, or trailers that are typically placed be ...
''
Up Pompeii!
''Up Pompeii!'' is a British television comedy series broadcast between 1969 and 1970, starring Frankie Howerd. The first series was written by Talbot Rothwell, a scriptwriter for the ''Carry On'' films, and the second series by Rothwell and S ...
'' and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series ''
Doctor Who'', named "
The Fires of Pompeii
"The Fires of Pompeii" is the second episode of the fourth series of the British science fiction television series ''Doctor Who''. It was broadcast on BBC One on 12 April 2008. Set shortly before and during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD ...
", which featured Caecilius as a character.
The rock band
Pink Floyd filmed a 1971 live concert, ''
Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii'', in which they performed six songs in the city's ancient Roman amphitheatre. The audience consisted only of the film's production crew and some local children.
Siouxsie and the Banshees wrote and recorded the punk-inflected dance song "
Cities in Dust
"Cities in Dust" is a song by English rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees from their seventh studio album, '' Tinderbox'' (1986). It was released on 18 October 1985 as the album's lead single.
Background and composition
"Cities in Dust" is a ...
", which describes the disaster that befell Pompeii and Herculaneum in AD 79. The song appears on their album 1985 ''
Tinderbox
A tinderbox, or patch box, is a container made of wood or metal containing flint, firesteel, and tinder (typically charcloth, but possibly a small quantity of dry, finely divided fibrous matter such as hemp), used together to help kindle a fire ...
''. The jacket of the single remix of the song features the plaster cast of a chained dog killed in Pompeii.
''
Pompeii'' is a 2003
Robert Harris novel featuring an account of the aquarius's race to fix the broken aqueduct in the days before the eruption of Vesuvius. Actual events and people inspired the novel.
"
Pompeii" is a 2013 song by the British band
Bastille
The Bastille (, ) was a fortress in Paris, known formally as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. It was stor ...
. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of
Mount Vesuvius
Mount Vesuvius ( ; it, Vesuvio ; nap, 'O Vesuvio , also or ; la, Vesuvius , also , or ) is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of ...
.
''
Pompeii'' is a 2014 German-Canadian
historical disaster film produced and directed by
Paul W. S. Anderson
Paul William Scott Anderson (born 4 March 1965) is an English filmmaker who regularly works in science fiction films and video game adaptations.
Anderson made his feature film debut with the British independent film '' Shopping'' (1994), a ...
.
45 years after the Pink Floyd recordings, guitarist
David Gilmour returned to the Pompeii amphitheatre in 2016 to perform a live concert for his
Rattle That Lock Tour
The Rattle That Lock Tour was a concert tour by English singer and musician David Gilmour to support his fourth solo studio album, ''Rattle That Lock''. The tour became a commercial success, grossing $47 million and selling 288,997 tickets in 16 ...
. This event was considered the first in the amphitheatre to feature an audience since the AD 79 eruption of Vesuvius.
Documentaries
* ''
In Search of...''s episode No. 82 focuses entirely on Pompeii; it premiered on 29 November 1979.
* The ''
National Geographic'' special ''In the Shadow of Vesuvius'' (1987) explores the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, interviews (then) leading archaeologists, and examines the events leading up to the eruption of Vesuvius.
* ''
Ancient Mysteries
''Ancient Mysteries'' is a television series that was produced by FilmRoos and originally broadcast on A&E between and with reruns airing until 2000. Reruns were also re-broadcast on The Biography Channel during the 2000s. The series deals wit ...
: Pompeii: Buried Alive'' (1996), an
A&E television documentary narrated by
Leonard Nimoy
Leonard Simon Nimoy (; March 26, 1931 – February 27, 2015) was an American actor, famed for playing Spock in the '' Star Trek'' franchise for almost 50 years. This includes originating Spock in the original ''Star Trek'' series in 1966, th ...
.
* ''
Pompeii: The Last Day'' (2003), an hour-long drama produced for the
BBC #REDIRECT BBC #REDIRECT BBC
Here i going to introduce about the best teacher of my life b BALAJI sir. He is the precious gift that I got befor 2yrs . How has helped and thought all the concept and made my success in the 10th board exam. ...
...
that portrays several characters (with historically attested names, but fictional life-stories) living in Pompeii, Herculaneum and around the
. It also portrays the facts of the eruption.
* ''Pompeii and the AD 79 eruption'' (2004), a two-hour
production featuring a live archaeological dig at Pompeii and Herculaneum.
* ''Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time'' (2013), a
drama documentary presented by Dr.
.
* ''The Riddle of Pompeii'' (23 May 2014), Discovery Channel.
* ''Pompeii: The Dead Speak'' (8 August 2016),
.
, a project with the Italian winery Mastroberardino to replant the vineyards of Pompeii
*
, Greece, excavated ruins of a city that suffered a similar fate to Pompeii more than 3000 years ago
*
, a pre-Columbian farming village in El Salvador known as the "Pompeii of the Americas"
*
, former capital city buried by volcanic ash from the Soufrière Hills volcano in the 1990s
*