In classical
Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to ancient Greek mathematics, Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry: the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements''. Euclid's approach consists in assuming a small ...
, a point is a
primitive notion
In mathematics, logic, philosophy, and formal systems, a primitive notion is a concept that is not defined in terms of previously-defined concepts. It is often motivated informally, usually by an appeal to intuition and everyday experience. In an ...
that models an exact location in
space
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...
, and has no length, width, or thickness. In modern
mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
, a point refers more generally to an
element of some
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
called a
space
Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events have relative position and direction. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually consider ...
.
Being a primitive notion means that a point cannot be defined in terms of previously defined objects. That is, a point is defined only by some properties, called
axiom
An axiom, postulate, or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true, to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments. The word comes from the Ancient Greek word (), meaning 'that which is thought worthy or f ...
s, that it must satisfy; for example, ''"there is exactly one
line
Line most often refers to:
* Line (geometry), object with zero thickness and curvature that stretches to infinity
* Telephone line, a single-user circuit on a telephone communication system
Line, lines, The Line, or LINE may also refer to:
Arts ...
that passes through two different points"''.
Points in Euclidean geometry
Points, considered within the framework of
Euclidean geometry
Euclidean geometry is a mathematical system attributed to ancient Greek mathematics, Greek mathematician Euclid, which he described in his textbook on geometry: the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements''. Euclid's approach consists in assuming a small ...
, are one of the most fundamental objects.
Euclid
Euclid (; grc-gre, Wikt:Εὐκλείδης, Εὐκλείδης; BC) was an ancient Greek mathematician active as a geometer and logician. Considered the "father of geometry", he is chiefly known for the ''Euclid's Elements, Elements'' trea ...
originally defined the point as "that which has no part". In two-dimensional
Euclidean space
Euclidean space is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space. Originally, that is, in Euclid's Elements, Euclid's ''Elements'', it was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, but in modern mathematics ther ...
, a point is represented by an
ordered pair
In mathematics, an ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') is a pair of objects. The order in which the objects appear in the pair is significant: the ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') is different from the ordered pair (''b'', ''a'') unless ''a'' = ''b''. (In con ...
(, ) of numbers, where the first number
conventionally represents the
horizontal and is often denoted by , and the second number conventionally represents the
vertical
Vertical is a geometric term of location which may refer to:
* Vertical direction, the direction aligned with the direction of the force of gravity, up or down
* Vertical (angles), a pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting s ...
and is often denoted by . This idea is easily generalized to three-dimensional Euclidean space, where a point is represented by an ordered triplet (, , ) with the additional third number representing depth and often denoted by . Further generalizations are represented by an ordered
tuple
In mathematics, a tuple is a finite ordered list (sequence) of elements. An -tuple is a sequence (or ordered list) of elements, where is a non-negative integer. There is only one 0-tuple, referred to as ''the empty tuple''. An -tuple is defi ...
t of terms, where is the
dimension
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a Space (mathematics), mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any Point (geometry), point within it. Thus, a Line (geometry), lin ...
of the space in which the point is located.
Many constructs within Euclidean geometry consist of an
infinite
Infinite may refer to:
Mathematics
*Infinite set, a set that is not a finite set
*Infinity, an abstract concept describing something without any limit
Music
* Infinite (group), a South Korean boy band
*''Infinite'' (EP), debut EP of American m ...
collection of points that conform to certain axioms. This is usually represented by a
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
of points; As an example, a
line
Line most often refers to:
* Line (geometry), object with zero thickness and curvature that stretches to infinity
* Telephone line, a single-user circuit on a telephone communication system
Line, lines, The Line, or LINE may also refer to:
Arts ...
is an infinite set of points of the form
, where through and are constants and is the dimension of the space. Similar constructions exist that define the
plane
Plane(s) most often refers to:
* Aero- or airplane, a powered, fixed-wing aircraft
* Plane (geometry), a flat, 2-dimensional surface
Plane or planes may also refer to:
Biology
* Plane (tree) or ''Platanus'', wetland native plant
* ''Planes' ...
,
line segment
In geometry, a line segment is a part of a straight line that is bounded by two distinct end points, and contains every point on the line that is between its endpoints. The length of a line segment is given by the Euclidean distance between ...
and other related concepts. A line segment consisting of only a single point is called a
degenerate
Degeneracy, degenerate, or degeneration may refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* Degenerate (album), ''Degenerate'' (album), a 2010 album by the British band Trigger the Bloodshed
* Degenerate art, a term adopted in the 1920s by the Nazi Party i ...
line segment.
In addition to defining points and constructs related to points, Euclid also postulated a key idea about points, that any two points can be connected by a straight line. This is easily confirmed under modern extensions of Euclidean geometry, and had lasting consequences at its introduction, allowing the construction of almost all the geometric concepts known at the time. However, Euclid's postulation of points was neither complete nor definitive, and he occasionally assumed facts about points that did not follow directly from his axioms, such as the ordering of points on the line or the existence of specific points. In spite of this, modern expansions of the system serve to remove these assumptions.
Dimension of a point
There are several inequivalent definitions of
dimension
In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a Space (mathematics), mathematical space (or object) is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify any Point (geometry), point within it. Thus, a Line (geometry), lin ...
in mathematics. In all of the common definitions, a point is 0-dimensional.
Vector space dimension
The dimension of a vector space is the maximum size of a
linearly independent
In the theory of vector spaces, a set of vectors is said to be if there is a nontrivial linear combination of the vectors that equals the zero vector. If no such linear combination exists, then the vectors are said to be . These concepts are ...
subset. In a vector space consisting of a single point (which must be the zero vector 0), there is no linearly independent subset. The zero vector is not itself linearly independent, because there is a non trivial linear combination making it zero:
.
Topological dimension
The topological dimension of a topological space
is defined to be the minimum value of ''n'', such that every finite
open cover
In mathematics, and more particularly in set theory, a cover (or covering) of a set X is a collection of subsets of X whose union is all of X. More formally, if C = \lbrace U_\alpha : \alpha \in A \rbrace is an indexed family of subsets U_\alpha\s ...
of
admits a finite open cover
of
which
refines in which no point is included in more than ''n''+1 elements. If no such minimal ''n'' exists, the space is said to be of infinite covering dimension.
A point is
zero-dimensional
In mathematics, a zero-dimensional topological space (or nildimensional space) is a topological space that has dimension zero with respect to one of several inequivalent notions of assigning a dimension to a given topological space. A graphical ...
with respect to the covering dimension because every open cover of the space has a refinement consisting of a single open set.
Hausdorff dimension
Let ''X'' be a
metric space
In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
. If ''S'' ⊂ ''X'' and ''d'' ∈
,_∞),_the_''d''-dimensional_Hausdorff_content_of_''S''_is_the_infimum_of_the_set_of_numbers_δ_≥_0_such_that_there_is_some_(indexed)_collection_of_metric_space.html" ;"title="infimum.html" ;"title=", ∞), the ''d''-dimensional Hausdorff content of ''S'' is the infimum">, ∞), the ''d''-dimensional Hausdorff content of ''S'' is the infimum of the set of numbers δ ≥ 0 such that there is some (indexed) collection of metric space">balls
covering ''S'' with ''r
i'' > 0 for each ''i'' ∈ ''I'' that satisfies
.
The Hausdorff dimension of ''X'' is defined by
:
A point has Hausdorff dimension 0 because it can be covered by a single ball of arbitrarily small radius.
Geometry without points
Although the notion of a point is generally considered fundamental in mainstream geometry and topology, there are some systems that forgo it, e.g. noncommutative geometry and pointless topology. A "pointless" or "pointfree" space is defined not as a set (mathematics), set, but via some structure (C*-algebra, algebraic or complete Heyting algebra, logical respectively) which looks like a well-known function space on the set: an algebra of
continuous function
In mathematics, a continuous function is a function such that a continuous variation (that is a change without jump) of the argument induces a continuous variation of the value of the function. This means that there are no abrupt changes in value ...
s or an
algebra of sets
In mathematics, the algebra of sets, not to be confused with the mathematical structure of ''an'' algebra of sets, defines the properties and laws of sets, the set-theoretic operations of union, intersection, and complementation and the ...
respectively. More precisely, such structures generalize well-known spaces of
functions in a way that the operation "take a value at this point" may not be defined.
A further tradition starts from some books of
A. N. Whitehead in which the notion of
region
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as zones, lands or territories, are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and t ...
is assumed as a primitive together with the one of ''inclusion'' or ''connection''.
Point masses and the Dirac delta function
Often in physics and mathematics, it is useful to think of a point as having non-zero mass or charge (this is especially common in
classical electromagnetism
Classical electromagnetism or classical electrodynamics is a branch of theoretical physics that studies the interactions between electric charges and currents using an extension of the classical Newtonian model; It is, therefore, a classical fie ...
, where electrons are idealized as points with non-zero charge). The Dirac delta function, or function, is (informally) a
generalized function
In mathematics, generalized functions are objects extending the notion of functions. There is more than one recognized theory, for example the theory of distributions. Generalized functions are especially useful in making discontinuous functions ...
on the real number line that is zero everywhere except at zero, with an
integral
In mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented i ...
of one over the entire real line.
[, p. 58] The delta function is sometimes thought of as an infinitely high, infinitely thin spike at the origin, with total area one under the spike, and physically represents an idealized
point mass
A point particle (ideal particle or point-like particle, often spelled pointlike particle) is an idealization (science philosophy), idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial extension (metaph ...
or
point charge
A point particle (ideal particle or point-like particle, often spelled pointlike particle) is an idealization of particles heavily used in physics. Its defining feature is that it lacks spatial extension; being dimensionless, it does not take up ...
.
It was introduced by theoretical physicist
Paul Dirac
Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac (; 8 August 1902 – 20 October 1984) was an English theoretical physicist who is regarded as one of the most significant physicists of the 20th century. He was the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at the Univer ...
. In the context of
signal processing
Signal processing is an electrical engineering subfield that focuses on analyzing, modifying and synthesizing ''signals'', such as audio signal processing, sound, image processing, images, and scientific measurements. Signal processing techniq ...
it is often referred to as the unit impulse symbol (or function).
Its discrete analog is the
Kronecker delta
In mathematics, the Kronecker delta (named after Leopold Kronecker) is a function of two variables, usually just non-negative integers. The function is 1 if the variables are equal, and 0 otherwise:
\delta_ = \begin
0 &\text i \neq j, \\
1 &\ ...
function which is usually defined on a finite domain and takes values 0 and 1.
See also
*
Accumulation point
In mathematics, a limit point, accumulation point, or cluster point of a set S in a topological space X is a point x that can be "approximated" by points of S in the sense that every neighbourhood of x with respect to the topology on X also contai ...
*
Affine space
In mathematics, an affine space is a geometric structure that generalizes some of the properties of Euclidean spaces in such a way that these are independent of the concepts of distance and measure of angles, keeping only the properties relate ...
*
Boundary point
In topology and mathematics in general, the boundary of a subset of a topological space is the set of points in the closure of not belonging to the interior of . An element of the boundary of is called a boundary point of . The term boun ...
*
Critical point
*
Cusp
A cusp is the most pointed end of a curve. It often refers to cusp (anatomy), a pointed structure on a tooth.
Cusp or CUSP may also refer to:
Mathematics
* Cusp (singularity), a singular point of a curve
* Cusp catastrophe, a branch of bifurca ...
*
Foundations of geometry
Foundations of geometry is the study of geometries as axiomatic systems. There are several sets of axioms which give rise to Euclidean geometry or to non-Euclidean geometries. These are fundamental to the study and of historical importance, but t ...
*
Position (geometry)
In geometry, a position or position vector, also known as location vector or radius vector, is a Euclidean vector that represents the position of a point ''P'' in space in relation to an arbitrary reference origin ''O''. Usually denoted x, r, or s ...
*
Point cloud
Point or points may refer to:
Places
* Point, Lewis, a peninsula in the Outer Hebrides, Scotland
* Point, Texas, a city in Rains County, Texas, United States
* Point, the NE tip and a ferry terminal of Lismore, Inner Hebrides, Scotland
* Point ...
*
Point process
In statistics and probability theory, a point process or point field is a collection of mathematical points randomly located on a mathematical space such as the real line or Euclidean space. Kallenberg, O. (1986). ''Random Measures'', 4th edition. ...
*
Point set registration
In computer vision, pattern recognition, and robotics, point-set registration, also known as point-cloud registration or scan matching, is the process of finding a spatial transformation (''e.g.,'' scaling, rotation and translation) that aligns t ...
*
Pointwise In mathematics, the qualifier pointwise is used to indicate that a certain property is defined by considering each value f(x) of some function f. An important class of pointwise concepts are the ''pointwise operations'', that is, operations defined ...
*
Singular point of a curve
In geometry, a singular point on a curve is one where the curve is not given by a smooth embedding of a parameter. The precise definition of a singular point depends on the type of curve being studied.
Algebraic curves in the plane
Algebraic curv ...
*
Whitehead point-free geometry
References
* Clarke, Bowman, 1985,
Individuals and Points" ''Notre Dame Journal of Formal Logic 26'': 61–75.
* De Laguna, T., 1922, "Point, line and surface as sets of solids," ''The Journal of Philosophy 19'': 449–61.
* Gerla, G., 1995,
Pointless Geometries in Buekenhout, F., Kantor, W. eds., ''Handbook of incidence geometry: buildings and foundations''. North-Holland: 1015–31.
*
Whitehead, A. N., 1919. ''An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge''. Cambridge Univ. Press. 2nd ed., 1925.
* Whitehead, A. N., 1920.
The Concept of Nature'. Cambridge Univ. Press. 2004 paperback, Prometheus Books. Being the 1919 Tarner Lectures delivered at
Trinity College Trinity College may refer to:
Australia
* Trinity Anglican College, an Anglican coeducational primary and secondary school in , New South Wales
* Trinity Catholic College, Auburn, a coeducational school in the inner-western suburbs of Sydney, New ...
.
* Whitehead, A. N., 1979 (1929). ''
Process and Reality
''Process and Reality'' is a book by Alfred North Whitehead, in which the author propounds a philosophy of organism, also called process philosophy. The book, published in 1929, is a revision of the Gifford Lectures he gave in 1927–28.
Whi ...
''. Free Press.
External links
*
*
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