The political organization of the historical

Ashanti Empire The Asante Empire (Asante Twi: ), today commonly called the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted between 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana as well as parts of Iv ...

was characterized by ''stools'' which denoted "offices" that were associated with a particular authority. The

Golden Stool The Golden Stool ( Ashanti- tw, Sika dwa; full title, Sika Dwa Kofi "the Golden Stool born on a Friday") is the royal and divine throne of kings of the Ashanti people and the ultimate symbol of power in Asante. According to legend, Okomfo Anoky ...

was the most powerful of all, because it was the office of the King of the Ashanti Empire. Scholars such as

Jan Vansina Jan Vansina (14 September 1929 – 8 February 2017) was a Belgian historian and anthropologist regarded as an authority on the history of Central Africa, especially of what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Burundi. He was ...

have described the governance of the Ashanti Empire as a ''federation'' where state affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who was simply ''

primus inter pares ''Primus inter pares'' is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for someone who is formally equal to other members of their group but is accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their sen ...

''.

Structure and organization

In all, the Ashanti state was a centralized state made up of a hierarchy of heads starting from the "

Abusua Abusua is the name in Akan culture for a group of people that share common maternal ancestry governed by seven major ancient female abosom (deities).

Panyin" who was head of a family or lineage. The family was the basic political unit in the empire. The family or lineage followed the village organization which was headed by the ''Odikro''. All villages were then grouped together to form divisions headed by a divisional head called ''Ohene''. The various divisions were politically grouped to form a state which was headed by an ''Omanhene'' or ''Amanhene''. Finally, all Ashanti states formed the Ashanti Empire with the Asantehene as their king. The Seventy-Seven Laws of Komfo Anokye, drafted by

Okomfo Anokye Okomfo Anokye (c.1655-c.1717?/c.1719) was the first priest ( Okomfo) of the Ashanti Empire. Anokye is known for his participation in the expansion of the empire. He was also the codifier of the constitution and laws of the Ashanti Empire. Biogra ...

, served as the codified constitution of the Ashanti Empire.

The Golden Stool

The National Archives UK - CO 1069-44-5-1-001

The Golden Stool was the most powerful of all stools or "offices" in the Ashanti Empire. It was occupied by the ''Asantehene'' (King). According to Ashanti oral tradition, the Golden Stool first appeared near the end of the 17th century. It became the spiritual centre of the Empire after King

Osei Tutu Osei Kofi Tutu I ( – ) was one of the founders of the Ashanti Empire, assisted by Okomfo Anokye. The Asante are an Akan ethnic group of West Africa. Osei Tutu led an alliance of Asante states against the regional hegemon, the Denkyira, compl ...

unified the Ashanti city-states into one empire. According to oral tradition, Okomfo Anokye, the chief priest and adviser of Osei Tutu, brought down the stool from the sky to the earth. He demanded that all chiefs of the Ashanti city-state surrender their stools and recognize the supremacy of the Golden Stool.

Asantemanhyiamu/Kotoko council

The was a council made up of the

Amanhene In several Akan nations of Ghana, the Omanhene (''Pl. Amanhene)'' is the title of the supreme traditional ruler ('king') in a region or a larger town. The omanhene is the central figure and institution of the nation. Officially, he has no function i ...

, Kumasi chiefs and provincial rulers which met once a year. The Asantemanhyiamu translates as a "Great Council" or "National Assembly." Some scholars have suggested that the Asantemanhyiamu and the Kotoko council were the same or a similar institution. The Asantemanhyiamu served as the judicial and legislative body of the state.

Inner/Kumasi council

As a result of the tedious work faced by the Asantemanhyiamu, another council headed by the king, known as the Inner or Kumasi council was formed in the eighteenth century. This Inner council gradually assumed the administrative duties of the Asantemanhyiamu in the nineteenth century. This led to the emergence of conflict between the Asantemanhyiamu and the Inner council. Edgerton refers to the Inner council as the Kotoko council instead whiles Wilks writes that the Inner council eventually evolved to be known as the Kumasi council by the 19th century The Inner/Kumasi council met everyday in the 19th century sometimes with meetings held until late night under torchlight. The council served as a court of law, justice and legislation. The council also held its meetings at the Pramakeseso.

Political factions

During the nineteenth century, there existed two factions that dominated the political scene of Ashanti which are referred to as the Peace party and Imperial/War party by modern historians. Vandervort comments that the Peace party advocated for mercantile policies, free enterprise and it undervalued the importance of military. The Imperial or War party, according to Vandervort, emphasized on state monopoly of trade as well as the support of a strong military force to preserve the empire and intimidate Ashanti neighbors. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, the Peace Party dominated Ashanti politics. During this period there emerged a phase termed to be similar to a

capitalist Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, priva ...

revolution by Vandervort, which saw the growth in trade of kola nuts, gold, palm oil and strengthened the position of merchants who made up the Peace party. The Imperial party surpassed the Peace party as the major influence in Ashanti politics starting in the 1870s following the dip in relations with the British Empire.

Mpanyimfo

The Mpanyimfo in Ashanti was an assembly of the oldest members of a particular territory, who represented the inhabitants and acted as advisors to the chief in administrative matters.

Executive

Asantehene

The Ashanti Empire was made up of a number of states grouped together and headed by a monarch. The

Asantehene The is the title for the monarch of the historical Ashanti Empire as well as the ceremonial ruler of the Ashanti people today. The Ashanti royal house traces its line to the Oyoko (an ''Abusua'', or "clan") Abohyen Dynasty of Nana Twum and t ...

was regarded as ''

''. Thus, he was the highest form of authority in the empire and he held more power than the paramount chiefs known as the

, who were leaders of Ashanti states such as

Mampong Mampong is a town in the Mampong Municipal of Ashanti and serves as the administrative capital of Mampong Municipal. Mampong has a population of 42,037 people. Mampong is also the centre of the new Anglican Diocese of Asante Mampong, inaugurate ...

, Kokufu,

Ejisu Ejisu is a city in Greater Kumasi located along the Kumasi-Accra highway about 20 km from Kumasi. It is the capital of Ejisu Municipal Assembly, a municipality of the Ashanti Region, Ghana The Ashanti Region is located in southern part ...

Juaben Juaben is a small town in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipal District, a Districts of Ghana, district in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.Bekwai Bekwai is a town and the capital of the Bekwai Municipal, a municipality in the Ashanti Region of Ghana.absolute royal rule; several checks curbed any abuse of power. All Ashanti authorities including the Asantehene, pledged allegiance to the Golden stool. The Asantehene was the chief judge, chief administrator and commander-in-chief of the Ashanti army.

Amanhene

The Ashanti Empire was made up of metropolitan and provincial states. The metropolitan states were made up of Ashanti citizens known as ''amanfo''. The provincial states were other kingdoms absorbed into the empire. Every metropolitan Ashanti state was headed by the ''Amanhene'' or paramount chief. Each of these paramount chiefs served as principal rulers of their own states, where they exerted executive, legislative and judicial powers.

Ohene

The ''Ohene'' were divisional chiefs under the Amanhene. Their major function was to advise the Amanhene. The divisional chiefs were the highest order in various Ashanti state divisions. The divisions were made up of various villages put together. Examples of divisional chiefs included Krontihene, Nifahene, Benkumhene, Adontenhene and Kyidomhene.

Odikuro

Each village in Asante had a chief called Odikro who was the owner of the village. The Odikro was responsible for the maintenance of law and order. He also served as a medium between the people of his jurisdiction, the ancestor and the gods. As the head of the village, the Odikro presided over the village council.

Queen

The queen or ''Ohenemaa'' was an important figure in Ashanti political systems. She was the most powerful female in the Empire. She had the prerogative of being consulted in the process of installing a chief or the king, as she played a major role in the nomination and selection. She settled disputes involving women and was involved in decision-making alongside the Council of elders and chiefs. Not only did she participate in the judicial and legislative processes, but also in the making and unmaking of war, and the distribution of land.

Osei Kwadwo reforms

The offices of government and public administration in Asante were completely reorganized during the reign of Asantehene Osei Kwadwo (r. 1764–1777) in a major administrative reform. He began a

meritocratic Meritocracy (''merit'', from Latin , and ''-cracy'', from Ancient Greek 'strength, power') is the notion of a political system in which economic goods and/or political power are vested in individual people based on talent, effort, and achieve ...

system of appointing central officials according to their ability, rather than their birth. A group classification emerged in Ashanti politics.

Adehyedwa stools

The Adehyedwa stools were offices originally independent of the king, that is, they were either pre-Ashanti stools that had been incorporated into the Ashanti administration system after the establishment of the kingdom, or they were non-Ashanti stools that took over into the Ashanti administrative system due to special fidelity and loyalty. The succession in office was mostly regulated by maternal law with the exception of the Asafo stool in Kumasi. Matriclan succession meant that the successor for the office of an Adehyedwa chair was determined through the election of a noble who was suitable for the office within the maternal consanguinity.

Poduodwa stools

The Poduodwa stools were offices created by the king and inherited by a certain lineage. This included the Bantama stool in Kumasi (''Bantamahene'' or ''Bantahene''). Bantama was the location of the mausoleum of the royal family. The bantahene was the chief, authority over the mausoleum however was traditionally exercised by the Asante ''Krontihene'' (Minister of Defence).

Esomdwa stools (including the Mmammadwa stools)

The Esomdwa stools were offices of public administration ("Esom") that do not form part of the Adehyewa and Poduodwa stools. Among them were the Mmammadwa stools whose succession was organized via the “Fekuw” system. The Fekuw system was a kinship relationships that arose from the paternal blood line. However, the king had the right to intervene in the succession and to appoint a successor himself. All office holders of a stool of the three categories mentioned had to swear allegiance to the king. These “stools” (offices) were subordinate to the highest of all stools, the golden stool, occupied by the Asantehene. They were therefore strictly separated from the group of Abusuadwa stools, which were not subject to the Golden stool. The chiefs of the regional and supraregional public administration had the ''Ahenfie'' which served as the local palace police, at their disposal to exercise the state executive power.

Abusuadwa stools

The Abusuadwa stools were all offices within a family clan (defined by the maternal blood line), which did not fulfill any public function and whose function, occupation and succession are solely the matter of their respective matrilineal Abusua. An example is the Oyokohene, head of the Oyoko clan. With the Kwadwo's administrative reform, among other things, the ''Asokwafo'', previously a troop of royal hornblowers, was transformed into a kind of "personnel pool" for the education and training of future government officials. The king then recruited his officials from the Asokwafo community for a wide variety of administrative tasks. The head of the Asokwafo was the Batahene, who was also responsible for the management of the state trade organizations in Ashanti. The post of Okyeame (spokesman for the king), newly created under Kwadwo, was for example, filled with people from the Asokwafo circle. Likewise, the liaison men to the Europeans during Osai Bonsu's reign had previously been members of the Asokwafo.

Financial administration

The was the head of the national treasurer's office at the court of the Asantehene. He was responsible for the implementation of a general financial budget and expenditure control of the Ashanti Empire. In addition, the Gyaasehene presided over the tax court. Subordinate to him were the

Sanaahene Sanaahene is the title given to the royal treasurer. The title Sa-hene, is used primarily in Ghana and is given to a traditional ruler who is considered capable of leading the warring groups of the area. The Sa-hene is mandated to aid the paramount ...

, who was responsible for the routine administration of the Adaka Kesie, that is, through which all payments with gold dust from the royal treasury were processed. Every sub Ashanti chief possessed their own local treasury which was managed by a Sanaahene. Subordinate to the Sanaahene (and thus also to the Gyaasehene) was the , who was head of the cashiers and weighers. The national treasury contained separate offices for the

mint MiNT is Now TOS (MiNT) is a free software alternative operating system kernel for the Atari ST system and its successors. It is a multi-tasking alternative to TOS and MagiC. Together with the free system components fVDI device drivers, XaA ...

() and the handling of monies (). According to Wilks, over a hundred workforce known as , was employed by the mint in reducing ingots and

nuggets Nuggets may refer to: Music * ''Nuggets'' (series), a series of compilation albums by Elektra Records, continued by Rhino * '' Nuggets: Original Artyfacts from the First Psychedelic Era, 1965–1968'' * '' Nuggets II: Original Artyfacts from ...

to gold dust. The Buramfo workforce was headed by the who presided over the

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular area. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradesmen belonging to a professional association. They sometimes ...

goldsmith A goldsmith is a Metalworking, metalworker who specializes in working with gold and other precious metals. Nowadays they mainly specialize in jewelry-making but historically, goldsmiths have also made cutlery, silverware, platter (dishware), pl ...

s. The arm responsible for revenue collection was the . Members of this institution travelled to the villages, towns and cities of the empire to collect taxes, tributes and tolls.

Military administration

Among the Akan of the Gold Coast, Krontihene (or Kontihene) is the title of "leader of the warriors", who was sometimes also referred to as ''Sahene'' (war leader). He embodied the

Minister of War A defence minister or minister of defence is a cabinet official position in charge of a ministry of defense, which regulates the armed forces in sovereign states. The role of a defence minister varies considerably from country to country; in som ...

of the Ashanti Empire and the Commander-in-Chief of the Ashanti Army in the absence of the King. Edgerton relates the process to justify war in Ashanti with that of the

United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature of the federal government of the United States. It is bicameral, composed of a lower body, the House of Representatives, and an upper body, the Senate. It meets in the U.S. Capitol in Washing ...

. Although the Asantehene was commander in chief of the army, the decision to go to war fell to the function of the National Assembly and Inner Council.

Bureaucracy

Wilks states that the empire was bureaucratic as early as the 18th century due to reforms by the Ashanti kings. The Ashanti king appointed officers based on merit and assigned specific duties in the administration. All chiefs had the authority to appoint and dismiss staff. They also had the power to create a new office or abolish old ones.

Diplomacy

Representation of the Court of Select audience-Costume, and the ceremony of swearing fidelity to the British Government by James Wyld I

Historian Adjaye identifies three types of professional Ambassadors in Ashanti. He lists the Ambassador-at-large, roving ambassadors and resident ambassadors. Roving ambassadors like Oheneba Owusu Dome, traveled from place to place for political purposes. In addition, there were temporal or

Ad hoc Ad hoc is a Latin phrase meaning literally 'to this'. In English, it typically signifies a solution for a specific purpose, problem, or task rather than a generalized solution adaptable to collateral instances. (Compare with ''a priori''.) Com ...

ambassadors whose appointment came to an end following the conclusion of their missions. Training was mainly obtained through apprenticeship as young men observed the professionals in court for experience. Qualification was based on merit. Diplomatic missions were carried out mainly through oral or unwritten means. Despite the Ashanti being pre-literate, the Ashanti chancery did employ writing to an extent from the nineteenth century, as a solution to the weakness of oral diplomatic communication. Literate members of the chancery were educated by the British for instance. Adjaye estimates that Ashanti's diplomatic documents "could have exceeded several thousands" based on the remains of Ashanti letters found today in archival centers in Ghana, the United Kingdom,

the Hague The Hague ( ; nl, Den Haag or ) is a city and municipality of the Netherlands, situated on the west coast facing the North Sea. The Hague is the country's administrative centre and its seat of government, and while the official capital of ...

, Denmark, and Switzerland. The Ashanti chancery was made up of four district bureaus. They included the Dutch bureau which was responsible for maintaining relations with the Dutch, the Danish bureau responsible for Danish and southeastern

Gold Coast Gold Coast may refer to: Places Africa * Gold Coast (region), in West Africa, which was made up of the following colonies, before being established as the independent nation of Ghana: ** Portuguese Gold Coast (Portuguese, 1482–1642) ** Dutch G ...

affairs, the Arabic bureau which directed communication with Muslim states in Northern Ghana and the English bureau which was in charge of Ashanti affairs with the British and Fante on the coast. Foreign envoys particularly from the coast were stopped at the southern bothers of Ashanti until the Asantehene was prepared to receive them. This period of waiting could last from a day or two or even several weeks. After being allowed into Ashanti, the envoy had to wait until a date was fixed for his reception in the capital. When the foreign envoy was allowed into Kumasi, they were welcomed with large ceremonies. Throughout their stay in Kumasi, the envoys were provided with free accommodation as well as allowances on food and drink from the Ashanti government.

Okyeame (Linguist)

From Eisendstadt's work, the is defined as the chief linguist who performed roles similar to that of a

prime minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is not ...

. Each town, district or region of Ashanti had an okyeame as a representative in the council. Adjaye also states that the collectively, the (plural) performed both bureaucratic and judicial functions.The head of all Akyeame was the who served as a

Minister of Foreign Affairs A foreign affairs minister or minister of foreign affairs (less commonly minister for foreign affairs) is generally a cabinet minister in charge of a state's foreign policy and relations. The formal title of the top official varies between cou ...

and Chief of protocol.

Other personnel

The were a corps of envoys who served the Asantehene and all principal chiefs. By the 19th century, members of the Nhenkwaa were involved in the diplomatic structure of Ashanti. Unlike the Okyeame who was employed on embassies to more distant towns and foreign states, the Nhenkwaa were mostly sent on missions around Metropolitan Ashanti. The grew to prominence starting from the early 19th century when they were employed as officials to dispatch messages between Ashanti and foreign governments. Besides their major function as transmitters of messages, the Afenasoafo engaged in the negotiation process for peace making or returning fugitives. They also provided the diplomatic channel of communication between foreign envoys and the Asantehene. The , which translates as criers or heralds, enforced law and order at the meetings of the Asantemanhyiamu and whenever the Asantehene sat in session. The Nseniefo publicized all new decrees and regulations throughout the empire. For instance, after the ratification of the Bowdich Treaty of 1817, the Nseniefo traveled to all the principal towns and villages where they assembled the people through the use of

gongs A gongFrom Indonesian and ms, gong; jv, ꦒꦺꦴꦁ ; zh, c=鑼, p=luó; ja, , dora; km, គង ; th, ฆ้อง ; vi, cồng chiêng; as, কাঁহ is a percussion instrument originating in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Gongs ...

for the announcement on the status of the treaty.

Elections and Impeachment

Elections

During the period between the death of an Asantehene and the election of a successor, the Mamponghene, the Asantehene's deputy, acted as a

regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...

.Shillington, ''History of Africa'', p. 195. This policy was only changed during a time of civil war in the late 19th century, when the ''Kwasafomanhyiamu'' or governing council itself ruled as regent. The succession was decided by a series of councils of Asante

nobles Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. The characteristi ...

and other royal family members. The methods of electing a chief varied from one chiefdom to another. For the election of the Asantehene, the Queen mother nominated eligible males as candidates from a royal lineage. She then consulted the elders of that lineage. The final candidate is then selected. The nomination was sent to a council of elders or kingmakers, who represent other Ashanti states. The ''Nkwankwaahene'' who represented the commoners, indicated if there was widespread approval or disapproval of the nominee. If the commoners disapproved of the nominee, the process was restarted. If Chosen, the new King was enstooled by the kingmakers.

Impeachment

Kings of the Ashanti Empire who violated any of the

oaths Traditionally an oath (from Anglo-Saxon ', also called plight) is either a statement of fact or a promise taken by a sacrality as a sign of verity. A common legal substitute for those who conscientiously object to making sacred oaths is to giv ...

taken during his or her enstoolment, were destooled by Kingmakers. For instance, if a king punished citizens arbitrarily or was exposed as corrupt, he would be destooled. Destoolment entailed kingmakers removing the sandals of the king and bumping his buttocks on the ground three times. Once destooled from office, his sanctity and thus reverence were lost, as he could not exercise any of the powers he had as king; this includes Chief administrator, Judge, and Military Commander. The now previous king was dispossessed of the Stool, swords and other

regalia Regalia is a Latin plurale tantum word that has different definitions. In one rare definition, it refers to the exclusive privileges of a sovereign. The word originally referred to the elaborate formal dress and dress accessories of a sovereign ...

which symbolized his office and authority. He also lost his position as custodian of the land. However, even if destooled from office, the king remained a member of the royal family from which he was elected. One impeachment occurred during the reign of Kusi Obodom, caused by a failed invasion of Dahomey.Pescheux, page 449

References

Bibliography

* Vansina, J. "A Comparison of African Kingdoms", ''Africa: Journal of the International African Institute'' (1962), pp. 324–335. * Emmanuel Akyeampong, Pashington Obeng: ''Spirituality, Gender, and Power in Asante History.'' In: ''The International Journal of African Historical Studies.'' 28 (3), 1995, S. 481–508. * * * * * Margaret Priestley: ''The Ashanti question and the British: eighteenth-century origins.'' In: ''Journal of African History.'' 2 (1), 1961, S. 35–59. * * * William Tordoff: ''The Ashanti Confederacy.'' In: ''Journal of African History.'' 3 (3), 1962, S. 399–417. * John K. Fynn: ''The reign and times of Kusi Obodum 1750-64.'' In: ''Transactions of the Historical Society of Ghana.'' 8, 1965, S. 24–32. *

Kevin Shillington Kevin Shillington is a teacher and a freelance historian based in Dorset, England, United Kingdom. Education He graduated from Trinity College, located in Dublin, Ireland, with a major in modern history in 1968. Shillington did his postgradu ...

, 1995 (1989), ''History of Africa'', New York: St. Martin's Press. * * *{{cite book , last=Vandervort , first=Bruce , year=2015 , title=Wars Of Imperial Conquest, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpdsBgAAQBAJ, publisher=Routledge, pages=85–86, isbn=978-1-13-422374-9 Political history of Ghana Ashanti Empire Political systems