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Norrland dialects () is one of the six major dialect groupings of the
Swedish language Swedish ( ) is a North Germanic languages, North Germanic language from the Indo-European languages, Indo-European language family, spoken predominantly in Sweden and parts of Finland. It has at least 10 million native speakers, making it the G ...
. It comprises most dialects traditionally spoken in
Norrland Norrland (, , originally ''Norrlanden'', meaning 'the Northlands') is the northernmost, largest and least populated of the three traditional lands of Sweden, consisting of nine provinces. Although Norrland does not serve any administrative p ...
, except for those of
Gästrikland Gästrikland () is a historical province or ''landskap'' on the eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Uppland, Västmanland, Dalarna, Hälsingland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Gästrikland is the southernmost and the most densely populated of the No ...
and southern
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
, which are usually classified as
Svealand Swedish Svealand Swedish () is one of the six major groupings of Swedish dialects, spoken in Svealand. A major characteristic of ''Svealand Swedish'' is the coalescence of the alveolar trill with following dental and alveolar consonants—also over ...
, as well as those of
Härjedalen Härjedalen () is a historical province (''landskap'') in the centre of Sweden. It borders the Norwegian county of Trøndelag, as well as the provinces of Dalarna, Hälsingland, Medelpad and Jämtland. The province originally belonged to Norway, ...
and northernmost
Jämtland Jämtland () is a historical provinces of Sweden, province () in the centre of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders Härjedalen and Medelpad to the south, Ångermanland to the east, Lapland, Sweden, Lapland to the north and Trøndelag and Norw ...
, which are usually classified as Norwegian. The border between Norrland dialects and Svealand Swedish runs through
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
, such that the northern Hälsingland dialects are regarded as Norrland dialects and the southern ones as Svealand Swedish; an alternative delineation follows the southern border of
Medelpad Medelpad ( or ) is a historical province or ''landskap'' in the north of Sweden. It borders Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Ångermanland and the Gulf of Bothnia. The province is a part of Norrland and as such considered to be Northe ...
. The old northern border of the Swedish language in coastal
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
largely followed the eastern and northern borders of the present-day Kalix and
Överkalix Överkalix (; ) is a Urban areas in Sweden, locality and the seat of Överkalix Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden with 975 inhabitants in 2010. Climate Överkalix has a subarctic climate with significant temperature differences between the ...
municipalities. From there, a vaguely defined linguistic border ran through Lappland from the northernmost point of Överkalix parish in an arc to the south of Porjus, then followed the
Lule River Lule River (, , ''Luleälven'') is a major river in Sweden, rising in northern Sweden and flowing southeast for before reaching the Gulf of Bothnia at Luleå. It is the second largest river by watershed area and length in Norrbotten County (afte ...
to the border with
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
.


History

Norrland dialects arose from the combined influence of the
Old West Norse Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and their ...
spoken in
Trøndelag Trøndelag (; or is a county and coextensive with the Trøndelag region (also known as ''Midt-Norge'' or ''Midt-Noreg,'' "Mid-Norway") in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County (); in 1804 the county was ...
to the west and the
Old East Norse Old East Norse was a dialect of Old Norse which evolved into the languages of Old Danish and Old Swedish from the 9th century to the 12th century. Between 800 and 1100, East Norse is in Sweden called '' Runic Swedish'' and in Denmark ''Runic ...
spoken to the south. The westerly influences were notably strong in the centuries leading up to the
Viking Age The Viking Age (about ) was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. The Viking Age applies not only to their ...
. The shift to East Norse progressed through the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
. As Norrland gradually came to be more and more under Central Swedish influence in the
Modern Era The modern era or the modern period is considered the current historical period of human history. It was originally applied to the history of Europe and Western history for events that came after the Middle Ages, often from around the year 1500 ...
, many of the older West Norse characteristics disappeared. The strong West Norse influences can still be seen today in the
toponymy Toponymy, toponymics, or toponomastics is the study of '' toponyms'' ( proper names of places, also known as place names and geographic names), including their origins, meanings, usage, and types. ''Toponym'' is the general term for a proper na ...
of Norrland in placenames ending in ''-ånger'' (, "harbour"). Parish names such Skön and Indal (both in
Sundsvall Municipality Sundsvall Municipality () is a municipality in Västernorrland County, northern Sweden, where the city Sundsvall is the seat. As most municipalities of Sweden, ''Sundsvalls kommun'' is a result of a series of amalgamations, carried out in 1952 a ...
) have West Nordic origins. The dialect of
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
displays less West Nordic influence than other more westerly dialects. The greatest West Nordic/Norwegian, or perhaps least East Nordic/Swedish, influence is found in Jämtland. As with other regiolects, it is difficult to clearly define a unique set of characteristics for the Norrland dialects. The distribution of different features of the dialect have differing boundaries (called
isogloss An isogloss, also called a heterogloss, is the geographic boundary of a certain linguistics, linguistic feature, such as the pronunciation of a vowel, the meaning of a word, or the use of some morphological or syntactic feature. Isoglosses are a ...
es), which are described in the following summary of phenomena regarded as typical of Norrland dialects. In Norrland, traditional local dialects are on the decline as in many other parts of the world. Aside from characteristic peculiarities in intonation, there are certain grammatical traits that still survive: the infinitive ''måsta'' (Standard Swedish: ''måste''), present tense forms such as ''han gå'' (Standard Swedish: ''han går'', "he goes") and ''han ropa'' (Standard Swedish: ''han ropar'', "he calls"), and the uninflected predicative in a statement such as ''dom ä trött'' (Standard Swedish: ''de är trötta'', "they are tired").


Features


Vowel balance and apocope

Unlike present-day Standard Swedish, syllables in
Old Swedish Old Swedish ( Modern Swedish: ) is the name for two distinct stages of the Swedish language that were spoken in the Middle Ages: Early Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1225 until about 1375, and Late Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1375 unti ...
could be both light and heavy, and in the Norrland dialects the two syllable types developed in diverging ways, resulting in a number of phonological developments. In words with an original heavy syllable, the final vowel is often reduced or lost (
apocope In phonology, apocope () is the omission (elision) or loss of a sound or sounds at the end of a word. While it most commonly refers to the loss of a final vowel, it can also describe the deletion of final consonants or even entire syllables. ...
). The former is common in southern Norrland dialects, as in the infinitive ending of verbs ( > or ), e.g. ''kaste'' ‘to throw’ (Standard Swedish ''kasta''). The latter is common in northern Norrland dialects as well as in Jämtland, e.g. ''kast'' or more commonly ''kaast'', with preserved double-peak
pitch accent A pitch-accent language is a type of language that, when spoken, has certain syllables in words or morphemes that are prominent, as indicated by a distinct contrasting pitch (music), pitch (tone (linguistics), linguistic tone) rather than by vol ...
(so-called “circumflex” accent). In words with an original light syllable, no such reduction is found, e.g. ''taḷa'' ‘to speak’ (< Old Swedish ''tăla''; Modern Standard Swedish ''tala''). This weight-conditioned ending system is known in Swedish dialectology as ''vowel balance'' (Swedish ''vokalbalans''). Vowel balance is abundant throughout the grammatical system. Outside the infinitive of verbs, it is also found in the nominal system, where it affects for instance so-called weak masculines and weak feminines, e.g. Luleå dialect ''bääkk'' ‘hill’ (<
oblique Oblique may refer to: * an alternative name for the character usually called a slash (punctuation) ( / ) *Oblique angle, in geometry * Oblique triangle, in geometry * Oblique lattice, in geometry * Oblique leaf base, a characteristic shape of the ...
''bakka''; ''backe'') vs. ''po:sa'' ‘bag’ (with lengthened root vowel, from OSw. ''pŭsa''; Mod.Sw. ''påse''); ''kḷookk'' ‘clock’ (< OSw. ''klokku''; Mod.Sw. ''klocka'') vs. ''lö:do'' ‘barn’ (< OSw. ''lăþu''; Mod.Sw. ''lada''). Vowel balance is found in a large contiguous area in Northern Scandinavia. In Sweden it occurs in the entire Norrland dialect area with the exception of northern
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
, in
Härjedalen Härjedalen () is a historical province (''landskap'') in the centre of Sweden. It borders the Norwegian county of Trøndelag, as well as the provinces of Dalarna, Hälsingland, Medelpad and Jämtland. The province originally belonged to Norway, ...
and in upper
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
. Outside of Sweden, it occurs in northern Ostrobothnia in
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
and in
Østlandet Eastern Norway (, ) is the geographical Regions of Norway, region of the south-eastern part of Norway. It consists of the counties Oslo, Akershus, Vestfold, Østfold, Buskerud, Telemark, and Innlandet. Eastern Norway is by far the most populo ...
,
Trøndelag Trøndelag (; or is a county and coextensive with the Trøndelag region (also known as ''Midt-Norge'' or ''Midt-Noreg,'' "Mid-Norway") in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County (); in 1804 the county was ...
and parts of
Nordland Nordland (; , , , ) is one of the three northernmost Counties of Norway, counties in Norway in the Northern Norway region, bordering Troms in the north, Trøndelag in the south, Norrbotten County in Sweden to the east, Västerbotten County to t ...
in
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
. It is also notably found in several East Swedish dialects in southern
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
and
Estonia Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
. The dialects of northern Hälsingland, like most northern Svea dialects and Standard Swedish, generally preserve the ''-a'' of Old Swedish, i.e. ''kasta''. There is evidence to support that vowel balance was once a more geographically widespread phenomenon than in the early 20th century (when traditional dialects were still widely spoken). For instance, there are traces of vowel balance in Upper Swedish dialects, and in Old Swedish texts, vowel balance can be found as far south as eastern
Småland Småland () is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province () in southern Sweden. Småland borders Blekinge, Scania, Halland, Västergötland, Östergötland and the island Öland in the Baltic Sea. The name ''Småland'' literally means "small la ...
. The north Scandinavian apocope has a similar geographical distribution pattern, but is found further to the north, prototypically covering Lappland,
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
and
Västerbotten Västerbotten (), sometimes called West Bothnia or Westrobothnia, is a province (''landskap'') in northern Sweden, located by the Gulf of Bothnia. It borders the provinces of Ångermanland, Lapland and Norrbotten. The region is famous for Väs ...
, as well as most of
Jämtland Jämtland () is a historical provinces of Sweden, province () in the centre of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders Härjedalen and Medelpad to the south, Ångermanland to the east, Lapland, Sweden, Lapland to the north and Trøndelag and Norw ...
and parts of northern
Ångermanland Ångermanland ( or ) is a historical province (''landskap'') in the northern part of Sweden. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Swedish Lapland, Västerbotten, the Gulf of Bothnia, Medelpad and Jämtland. The name is derived from the ...
. In Norway it covers Trøndelag and parts of Nordland and in Finland the northern part of Ostrobothnia. It is also found in other areas such as northern
Värmland Värmland () is a ''Provinces of Sweden, landskap'' (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Name Several Latinized version ...
and
Öland Öland (, ; ; sometimes written ''Oland'' internationally) is the second-largest Swedish island and the smallest of the traditional provinces of Sweden. Öland has an area of and is located in the Baltic Sea just off the coast of Småland. ...
in Sweden, and
Jutland Jutland (; , ''Jyske Halvø'' or ''Cimbriske Halvø''; , ''Kimbrische Halbinsel'' or ''Jütische Halbinsel'') is a peninsula of Northern Europe that forms the continental portion of Denmark and part of northern Germany (Schleswig-Holstein). It ...
in Denmark. General reduction of unstressed ending vowels is, by contrast, a more widespread phenomenon, also found in e.g.
Östergötland Östergötland (; English exonym: East Gothland) is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish) in the south of Sweden. It borders Småland, Västergötland, Närke, Södermanland and the Baltic Sea. In older English li ...
and Småland as well as in Standard Bokmål Norwegian and Standard Danish. It has been suggested by Russian linguist Jurij Kusmenko that the Scandinavian vowel balance arose in contact with
Saami languages The Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers' Institute (SAAMI, pronounced "Sammy") is an association of American manufacturers of firearms, ammunition, and components. SAAMI is an accredited standards developer that publishes several Am ...
where a similar phenomenon was previously found. This hypothesis has, however, been deemed unconvincing by several scholars of Scandinavian languages.


Vowel harmony

In a subset of dialects with vowel balance, a process known as ''
vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is a phonological rule in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – must share certain distinctive features (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is typically long distance, meaning tha ...
'' is found (also known as ''vowel levelling'' or ''vowel metaphony''; Swedish ''tilljämning''). Vowel harmony is restricted to words with an old light root syllable and is an assimilation of the root vowel and the ending vowel. The assimilation process is usually regressive, i.e. the root vowel adopts features from the ending vowel, although progressive assimilation is also found in dialects in Norway and
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
. Vowel harmony has its center of intensity in
Eastern Norway Eastern Norway (, ) is the geographical region of the south-eastern part of Norway. It consists of the counties Oslo, Akershus, Vestfold, Østfold, Buskerud, Telemark, and Innlandet. Eastern Norway is by far the most populous region of Norw ...
,
Trøndelag Trøndelag (; or is a county and coextensive with the Trøndelag region (also known as ''Midt-Norge'' or ''Midt-Noreg,'' "Mid-Norway") in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County (); in 1804 the county was ...
and upper
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
, but is also found in Norrland dialects. For instance, the in
Old Swedish Old Swedish ( Modern Swedish: ) is the name for two distinct stages of the Swedish language that were spoken in the Middle Ages: Early Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1225 until about 1375, and Late Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1375 unti ...
oblique ''lăþu'' ‘barn’ has in many dialects been raised and rounded, e.g. in the Luleå dialect to : ''lödo'', in Jämtland dialects with full assimilation to : ''ludu''. In southern
Västerbotten Västerbotten (), sometimes called West Bothnia or Westrobothnia, is a province (''landskap'') in northern Sweden, located by the Gulf of Bothnia. It borders the provinces of Ångermanland, Lapland and Norrbotten. The region is famous for Väs ...
dialects, root vowel harmony with original is common, e.g. in
past participle In linguistics, a participle (; abbr. ) is a nonfinite verb form that has some of the characteristics and functions of both verbs and adjectives. More narrowly, ''participle'' has been defined as "a word derived from a verb and used as an adject ...
s such as ''lissi'' ‘read’ (< OSw. ''læ̆sit'') and ''skyri'' ‘cut’ (< OSw. ''skŭrit, skŏrit'').


Retention of before

In most Norrland dialects,
Old Swedish Old Swedish ( Modern Swedish: ) is the name for two distinct stages of the Swedish language that were spoken in the Middle Ages: Early Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1225 until about 1375, and Late Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1375 unti ...
has been preserved before the consonant cluster (which, however, has changed into , a
retroflex flap The voiced retroflex flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some Speech communication, spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is , a letter ''r'' with tail, and the equivalent X-SAMPA ...
). This is unlike Standard Swedish, and the traditional dialects further to the south, where has shifted to in this context. Examples include Medelpad (Torp dialect) ''aḷ'' ‘ard’ (< ''arþer''; ''årder'') and ''svaḷ'' ‘pork rind’ (< OSw. ''svarþ''; Mod.Sw. ''svål''). Jämtland does not share this feature, having changed into (or ), as in Jämtland ''vååḷ'' ‘to become’ (< OSw. ''varþa''). Lexical exceptions exist to this rule, notably the word ‘farm’, which is ''gåḷ'' in most of Norrland (< OSw. ''garþer''; Mod.Sw. ''gård''), likely due to influence from the standard language. The retention of is also found in adjacent dialects in Ostrobothnia in
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
to the east, as well as in Dalecarlian and
Norwegian dialects Norwegian dialects () are commonly divided into four main groups, 'Northern Norwegian' (), 'Central Norwegian' (), 'Western Norwegian' (), and 'Eastern Norwegian' (). Sometimes 'Midland Norwegian' () and/or 'South Norwegian' () are considered fi ...
to the (south)west.


Medial palatalization

The
Old Swedish Old Swedish ( Modern Swedish: ) is the name for two distinct stages of the Swedish language that were spoken in the Middle Ages: Early Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1225 until about 1375, and Late Old Swedish (), spoken from about 1375 unti ...
initial
velar consonant Velar consonants are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (also known as the "velum"). Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relativel ...
s and , as well as the cluster underwent palatalization before front vowels in almost all dialects of Swedish. In Norrland dialects unlike Standard Swedish, this change also took place in medial position, resulting in > ; > ; > , e.g. Arnäs dialect (Ångermanland) ''rôjjen'' ‘the rye’ (< ''rŭgin''; ''rågen''); Älvsbyn dialect (Norrbotten) ''fåḷtje'' ‘the people’ (< OSw. ''folkit''; Mod.Sw. ''folket''); Burträsk dialect (Västerbotten) ''fissjen'' ‘the fish’ (< OSw. ''fiskin''; Mod.Sw. ''fisken''). Medial palatalization is especially common in the definite form of masculine and neutral nouns, as shown above. However, in many dialects the change unproductive and has been gradually reversed due to
analogy Analogy is a comparison or correspondence between two things (or two groups of things) because of a third element that they are considered to share. In logic, it is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as oppose ...
with other unpalatalised forms in the paradigm, hence the definite form of ‘the fish’ in the Burträsk dialect is either palatalized ''fissjin'' or unpalatalized ''fisken''. In words where there are no related unpalatalized forms, palatalization is more robust, e.g. ''myttje'' ‘much’ (< OSw. ''mykit'', Mod.Sw. ''mycket''.) The southern border for medial palatalization runs through
Uppland Uppland is a historical province or ' on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. The name literally ...
,
Västmanland Västmanland ( or ) is a historical Swedish province, or , in middle Sweden. It borders Södermanland, Närke, Värmland, Dalarna and Uppland. Västmanland means "West Man Land" or, less literally, "The Land of the Western Men", where the "we ...
and
Värmland Värmland () is a ''Provinces of Sweden, landskap'' (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Name Several Latinized version ...
in
Svealand Svealand (), or Swealand, is the historical core region of Sweden. It is located in south-central Sweden and is one of the three historical lands of Sweden, bounded to the north by Norrland and to the south by Götaland. Deep forests, Tive ...
. It is also found in Ostrobothnia and parts of
Uusimaa Uusimaa (; , ; both lit. 'new land') is a region of Finland. It borders the regions of Southwest Finland, Tavastia Proper (Kanta-Häme), Päijänne Tavastia (Päijät-Häme), and Kymenlaakso. Finland's capital and largest city, Helsinki, alo ...
(Nyland) in Finland, as well as parts of
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
. There are also indications that medial palatalization formerly reached even further south, into the archipelago of
Södermanland Södermanland ( ), locally Sörmland, sometimes referred to under its Latinisation of names, Latinized form Sudermannia or Sudermania, is a Provinces of Sweden, historical province (or ) on the south eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Österg� ...
and
Östergötland Östergötland (; English exonym: East Gothland) is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden (''landskap'' in Swedish) in the south of Sweden. It borders Småland, Västergötland, Närke, Södermanland and the Baltic Sea. In older English li ...
.


Stress in compound words

In many Norrland dialects, the primary stress in
compound words In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word or sign) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding, composition or nominal composition is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. Compounding occurs when t ...
is placed on the second element, e.g. Ångermanland ''neverˈtak'' ‘birch roof’ or ''veaˈkast'' ‘wood pile’. This type of stress is especially found in
Ångermanland Ångermanland ( or ) is a historical province (''landskap'') in the northern part of Sweden. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Swedish Lapland, Västerbotten, the Gulf of Bothnia, Medelpad and Jämtland. The name is derived from the ...
and
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
, but also further south in northern
Uppland Uppland is a historical province or ' on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. The name literally ...
and Södertörn, as well as western
Åland Åland ( , ; ) is an Federacy, autonomous and Demilitarized zone, demilitarised region of Finland. Receiving its autonomy by a 1920 decision of the League of Nations, it is the smallest region of Finland by both area () and population (30,54 ...
. Similar stress phenomena are found in western
Uusimaa Uusimaa (; , ; both lit. 'new land') is a region of Finland. It borders the regions of Southwest Finland, Tavastia Proper (Kanta-Häme), Päijänne Tavastia (Päijät-Häme), and Kymenlaakso. Finland's capital and largest city, Helsinki, alo ...
(Nyland) in Finland, as well as in
Skåne Scania ( ), also known by its native name of Skåne (), is the southernmost of the historical provinces of Sweden, provinces () of Sweden. Located in the south tip of the geographical region of Götaland, the province is roughly conterminous w ...
and southern
Halland Halland () is one of the traditional provinces of Sweden (''landskap''), on the western coast of Götaland, southern Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Småland, Skåne, Scania and the sea of Kattegat. Until 1645 and the Second Treaty of Br ...
.


Use of the definite form

Norrland dialects are known for using the definite form for more grammatical functions than does Standard Swedish, where the corresponding form is often a bare noun. A primary use of the definite article is with non-count nouns and nouns denoting an unlimited quantity. For this reason, calls this use of the definite form “
partitive In linguistics, a partitive is a word, phrase, or Grammatical case, case that indicates partialness. Nominal (linguistics), Nominal partitives are syntactic constructions, such as "some of the children", and may be classified semantically as either ...
”, since the partitive use is similar to e.g. the French partitive, while
Östen Dahl Östen Dahl (; born 4 November 1945 in Stockholm) is a Swedish linguist and professor best known for pioneering a marker-based approach to tense and aspect in linguistic typology. Dahl finished his PhD at the University of Gothenburg and subsequ ...
calls this ''non-delimited use''. Examples of this usage include Arnäs dialect (Ångermanland) ''såddä svejjrôgen'' ‘sowed burn-beaten rye’ (Standard Swedish ''sådde svedjeråg'');
Skellefteå Skellefteå (, locally ) is a Cities in Sweden, city in Västerbotten County, Sweden, with a population of 36,388. It is the seat of Skellefteå Municipality, which had 77,322 inhabitants in 2024. The city is historically industrial, with mining ...
(northern Västerbotten) ''väärm mjölka'' ‘heat milk’ (Standard Swedish ''värma mjölk''). This use of the definite form is common in dialects in
Västerbotten Västerbotten (), sometimes called West Bothnia or Westrobothnia, is a province (''landskap'') in northern Sweden, located by the Gulf of Bothnia. It borders the provinces of Ångermanland, Lapland and Norrbotten. The region is famous for Väs ...
,
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
,
Ångermanland Ångermanland ( or ) is a historical province (''landskap'') in the northern part of Sweden. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Swedish Lapland, Västerbotten, the Gulf of Bothnia, Medelpad and Jämtland. The name is derived from the ...
,
Jämtland Jämtland () is a historical provinces of Sweden, province () in the centre of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders Härjedalen and Medelpad to the south, Ångermanland to the east, Lapland, Sweden, Lapland to the north and Trøndelag and Norw ...
as well as in the settler dialects of Lapland. There are also attested examples from
Medelpad Medelpad ( or ) is a historical province or ''landskap'' in the north of Sweden. It borders Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Ångermanland and the Gulf of Bothnia. The province is a part of Norrland and as such considered to be Northe ...
. In addition, it is also common in Ovansiljan in northern
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
, as well as in Ostrobothnia in
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
. Furthermore, the definite form is also used in generic statements, i.e. when a general statement is made about the entity the noun phrase refers to, e.g. ''beavers build dams'' or ''gold is expensive''. This usage also includes “citation uses”, e.g. Ersmark dialect (northern Västerbotten) ''he kall ve fö sjanostn'' ‘this we call sand cheese’. This usage of the definite form is even more widespread and apart from the areas listed above, it is also found in
Värmland Värmland () is a ''Provinces of Sweden, landskap'' (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Name Several Latinized version ...
, southern
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
and parts of
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
. Dahl also lists a number of other contexts where the definite article is used, including after quantifiers, e.g. Sorsele dialect (southern Västerbotten) ''tre brödren'' ‘three brothers’ (Standard Swedish ''tre bröder''); with so called “low referential” singular count nouns, e.g. Burträsk dialect (northern Västerbotten) ''vi hadd hästn'' ‘we had a horse’ (Standard Swedish ''vi hade häst''). In cases like these, the referent is not important but rather the property of owning a horse. In addition, the definite is also often used in instrumental phrases, e.g. Bjurholm dialect (Västerbotten–Ångermanland transitional) ''ät såppa ve skea'' ‘eats soup with a spoon’ (Standard Swedish ''äter soppa med sked''), as well as a few other cases.


Present tense of verbs

In the present tense of strong verbs, the ending ''-er'' is lost, e.g. ''han bit'' ‘he bites’ (Standard Swedish ''han biter''); ''han spring'' ‘he runs’ (Standard Swedish ''han springer''). This is characteristic for all traditional Norrland dialects, and the southern border for runs through
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
, so that northern Hälsingland has ''han bit'', but southern ''han bite''. This feature is also found in northern
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
and
Trøndelag Trøndelag (; or is a county and coextensive with the Trøndelag region (also known as ''Midt-Norge'' or ''Midt-Noreg,'' "Mid-Norway") in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County (); in 1804 the county was ...
in
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
.


Adjective incorporation

While adjective–noun compounds are possible in all Scandinavian varieties, Norrland dialects tend to form compounds with adjectives more frequently, and with a semantic difference. Contrasting ''den nya bilen'' ‘the new car’ with the compounded form ''nybilen'' in Standard Swedish, the compound may only have the reading “the recently fabricated car”, not “the car I just bought (in contrast to my old car)”. In Norrland dialect that employ adjective incorporation however, this is only true for the indefinite form, while the definite ''nybiln'' can also refer to a new car contrasted to the speaker's old car. Adjective incorporation may also occur when the adjective represent a more occasional rather than inherent property of the noun, hence Nederkalix dialect (Norrbotten) ''litn artibåt'' ‘nice little boat’, ''lilfåtiståkkar'' ‘poor little thing’;
Vilhelmina Vilhelmina ( Southern Sami: ''Vualtjere'') is a locality and the central town of Vilhelmina Municipality in Västerbotten County, in the province of Lapland, Sweden with 3,657 inhabitants in 2010. Vilhelmina is situated by Lake Volgsjön in the ...
dialect (southern Västerbotten) ''tôkken gammstygggûbb'' ‘such an ugly old man’. Adjective incorporation is found in all Norrland dialects, as well as in northern
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
. It is also found to some extent in Ostrobothnia in
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
and in
Trøndelag Trøndelag (; or is a county and coextensive with the Trøndelag region (also known as ''Midt-Norge'' or ''Midt-Noreg,'' "Mid-Norway") in the central part of Norway. It was created in 1687, then named Trondhjem County (); in 1804 the county was ...
in
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
.


Preproprial articles

A preproprial article is an article used before
proper name A proper noun is a noun that identifies a single entity and is used to refer to that entity (''Africa''; ''Jupiter''; ''Sarah''; ''Walmart'') as distinguished from a common noun, which is a noun that refers to a class of entities (''continent, pl ...
s, and works like a definite article for both first names, surnames, as well as kinship terms in Norrland dialects. In Norrland dialects, the form of the article is usually identical to the unstressed forms of the 3rd person
personal pronoun Personal pronouns are pronouns that are associated primarily with a particular grammatical person – first person (as ''I''), second person (as ''you''), or third person (as ''he'', ''she'', ''it''). Personal pronouns may also take different f ...
s, from which they are also historically derived: ''(e)n'' in the
masculine Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed, and there is also evidence that some beh ...
, and ''a'' in the
feminine Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and Gender roles, roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as Social construction of gender, socially constructed, and there is also s ...
, e.g. ''n Erik'' or ''a Anna''. In many dialects the article is indeclinable, but in many dialects with a
dative case In grammar, the dative case ( abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this examp ...
, it has a dative form as well. The preproprial article is used when the proper name functions as an argument and in identifying predicatives: ''de här ä n Erik'' ‘this is Erik’, but not when it functions as a predicate with the verbs ''heta'' ‘to be named’ and ''kallas'' ‘to be called’: ''han het (*en) Erik'' ‘his name is Erik’, nor in
vocative In grammar, the vocative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case which is used for a noun that identifies a person (animal, object, etc.) being addressed or occasionally for the noun modifiers (determiners, adjectives, participles, and numeral ...
constructions: ''(*a) Anna, vars ä du'' ‘Anna, where are you?’. The preproprial article is obligatory in all traditional dialects in Norrland except for the southernmost regions of
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
and
Gästrikland Gästrikland () is a historical province or ''landskap'' on the eastern coast of Sweden. It borders Uppland, Västmanland, Dalarna, Hälsingland and the Gulf of Bothnia. Gästrikland is the southernmost and the most densely populated of the No ...
. It is also found in western
Dalarna Dalarna (; ), also referred to by the English exonyms Dalecarlia and the Dales, is a (historical province) in central Sweden. Dalarna adjoins Härjedalen, Hälsingland, Gästrikland, Västmanland and Värmland. It is also bordered by Nor ...
and in northern
Värmland Värmland () is a ''Provinces of Sweden, landskap'' (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Name Several Latinized version ...
. It is also common in most parts of
Norway Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and the archipelago of Svalbard also form part of the Kingdom of ...
, except the very south.


Subgrouping

Below is a list of common subdialectal divisions of Norrland dialects, beginning in the north and ending in the south.


Settler dialects

The so-called "settler dialects" (Swedish: ''nybyggarmål'') comprise all the Swedish dialects in Lappland; Karl-Hampus Dahlstedt geographically defines this dialect to those inland parts of
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
where the Swedish dialects do not fit in with any of the relatively more clearly defined dialects of the coastal regions, due to the patchwork ancestry of the Swedish-speaking settlers that populated the area. One typical "settler dialect" is found in Arjeplog, which arose from a blending of Standard Swedish with the Piteå and Umeå dialects. There is also Sami influence on these dialects, such as the absence of the "thick L", which is generally typical of Norrland dialects. Another area in which a "settler dialect" is spoken is Malmfälten. Swedish came to the Lappmark in the 18th and 19th centuries as ethnic
Swedes Swedes (), or Swedish people, are an ethnic group native to Sweden, who share a common ancestry, Culture of Sweden, culture, History of Sweden, history, and Swedish language, language. They mostly inhabit Sweden and the other Nordic countries, ...
began to settle the area. They came from many different regions, and some even spoke Finnish or a Sami language natively. This resulted in a blending of both dialects and languages. Most of the Lappmark dialects thus lack such archaic features as the
dative case In grammar, the dative case ( abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this examp ...
and diphthongs that the dialects of the coastal parishes have retained. Nevertheless, the differences between the various Lappmark dialects can be considerable, depending on the heritage of those who settled in a given area. A notable number of Sami loanwords have found their way into the dialects of Lappmark and the areas just to the south. For instance, the Siberian jay is locally called ''koxik'' as opposed to the Standard Swedish ''lavskrika''.


Kalix

The Kalix dialects (Swedish: ''kalixmål'') are spoken in the medieval Kalix parishes (present-day Kalix and
Överkalix Överkalix (; ) is a Urban areas in Sweden, locality and the seat of Överkalix Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden with 975 inhabitants in 2010. Climate Överkalix has a subarctic climate with significant temperature differences between the ...
municipalities). Like other dialects in
Norrbotten Norrbotten (), sometimes called North Bothnia, is a Swedish province (''landskap'') in northernmost Sweden. It borders south to Västerbotten, west to Swedish Lapland, and east to Finland. Administration The traditional provinces of Swede ...
, the Kalix dialects retain numerous archaic features. Many
Old Norse Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic languages, North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants ...
diphthongs A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...
have been preserved, as well as archaic consonant clusters such as ''sj'', ''stj'' and ''lj''. The
dative case In grammar, the dative case ( abbreviated , or sometimes when it is a core argument) is a grammatical case used in some languages to indicate the recipient or beneficiary of an action, as in "", Latin for "Maria gave Jacob a drink". In this examp ...
is also retained, including following a
preposition Adpositions are a part of speech, class of words used to express spatial or temporal relations (''in, under, towards, behind, ago'', etc.) or mark various thematic relations, semantic roles (''of, for''). The most common adpositions are prepositi ...
. Additionally, verbs at least partially retain their old plural forms. The Kalix dialects are divided into * Överkalix dialect (''överkalixmål'') * Nederkalix dialect (''nederkalixmål'') One difference between these two varieties is that the old consonant clusters ''mb'', ''nd'', and ''ng'' have been retained in Överkalix, but not in Nederkalix. For example, the Standard Swedish ''kam'' ("comb" or "crest") is ''kemb'' in Överkalix, but ''kap'' in Nederkalix. Furthermore, the Överkalix dialect has more influences from Sami languages and
Meänkieli (literally 'our language'), or Tornedalian is a Finnic language or a group of distinct Finnish dialects spoken in the northernmost part of Sweden, particularly along the Torne River Valley. It is officially recognized in Sweden as one of the ...
.


Luleå

The Luleå dialects (Swedish: ''lulemål'') are spoken in and around the mediaeval parish of
Luleå Luleå ( , , locally ; ; ) is a Cities in Sweden, city on the coast of northern Sweden, and the County Administrative Boards of Sweden, capital of Norrbotten County, the northernmost county in Sweden. Luleå has 48,728 inhabitants in its urban ...
(present-day Boden and
Luleå Luleå ( , , locally ; ; ) is a Cities in Sweden, city on the coast of northern Sweden, and the County Administrative Boards of Sweden, capital of Norrbotten County, the northernmost county in Sweden. Luleå has 48,728 inhabitants in its urban ...
municipalities). They are also spoken in the easternmost parts of Lule lappmark up to near Vuollerim. These dialects may be further subdivided as follows * Lower Luleå dialect (in Lower Luleå parish) * Upper Luleå dialect (in Upper Luleå parish) * Råneå dialect (in Råneå parish) The Luleå dialects are known for, among other things, a rich inventory of diphthongs. The Old Norse ''ai'', ''au'', and ''öy'' are preserved, as well as ''ei'' (e.g., ''stein'' for Standard Swedish ''sten'', meaning "stone"), ''eo'' (e.g., ''heok'' for Standard Swedish ''hök'', meaning
hawk Hawks are birds of prey of the family Accipitridae. They are very widely distributed and are found on all continents, except Antarctica. The subfamily Accipitrinae includes goshawks, sparrowhawks, sharp-shinned hawks, and others. This ...
), and ''oi'' (e.g., ''hoi'' for Standard Swedish ''hö'', meaning "hay"). These dialects also have a number of vowels that differ from Standard Swedish. For example, Standard Swedish ''i'' becomes ''öi'' (''röis'' instead of Standard ''ris'', meaning "rice"), while Standard ''u'' becomes ''eo'' or ''eu'' (''heos'' instead of Standard ''hus'', meaning "house").


Piteå

The Piteå dialects (Swedish: ''pitemål'') are spoken in the area of the mediaeval Piteå parish (present-day
Piteå Piteå (; ) is a locality and the seat of Piteå Municipality in Norrbotten County, Sweden. Piteå is Sweden's 58th largest city, with a population of 23,326. Geography Piteå is located at the mouth of the Pite River (), at the shore of ...
and Älvsbyn municipalities) as well as in the southernmost parts of Jokkmokk Municipality and in northern Arvidsjaur Municipality in Pite lappmark. These dialects also preserve a number of archaic features, such as conserved diphthongs in words like ''göuk'' (Standard Swedish: ''gök'', "cuckoo bird") and ''stein'' (Standard Swedish: ''sten'', "stone"). The consonant clusters ''mb'', ''nd'', and ''ng'' are often retained, for example in ''kamb'' (Standard Swedish: ''kam'', "comb"). Unique to the Piteå dialects is that Old Swedish long "a" (modern "å") has become short "a" before "n", but nowhere else. Thus, ''lan'' (Standard Swedish: ''lån", "loan"), but ''båt'' (Standard Swedish: ''båt'', "boat").


North and south Västerbotten

Northern Västerbotten dialects (Swedish: ''nordvästerbottniska mål'') are spoken in the northern parts of
Västerbotten Västerbotten (), sometimes called West Bothnia or Westrobothnia, is a province (''landskap'') in northern Sweden, located by the Gulf of Bothnia. It borders the provinces of Ångermanland, Lapland and Norrbotten. The region is famous for Väs ...
, primarily the mediaeval Skellefteå parish (including Norsjö), together with a part of Pite lappmark (
Malå Malå (, ) is a locality and the seat of Malå Municipality in Västerbotten County, province of Lapland, Sweden with 2,050 inhabitants in 2010. History The Swedish name Malå comes from the Sami ''Máláge''. The origin is unclear, but the ...
and Arvidsjaur). Just like the coastal dialects of Norrbotten, the Northern Västerbotten dialects preserve numerous archaic features. The dative case is still used, not only after prepositions but also after certain adjectives and verbs. Old Norse diphthongs have been preserved in many local dialects, but have developed in different, unique ways. For instance, Standard Swedish ''öra'' ("ear") can be ''ööyr'', ''ääyr'', or ''aajr'' in various local dialects of Northern Västerbotten. Southern Västerbotten dialects (Swedish: ''sydvästerbottniska mål'') are spoken along the
Ume River The Ume River (Swedish: ''Ume älv'' or ''Umeälven'') is one of the main rivers in northern Sweden. It is around long, and flows in a south-eastern direction from its source, the lake ''Överuman'' by the Norway, Norwegian border within the Scand ...
from
Umeå Umeå ( , , , locally ; ; ; ; ) is a city in northeast Sweden. It is the seat of Umeå Municipality and the capital of Västerbotten County. Situated on the Ume River, Umeå is the largest Urban areas in Sweden, locality in Norrland and the t ...
to Tärna and Sorsele, including
Bygdeå Bygdeå is a locality situated in Robertsfors Municipality, Västerbotten County, Sweden with 502 inhabitants in 2010. The town is situated some south of the municipal seat Robertsfors and several kilometers inland from the Swedish Kvarken of ...
and Holmön. A dialect is spoken in Lycksele lappmark which is highly reminiscent of dialects spoken in
Umeå Umeå ( , , , locally ; ; ; ; ) is a city in northeast Sweden. It is the seat of Umeå Municipality and the capital of Västerbotten County. Situated on the Ume River, Umeå is the largest Urban areas in Sweden, locality in Norrland and the t ...
,
Vännäs Vännäs () is a Urban areas in Sweden, locality in Västerbotten County in northern Sweden. Vännäs is the seat of Vännäs Municipality and had 9,077 inhabitants in 2024. The name of the village has existed since 1535 (''Wendenäs'', "The pla ...
, and Degerfors ( Vindeln). These influences become less apparent approaching the Norwegian border, but are still strong as far as Tärna, where an old Umeå substratum is evident. The local dialect of Sorsele is influenced by the Northern Västerbotten dialects as well. The Southern Västerbotten dialects also preserve archaic diphthongs, for instance in ''bein'' (Standard Swedish: ''ben'', "leg") and ''ööys'' (Standard Swedish: ''ösa'', "to scoop"). This is a characteristic that distinguishes the Southern Västerbotten dialects from the dialects of Nordmaling and Bjurholm to the south as well as a shared feature with the Northern Västerbotten dialects. One difference between the Southern and Northern Västerbotten dialects is that in the Southern group, a "g" is often inserted between the old diphthong "au" and a following an "r" or "thick L". For example, Southern ''ôger'' is ''aur'' in the Northern dialects (Standard Swedish: '' ör'', "gravelly ground").


Transitional dialects between Ångermanland and Västerbotten

These dialects, intermediate between the Southern Västerbotten dialects and the Ångermanland dialect, are spoken in Nordmaling and Bjurholm as well as Örträsk. These dialects are similar to the dialect of nolaskogs, such as in the change of Old Norse ''hv-'' to ''gv-'' (''gvit'' as opposed to Standard Swedish ''vit'', meaning "white").


Ångermanland

The Ångermanland dialects (Swedish: ''ångermanländska mål'') are spoken in
Ångermanland Ångermanland ( or ) is a historical province (''landskap'') in the northern part of Sweden. It is bordered (clockwise from the north) by Swedish Lapland, Västerbotten, the Gulf of Bothnia, Medelpad and Jämtland. The name is derived from the ...
(with the exception of Nordmaling and Bjurholm) and Åsele lappmark. The dialects of
Åsele Åsele () is a locality and the seat of Åsele Municipality in Västerbotten County, province of Lapland, Sweden with 1,798 inhabitants in 2010. Its elevation The elevation of a geographic location (geography), ''location'' is its height ab ...
and
Vilhelmina Vilhelmina ( Southern Sami: ''Vualtjere'') is a locality and the central town of Vilhelmina Municipality in Västerbotten County, in the province of Lapland, Sweden with 3,657 inhabitants in 2010. Vilhelmina is situated by Lake Volgsjön in the ...
have largely retained their Ångermanland character while still developing into their own. One exception is Fredrika parish, which developed a speech closer to Standard Swedish as a result of lying near major immigration routes from Ångermanland. The dialect of Dikanäs in Vilhelmina municipality is a transitional dialect between Ångermanland and the dialects of Lycksele lappmark. The Ångermanland dialects may be further subdivided as follows: *Dialects of Åsele lappmark ** Vilhelmina dialect * Nolaskogs dialect *Dialects of
Ådalen Ådalen �oːˌdɑlənis the river valley of the Ångerman River, downstream Junsele, in Sweden. It often refers to the broad, densely populated, fjord-like mouth of the river, in Kramfors Municipality, and is known for the May 1931 Ådalen s ...


Jämtland

The Jämtland dialects (Swedish: ''jämtmål'', ''jämtska'') comprise the dialects of
Jämtland Jämtland () is a historical provinces of Sweden, province () in the centre of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders Härjedalen and Medelpad to the south, Ångermanland to the east, Lapland, Sweden, Lapland to the north and Trøndelag and Norw ...
, with the exception of upper Frostviken, where the so-called Lid dialect (''Lidmålet'') is spoken. These dialects are to a greater extent than other Norrland dialects caught between eastern (i.e., Swedish) and western (i.e., Norwegian) linguistic influences. For example, the vowel ''u'' in words such as ''bu'' (Standard Swedish: ''bod'', "hut"; cf. Norwegian: ''bu'') and ''ku'' (Standard Swedish: ''ko'', "cow"; cf. Norwegian: ''ku''). The Jämtland dialects, like other Norrland dialects, also retain the archaic diphthongs of Old Norse.


Medelpad

The Medelpad dialects (Swedish: ''medelpadsmål'') are spoken in
Medelpad Medelpad ( or ) is a historical province or ''landskap'' in the north of Sweden. It borders Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Ångermanland and the Gulf of Bothnia. The province is a part of Norrland and as such considered to be Northe ...
, with the exception of the westernmost parish of Haverö, where the Hogdal dialects are spoken. In comparison to other Norrland dialects, the Medelpad dialects are relatively uniform. The most important outer isogloss is the one with the Hälsing dialects to the south, which defines the limits of the "vowel balance" characteristic of Norrland dialects. One characteristic that distinguishes the Medelpad dialects (for example, IndalLiden) from other nearby dialects is the pronunciation of both short and long ''i'' and ''y'' as the same, the so-called " Viby I". In Borgsjö and Torp, ''y'' is pronounced as ''i'', while ''ö'' is pronounced closer to ''e''. This trait is also found in the Hälsing dialects and in parts of
Härjedalen Härjedalen () is a historical province (''landskap'') in the centre of Sweden. It borders the Norwegian county of Trøndelag, as well as the provinces of Dalarna, Hälsingland, Medelpad and Jämtland. The province originally belonged to Norway, ...
. Other traits are shared with the Ångermanländ dialects, like the "thick ''n''" sound after long vowels in words such as ''van'' ("experienced", "habituated to") and ''måne'' ("moon"). In the northernmost pars of Medelpad, the dialects show notable influence from
Jämtland Jämtland () is a historical provinces of Sweden, province () in the centre of Sweden in northern Europe. It borders Härjedalen and Medelpad to the south, Ångermanland to the east, Lapland, Sweden, Lapland to the north and Trøndelag and Norw ...
. A characteristic typical for dialects of coastal Medelpad is short ''u'' in place of standard ''ö''.


Hogdal

These dialects are spoken in Haverö and Ytterhogdal.


Northern Hälsingland

The commonly accepted isogloss between Norrland dialects and Svealand Swedish runs through
Hälsingland Hälsingland (), sometimes referred to by the Latin name Helsingia, is a historical Provinces of Sweden, province or ''landskap'' in central Sweden. It borders Gästrikland, Dalarna, Härjedalen, Medelpad and the Gulf of Bothnia. It is part of ...
. This area, however, is a typical transition region. From A Svealand standpoint, there are reasons to define the isogloss as coinciding with the southern border of Hälsingland (through Ödmården). From a Norrland standpoint, there are alternative reasons to define it as coinciding with the southern border of
Medelpad Medelpad ( or ) is a historical province or ''landskap'' in the north of Sweden. It borders Hälsingland, Härjedalen, Jämtland, Ångermanland and the Gulf of Bothnia. The province is a part of Norrland and as such considered to be Northe ...
, which would fit with the southern limit of vowel balance. Included in the Hälsingland dialects are the Hassela dialect (Swedish: ''hasselamål'') and the Forsa dialect (Swedish: ''forsamål'').


References


Notes


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Listen to some Norrland dialects


{{Swedish language Swedish dialects Norrland