''Philodryas olfersii'' is a

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

venomous snake Venomous snakes are Species (biology), species of the Suborder (biology), suborder Snake, Serpentes that are capable of producing Snake venom, venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The v ...

in the

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

Colubridae Colubridae (, commonly known as colubrids , from la, coluber, 'snake') is a family of snakes. With 249 genera, it is the largest snake family. The earliest species of the family date back to the Oligocene epoch. Colubrid snakes are found on ever ...

. The species is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...

Common names

Common name In biology, a common name of a taxon or organism (also known as a vernacular name, English name, colloquial name, country name, popular name, or farmer's name) is a name that is based on the normal language of everyday life; and is often contrast ...

s for ''P. olfersii'' include Lichtenstein's green racer,''Philodryas olfersii''.
The Reptile Database. O'Shea M (2008). ''Venomous Snakes of the World''. New Holland Publishers. pg. 53. South American green racer,Weinstein SA, et al. (2011). ''"Venomous" Bites from Non-Venomous Snakes: A Critical Analysis of Risk and Management of "Colubrid" Snake Bites''. Elsevier. pg. 104. and eastern green whiptail, Sazima I, Marques OAV (2007)
"A reliable customer: Hunting site fidelity by an actively foraging neotropical colubrid snake".
''Herpetological Bulletin'' (99): 36–38. Barbo FE, et al. (2011)
"Diversity, natural history, and distribution of snakes in the municipality of São Paulo".
''South American Journal of Herpetology'' 6 (3): 135–160. and in

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

, ''cobra-cipó'', ''cobra de São João'',Correia JM, et al. (2010)
"Poisoning due to ''Philodryas olfersii'' (Lichtenstein, 1823) attended at Restauração Hospital in Recife, State of Pernambuco, Brazil: Case report".
''Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical'' 43 (3): 336–338. ''cobra-facão'', ''cobra-verde'', and ''mboi-obi''. Freiberg M (1982). ''Snakes of South America''. Hong Kong: T.F.H. Publications. 189 pp. . (''Philodryas olfersii'', pp. 106, 137 + photographs on pp. 21, 146).

Etymology

The specific name, ''olfersii'', is in honor of

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany (of or related to) **Germania (historical use) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizens of Germany, see also German nationality law **Ger ...

naturalist

Ignaz von Olfers Ignaz Franz Werner Maria von Olfers (30 August 1793 – 23 April 1871) was a German naturalist, historian and diplomat. Olfers was born in Münster. In 1816 he travelled to Brazil as a diplomat. In 1839 he was made director of the royal art col ...

Geographic range

''P. olfersii'' is native to southern South America, including northern

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

, and northwestern

Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...

Description

''P. olfersii'' reaches 1 to 1.5 meters (about 40 to 60 inches) in maximum total length (including tail).

Dorsally Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...

, it is green in color;Kuch U (1999)
"Notes on two cases of human envenomation by the South American colubrid snakes ''Philodryas olfersii latirostris'' Cope, 1862 and ''Philodryas chamissonis'' (Wiegmann, 1834) (Squamata: Serpentes: Colubridae)".
''Herpetozoa'' 12 (1/2): 11–16. ventrally, it is yellowish. The

dorsal scales In snakes, the dorsal scales are the longitudinal series of plates that encircle the body, but do not include the ventral scales. Campbell JA, Lamar WW (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publis ...

are smooth, without apical pits, and are arranged in 19 rows at midbody.

Habitat

''P. olfersii'' can be found in many

habitat In ecology, the term habitat summarises the array of resources, physical and biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species habitat can be seen as the physical ...

types, including the

Cerrado The ''Cerrado'' (, ) is a vast ecoregion of tropical savanna in eastern Brazil, particularly in the states of Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Tocantins, Minas Gerais, and the Federal District. The core areas of the Cerrado biome are t ...

Caatinga Caatinga (, ) is a type of semi-arid tropical vegetation, and an ecoregion characterized by this vegetation in interior northeastern Brazil. The name "Caatinga" is a Tupi word meaning "white forest" or "white vegetation" (''caa'' = forest, v ...

forest A forest is an area of land dominated by trees. Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' ...

forest transition Forest transition refers to a geographic theory describing a reversal or turnaround in land-use trends for a given territory from a period of net forest area loss (i.e., deforestation) to a period of net forest area gain. The term "landscape turn ...

, and

restinga Restingas () are a distinct type of coastal tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forest in eastern Brazil. They form on sandy, acidic, and nutrient-poor soils, and are characterized by medium-sized trees and shrubs adapted to the drier and nut ...

.Viana LA, et al. (2013)
"A new species of ''Caryospora'' Léger, 1904 (Apicomplexa: Eimeriidae) from the snake ''Philodryas olfersii'' Lichtenstein (Colubridae) from a coastal habitat in Brazil".
''Syst. Parasitol.'' 85 (2): 195–199. It has been found at altitudes from sea level to .

Behavior

The species ''P. olfersii'' is often

arboreal Arboreal locomotion is the Animal locomotion, locomotion of animals in trees. In habitats in which trees are present, animals have evolved to move in them. Some animals may scale trees only occasionally, but others are exclusively arboreal. Th ...

, but it also forages on the ground. It is diurnal, though it has been observed mating late in the evening.Dourado de Mesquita PCM, et al. (2012)
"''Philodryas olfersii'' (Squamata, Serpentes, Dipsadidae): Nocturnal mating behavior".
''Herpetologia Brasileira'' 1 (1): 41.

Diet

Prey Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the ...

items of ''P. olfersii'' include small

rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the order Rodentia (), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal species are rodents. They are na ...

lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia alt ...

amphibian Amphibians are tetrapod, four-limbed and ectothermic vertebrates of the Class (biology), class Amphibia. All living amphibians belong to the group Lissamphibia. They inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living within terres ...

s, and

bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the laying of hard-shelled eggs, a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart, and a strong yet lightweigh ...

s, especially nestlings. They will also eat other snakes, including ones almost as large as themselves.

Reproduction

''P. olfersii'' is

oviparous Oviparous animals are animals that lay their eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother. This is the reproductive method of most fish, amphibians, most reptiles, and all pterosaurs, dinosaurs (including birds), and ...

. Each egg measures about 5 centimeters (about 2 inches). The

clutch A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages power transmission, especially from a drive shaft to a driven shaft. In the simplest application, clutches connect and disconnect two rotating shafts (drive shafts or line shafts). ...

size is 4 to 11 eggs, with larger females producing more eggs than smaller ones.Dourado de Mesquita PCM, et al. (2013)
"Reproductive biology of ''Philodryas olfersii'' (Serpentes, Dipsadidae) in a subtropical region of Brazil".
''The Herpetological Journal'' 23 (1): 39–44.

Venom

Snake species in the

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...

''Philodryas'' are not considered venomous.Araújo ME, Santos AC (1997)
"Cases of human envenoming caused by ''Philodryas olfersii'' and ''Philodryas patagoniensis'' (Serpentes: Colubridae)".
''Rev. Soc. Bras. Med. Trop.'' 30 (6): 517–519.Acosta de Perez O, et al. (2003)
"Edematogenic and myotoxic activities of the Duvernoy's gland secretion of ''Philodryas olfersii'' from the north-east region of Argentina".
''Biocell'' 27 (3): 363–370. However, ''P. olfersii'' is a

, and there have been reports of serious

bites Biting is a common zoological behavior involving the active, rapid closing of the jaw around an object. This behavior is found in toothed animals such as mammals, reptiles, amphibians and fish, but can also exist in arthropods. Myocytic contrac ...

causing local and systemic effects requiring medical treatment. The venom of ''P. olfersii'' is highly

hemorrhagic Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, vagi ...

, fibrinogenolytic, edematic, and has

proteolytic Proteolysis is the breakdown of proteins into smaller polypeptides or amino acids. Uncatalysed, the hydrolysis of peptide bonds is extremely slow, taking hundreds of years. Proteolysis is typically catalysed by cellular enzymes called proteases, ...

activity 208% higher than ''

Bothrops jararaca ''Bothrops jararaca'' — known as the ''jararaca'' or ''yarara'' — is a highly venomous pit viper species endemic to South America in southern Brazil, Paraguay, and northern Argentina. The specific name, ''jararaca'', is derived from the Tup ...

'', in addition to containing

neurotoxic Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to a substance – specificall ...

properties. In mice, doses such as 5.6 µg / 20g resulted in neurotoxic effects, which included

dyspnea Shortness of breath (SOB), also medically known as dyspnea (in AmE) or dyspnoea (in BrE), is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathing, breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of brea ...

, equilibrium alterations, posterior limbs paralysis,

flaccid paralysis Flaccid paralysis is a neurological condition characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause (e.g., trauma). This abnormal condition may be caused by disease or by trauma affecting the nerves associated ...

, and relaxation of the urinary

sphincter A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning. Sphincters are found in many animals. There are over 60 types in the hum ...

. In laboratory mice, the venom of this species has an

LD50 In toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for "lethal dose, 50%"), LC50 (lethal concentration, 50%) or LCt50 is a toxic unit that measures the lethal dose of a toxin, radiation, or pathogen. The value of LD50 for a substance is the ...

of 2.79 ± 0.58 mg / kg (intraperitoneal), equivalent to the lethality of ''

Bothrops asper Terciopelo (''Bothrops asper'') is a species of pit vipers occurring at low to moderate elevations in northeast Mexico and Central America, and into South America where it is known from elevations up to 2600 meters in the Colombian and Ecuador ...

''. However, due to the anatomy of their inoculating teeth located in the posterior region of the maxilla, these snakes have difficulty in inoculating venom, sometimes giving a "dry" bite. The most common symptoms are pain, swelling,

erythema Erythema (from the Greek , meaning red) is redness of the skin or mucous membranes, caused by hyperemia (increased blood flow) in superficial capillaries. It occurs with any skin injury, infection, or inflammation. Examples of erythema not assoc ...

, and

ecchymosis A bruise, also known as a contusion, is a type of hematoma of tissue, the most common cause being capillaries damaged by trauma, causing localized bleeding that extravasates into the surrounding interstitial tissues. Most bruises occur close e ...

.Ribeiro LA, et al. (1999)
"Bites by the colubrid snake ''Philodryas olfersii'': A clinical and epidemiological study of 43 cases".
''Toxicon'' 37 (6): 943–948. There may be a pulsing sensation or numbness at the bite site. Some

pus Pus is an exudate, typically white-yellow, yellow, or yellow-brown, formed at the site of inflammation during bacterial or fungal infection. An accumulation of pus in an enclosed tissue space is known as an abscess, whereas a visible collection ...

can develop and nearby

lymph node A lymph node, or lymph gland, is a kidney-shaped organ of the lymphatic system and the adaptive immune system. A large number of lymph nodes are linked throughout the body by the lymphatic vessels. They are major sites of lymphocytes that inclu ...

s may enlarge. Bruising or other discoloration can appear quite a distance from the wound site, sometimes occurring far up the arm after a hand wound, even progressing to the neck, chest, and abdomen. Stiffness may affect the entire limb. Patients complaining of snakebite may be given an

antivenom Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if th ...

for ''

Bothrops ''Bothrops'' is a genus of highly venomous pit vipers endemic to Central and South America.McDiarmid RW, Campbell JA, Touré T. 1999. ''Snake Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, vol. 1''. Herpetologists' League. 511 pp. ...

'' snake venom, which is inappropriate for the treatment of ''Philodryas'' bites. ''Philodryas'' does not cause the

coagulopathy Coagulopathy (also called a bleeding disorder) is a condition in which the blood's ability to coagulate (form clots) is impaired. This condition can cause a tendency toward prolonged or excessive bleeding (bleeding diathesis), which may occur spo ...

that ''Bothrops'' does. Only one fatality has been reported, and that in a child. The secretion that causes injury to bite victims is produced in the snake's

Duvernoy's gland The Duvernoy's gland is a gland found in some groups of ''colubrid'' snakes. It is distinguished from the venom gland and is not found in ''viperids'' or ''elapids''. It was named for French zoologist Georges Louis Duvernoy who first described t ...

and channeled into its prey via a grooved tooth. It is myotoxic, causing muscle damage; muscle tissue

hemorrhage Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, vag ...

s and becomes

necrotic Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. Necrosis is caused by factors external to the cell or tissue, such as infection, or trauma which result in the unregulated dige ...

. The secretion contains toxins such as

serine protease Serine proteases (or serine endopeptidases) are enzymes that cleave peptide bonds in proteins. Serine serves as the nucleophilic amino acid at the (enzyme's) active site. They are found ubiquitously in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. ...

metalloproteases A metalloproteinase, or metalloprotease, is any protease enzyme whose catalytic mechanism involves a metal. An example is ADAM12 which plays a significant role in the fusion of muscle cells during embryo development, in a process known as myogen ...

C-type lectin A C-type lectin (CLEC) is a type of carbohydrate-binding protein known as a lectin. The C-type designation is from their requirement for calcium for binding. Proteins that contain C-type lectin domains have a diverse range of functions including ...

s, cysteine-rich secretory proteins, and a

C-type natriuretic peptide Natriuretic peptide precursor C, also known as NPPC, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''NPPC'' gene. The precursor NPPC protein is cleaved to the 22 amino acid peptide C-type natriuretic peptide (''CNP''). Function Natriuretic pe ...

.Ching ATC, et al. (2006)
"Some aspects of the venom proteome of the Colubridae snake ''Philodryas olfersii'' revealed from a Duvernoy’s (venom) gland transcriptome".
''FEBS Letters'' 580 (18): 4417–4422. Since ''Philodryas olfersii'' has difficulty in inoculating venom and produces small amounts of venom, accidents by this species are generally not serious, having a protein content of only 932 micrograms, and generally, 75 to 90% of the venom is composed of proteins. More recently, there was a severe case for this species, in which the victim let the snake bite for a long time, allowing it to inject a significant amount of venom. The symptoms started with a lot of swelling and bruises. The accident at first was not taken seriously as bites by ''Philodryas'' aren't serious in general. At the beginning, the victim only had pain and swelling. However, over time, the pain intensified, and the victim reported that she was in severe pain from the fingertip to the chest. Examinations showed that the venom caused clotting problems, affected

liver The liver is a major Organ (anatomy), organ only found in vertebrates which performs many essential biological functions such as detoxification of the organism, and the Protein biosynthesis, synthesis of proteins and biochemicals necessary for ...

enzymes Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecule ...

and 50% of the liver. Swelling in the two arms was severe, with risk of

thrombosis Thrombosis (from Ancient Greek "clotting") is the formation of a blood clot inside a blood vessel, obstructing the flow of blood through the circulatory system. When a blood vessel (a vein or an artery) is injured, the body uses platelets (thro ...

, and

fasciotomy Fasciotomy or fasciectomy is a surgical procedure where the fascia is cut to relieve tension or pressure in order to treat the resulting loss of circulation to an area of tissue or muscle. Fasciotomy is a limb-saving procedure when used to trea ...

or even

amputation Amputation is the removal of a limb by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on indi ...

was almost necessary.

Parasites

''P. olfersii'' is host to a newly described species of parasitic

protozoa Protozoa (singular: protozoan or protozoon; alternative plural: protozoans) are a group of single-celled eukaryotes, either free-living or parasitic, that feed on organic matter such as other microorganisms or organic tissues and debris. Histo ...

n, '' Caryospora olfersii''. This snake has also been recorded carrying '' C. braziliensis''.

Subspecies

Some sources do not recognize any

subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

of ''P. olfersii''. However, other sources recognize the following three subspecies, including the

nominotypical subspecies In biological classification, subspecies is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (morphology), but that can successfully interbreed. Not all species ...

:"''Philodryas olfersii'' ". ''Dahms Tierleben''. www.dahmstierleben.de/systematik/Reptilien/Squamata/Serpentes/colubroidea/colubridae/dipsadinae#section-58. *'' Philodryas olfersii herbeus'' ( Wied, 1825) *'' Philodryas olfersii latirostris'' (

Cope The cope (known in Latin as ''pluviale'' 'rain coat' or ''cappa'' 'cape') is a liturgical vestment, more precisely a long mantle or cloak, open in front and fastened at the breast with a band or clasp. It may be of any liturgical colours, litu ...

, 1862) *'' Philodryas olfersii olfersii'' ( Lichtenstein, 1825)

Common names

Etymology

Geographic range

Description

Habitat

Behavior

Diet

Reproduction

Venom

Parasites

Subspecies

References

Further reading