![Atelier de Nicolas de Largillière, portrait de Voltaire, détail (musée Carnavalet) -002](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Atelier_de_Nicolas_de_Largilli%C3%A8re%2C_portrait_de_Voltaire%2C_d%C3%A9tail_%28mus%C3%A9e_Carnavalet%29_-002.jpg)
The (''Philosophical Dictionary'') is an
encyclopedic dictionary published by the
Enlightenment thinker
Voltaire
François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his ''nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...
in 1764. The alphabetically arranged articles often criticize the
Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
,
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in t ...
,
Islam, and other institutions. The first edition, released in June 1764, went by the name of . It was 344 pages and consisted of 73 articles. Later versions were expanded into two volumes consisting of 120 articles. The first editions were published anonymously in
Geneva
, neighboring_municipalities= Carouge, Chêne-Bougeries, Cologny, Lancy, Grand-Saconnex, Pregny-Chambésy, Vernier, Veyrier
, website = https://www.geneve.ch/
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevr ...
by Gabriel Grasset. Due to the volatile content of the ''Dictionnaire'', Voltaire chose Grasset over his usual publisher to ensure his own
anonymity. There were many editions and reprints of the ''Dictionnaire'' during Voltaire's lifetime, but only four of them contained additions and modifications. Furthermore, another work published in 1770, , which contained reshaped and modified articles from the ''
Encyclopédie
''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'' (English: ''Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts''), better known as ''Encyclopédie'', was a general encyclopedia publis ...
'' always in alphabetical order, led many following editors to join this and the ''Dictionnaire'' (plus other minor works) in a unique opus.
The ''Dictionnaire'' was a lifelong project for Voltaire. It represents the culmination of his views on
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
,
God
In monotheistic thought, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)''The Oxford Companion to Philosophy'', Oxford University Press, 1995. God is typically ...
,
morality
Morality () is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of co ...
and other subjects.
History and origins
![Voltaire - Philospohical dictionary](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Voltaire_-_Philospohical_dictionary.jpg)
The
Enlightenment saw the creation of a new way of structuring
information
Information is an abstract concept that refers to that which has the power to inform. At the most fundamental level information pertains to the interpretation of that which may be sensed. Any natural process that is not completely random ...
in
book
A book is a medium for recording information in the form of writing or images, typically composed of many pages (made of papyrus, parchment, vellum, or paper) bound together and protected by a cover. The technical term for this physi ...
s. The first work to employ this method was the ''
Dictionnaire Historique et Critique'' (1697) by
Pierre Bayle
Pierre Bayle (; 18 November 1647 – 28 December 1706) was a French philosopher, author, and lexicographer. A Huguenot, Bayle fled to the Dutch Republic in 1681 because of religious persecution in France. He is best known for his '' Histori ...
, in which the information is ordered alphabetically. Other important works using a similar structure followed, such as the ''
Encyclopédie
''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'' (English: ''Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts''), better known as ''Encyclopédie'', was a general encyclopedia publis ...
'' by
Diderot and
Jean d'Alembert
Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert (; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was, together with Denis Diderot, a co-editor of the ''Encyclopédie ...
. Having witnessed first-hand the popularity and many advantages of this form, Voltaire used this information while preparing the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' in 1752, although it was not completed until 1764.
Having had the opportunity to write his ''Dictionary'' at a later point in time, Voltaire saw that there were certain problems with previous dictionaries, chiefly that they were all lengthy, and thus very expensive and inaccessible for much of the population. Voltaire sought to create a text which would fit in one's pocket and be affordable because "revolutionary material must be small enough for people to carry with them". What he created is a text which educated and amused at the same time.
[Voltaire (translated by Gay), p. 56]
Voltaire's motivations for writing the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' can be seen as serendipitous. The idea was spawned at a dinner party in the court of Prince
Frederick II of Prussia in 1752, during which he and other guests each agreed to write an article and share them the next morning. Voltaire consequently was the only guest to take the game seriously and the idea cascaded to form the ''Philosophical Dictionary''.
Structure
The ''Philosophical Dictionary'' is structured in the tradition of Bayle, Diderot and d'Alembert — that is to say, alphabetically ordered. Although this order helps readers more easily find articles, this was not meant to be a dictionary or encyclopaedia in the same totalizing way of d'Alembert's project. Voltaire's writing is neither objective nor varied in opinion; the same arguments are made throughout the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' emphasizing the point of his discontent.
Themes
Many of the themes addressed by Voltaire in this book are addressed or touched upon in his work ''L'Infame''. In this and other works, Voltaire is very concerned about the injustices of the Catholic Church, which he sees as intolerant and fanatical. At the same time, his work espouses
deism (though he calls it ''
theism
Theism is broadly defined as the belief in the existence of a supreme being or deities. In common parlance, or when contrasted with '' deism'', the term often describes the classical conception of God that is found in monotheism (also referred ...
'', contrary to its modern meaning), tolerance and freedom of the press.
Influences
Because this work was written late in the author's life, coupled with the fact that it is compiled of articles written over an extended period of time, the work had many influences, which noticeably change, depending on the theme which the article addresses.
The first major influence on the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' is Voltaire's visit to England, which gave him the opportunity to compare the problems in France with a place that had free press and to become better acquainted with important and influential thinkers such as Locke and Newton. Newtonian theory is influential in many of the articles that deal with tolerance stating that if we "do not know the essence of things we will not persecute others", for those things.
The
Calas affair was an event that shaped Voltaire during the creation of the ''Philosophical Dictionary''. Jean Calas was a
Calvinist
Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Ca ...
who was wrongfully convicted of killing his son. This occurred because there had been a rumour that the murder was fueled by Calas' son conversion to Catholicism. David de Beaudrige, who was in charge of the case, upon hearing this rumour, had the Calas family arrested without inquiry. Voltaire used this theme in the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' to fight against the Catholic Church.
Reception
The reception of the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' at the time was mixed. On one hand, the book saw a very strong reception on the part of the general public. The first edition was quickly sold out; many more editions were needed to keep up with the demand. Enlightened rulers such as
Frederick II of
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an ...
and
Catherine II
, en, Catherine Alexeievna Romanova, link=yes
, house =
, father = Christian August, Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst
, mother = Joanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp
, birth_date =
, birth_name = Princess Sophie of Anha ...
of
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. It is the largest country in the world, with its internationally recognised territory covering , and encompassing one-eig ...
both have been recorded as supporters of the book.
On the other hand, the ''Philosophical Dictionary'' was despised by religious authorities, who had a very important influence over what works were to be censored. The ''Philosophical Dictionary'' was censored in many countries, including Switzerland (
Geneva
, neighboring_municipalities= Carouge, Chêne-Bougeries, Cologny, Lancy, Grand-Saconnex, Pregny-Chambésy, Vernier, Veyrier
, website = https://www.geneve.ch/
Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevr ...
) and France.
''Arrest de la cour de Parlement, qui condamne deux Libelles (...): Dictionnaire Philosophique portatif; (...) Lettres écrites de la Montagne, par Jean-Jacques Rousseau (...). Extrait des registres du Parlement. Du 19 Mars 1765''
In these countries, all available copies of the book were collected and burned in the town square.[Orieux, p. 409] Voltaire, who remained an anonymous author, was repeatedly asked if he minded that the ''Portatif'' was being burned, but he calmly replied that he had no reason to be upset.
References
Bibliography
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External links
Of the many editions just four of them present additions:
''Dictionnaire philosophique, portatif'', Londres, 1764
''Dictionnaire philosophique, portatif. Nouvelle édition, Revue, corrigée, & augmentée de divers Articles par l'Auteur'', Londres, 1765
**''Dictionnaire philosophique, portatif. Nouvelle edition. Avec des notes; Beaucoup plus correcte & plus ample que les précédentes''
vol. 1
vol. 2
Amsterdam, chez Varberg, 1765 (considered by Voltaire the fifth edition).
**''Dictionnaire philosophique, portatif. Sixieme Edition revue, corrigée & augmentée de XXXIV. Articles par l'Auteur''
vol. 1
vol. 2
Londres, 1767.
**''La Raison par Alphabet. Sixiéme édition, revue, corrigée & augmentée par l'Auteur''
vol. 1
vol. 2
s. l., 1769.
* Voltair
''A Philosophical Dictionary''
12 Volumes in English from Gutenberg
*Extracts from
'
''A Philosophical Dictionary'' from the French of M. de Voltaire Volume 3
(London: Hunt, 1824)
Voltaire's ''Philosophical Dictionary'' (Project Gutenberg)
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