Philhellenism ("the love of Greek culture") was an intellectual movement prominent mostly at the turn of the 19th century. It contributed to the sentiments that led Europeans such as
Lord Byron
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and Peerage of the United Kingdom, peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and h ...
and
Charles Nicolas Fabvier to advocate for
Greek independence from the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
.
The later 19th-century European philhellenism was largely to be found among the
Classicists.
Philhellenes in antiquity
In antiquity, the term ''philhellene'' ("the admirer of Greeks and everything Greek"), from the ( el, φιλέλλην, from ''φίλος'' - ''philos'', "friend", "lover" + ''Ἕλλην'' - ''Hellen'', "Greek") was used to describe both non-Greeks who were fond of ancient Greek culture and Greeks who patriotically upheld their culture. The
Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon defines 'philhellene' as "fond of the Hellenes, mostly of foreign princes, as
Amasis Amasis may refer to:
* Amasis I, Pharaoh of Egypt in 1550–1525 BC
* Amasis II, Pharaoh of Egypt in 570–526 BC
* Amasis (Persian general), Achaemenid military commander in Egypt in ca. 525 BC
* Amasis Painter, ancient Greek vase painter of the ...
; of
Parthian kings
.. also of Hellenic tyrants, as
Jason of Pherae and generally of
Hellenic (Greek) patriots. According to
Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies of ...
, an honorable Greek should also be a philhellene.
Some examples:
*
Evagoras of
Cyprus
Cyprus ; tr, Kıbrıs (), officially the Republic of Cyprus,, , lit: Republic of Cyprus is an island country located south of the Anatolian Peninsula in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Its continental position is disputed; while it is ...
and
Philip II were both called ''"philhellenes"'' by
Isocrates
Isocrates (; grc, Ἰσοκράτης ; 436–338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, one of the ten Attic orators. Among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time, Isocrates made many contributions to rhetoric and education thro ...
*The early rulers of the
Parthian Empire
The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe in conq ...
, starting with
Mithridates I (), used the title of philhellenes on their coins, which was a political act done in order to establish friendly relations with their Greek subjects.
*Following the example of the Parthians,
Tigranes adopted the title of Philhellene (''friend of the Greeks''). The layout of his capital
Tigranocerta was an example of
Greek architecture.
Roman philhellenes
The literate upper classes of
Ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–50 ...
were increasingly
Hellenized in their culture during the 3rd century BC.
Among Romans the career of
Titus Quinctius Flamininus (died 174 BC), who appeared at the
Isthmian Games in
Corinth
Corinth ( ; el, Κόρινθος, Kórinthos, ) is the successor to an ancient city, and is a former municipality in Corinthia, Peloponnese, which is located in south-central Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform, it has been part ...
in 196 BC and proclaimed the freedom of the Greek states, was fluent in Greek, stood out, according to
Livy
Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding in ...
, as a great admirer of
Greek culture
The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Minoan civilization, Minoan and later in Mycenaean Greece, continuing most notably into Classical Greece, while influencing the Roman Empire and its successor the Byzantine ...
; the Greeks hailed him as their liberator. There were however, some Romans during the late Republic, who were distinctly anti-Greek, resenting the increasing influence of Greek culture on Roman life, an example being the Roman Censor,
Cato the Elder
Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, Roman Senate, senator, and Roman historiography, historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenizati ...
and also
Cato the Younger
Marcus Porcius Cato "Uticensis" ("of Utica"; ; 95 BC – April 46 BC), also known as Cato the Younger ( la, Cato Minor), was an influential conservative Roman senator during the late Republic. His conservative principles were focused on the ...
, who lived during the "Greek invasion" of Rome but towards the later years of his life he eventually became a philhellene after his stay in Rhodes.
The lyric poet
Quintus Horatius Flaccus
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his '' ...
was another philhellene. He is notable for his words, "Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit et artis intulit agresti Latio" (Conquered Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought her arts into rustic Latium), meaning that after the conquest of Greece the defeated Greeks created a cultural hegemony over the Romans.
Roman emperors known for their philhellenism include
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 unt ...
,
Hadrian
Hadrian (; la, Caesar Trâiānus Hadriānus ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. He was born in Italica (close to modern Santiponce in Spain), a Roman '' municipium'' founded by Italic settlers in Hispan ...
,
Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...
and
Julian the Apostate
Julian ( la, Flavius Claudius Julianus; grc-gre, Ἰουλιανός ; 331 – 26 June 363) was Roman emperor from 361 to 363, as well as a notable philosopher and author in Greek. His rejection of Christianity, and his promotion of Neoplat ...
.
Modern times
In the period of political reaction and repression after the fall of
Napoleon, when the liberal-minded, educated and prosperous middle and upper classes of European societies found the
romantic
Romantic may refer to:
Genres and eras
* The Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement of the 18th and 19th centuries
** Romantic music, of that era
** Romantic poetry, of that era
** Romanticism in science, of that e ...
revolutionary ideals of 1789–1792 repressed by the restoration of old regimes at home, the idea of the re-creation of a Greek state on the very territories that were sanctified by their view of Antiquity—which was reflected even in the
furnishings of their own parlors and the contents of their bookcases—offered an ideal, set at a romantic distance. Under these conditions, the
Greek uprising constituted a source of inspiration and expectations that could never actually be fulfilled, disappointing what
Paul Cartledge called "the Victorian self-identification with the Glory that was Greece". American higher education was fundamentally transformed by the rising admiration of and identification with ancient Greece in the 1830s and afterward.
Another popular subject of interest in Greek culture at the turn of the 19th century was the shadowy
Scythian
The Scythians or Scyths, and sometimes also referred to as the Classical Scythians and the Pontic Scythians, were an ancient Eastern
* : "In modern scholarship the name 'Sakas' is reserved for the ancient tribes of northern and eastern Cent ...
philosopher
Anacharsis, who lived in the 6th century BC. The new prominence of Anacharsis was sparked by
Jean-Jacques Barthélemy's fanciful ''
Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece'' (1788), a learned imaginary
travel journal, one of the first
historical novels
Historical fiction is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting related to the past events, but is fictional. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fiction literature, it can also be applied to other t ...
, which a modern scholar has called "the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique" in the late 18th century. It had a high impact on the growth of philhellenism in France: the book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and was translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the Greek War of Independence and spawned sequels and imitations throughout the 19th century.
In
German culture the first phase of philhellenism can be traced in the careers and writings of
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, one of the inventors of art history,
Friedrich August Wolf, who inaugurated modern
Homeric scholarship
Homeric scholarship is the study of any Homeric topic, especially the two large surviving Epic poetry, epics, the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''. It is currently part of the academic discipline of classical studies. The subject is one of the oldest in ...
with his ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'' (1795) and the enlightened bureaucrat
Wilhelm von Humboldt. It was also in this context that
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as tr ...
and
Friedrich Hölderlin
Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (, ; ; 20 March 1770 – 7 June 1843) was a German poet and philosopher. Described by Norbert von Hellingrath as "the most German of Germans", Hölderlin was a key figure of German Romanticism. Pa ...
were to compose poetry and prose in the field of literature, elevating Hellenic themes in their works. One of the most renowned German philhellenes of the 19th century was
Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; or ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, prose poet, cultural critic, philologist, and composer whose work has exerted a profound influence on contemporary philosophy. He began his c ...
.
In the
German states, the private obsession with ancient Greece took public forms, institutionalizing an elite philhellene
ethos
Ethos ( or ) is a Greek word meaning "character" that is used to describe the guiding beliefs or ideals that characterize a community, nation, or ideology; and the balance between caution, and passion. The Greeks also used this word to refer to ...
through the ''
Gymnasium'', to revitalize
German education at home, and providing on two occasions high-minded philhellene German princes ignorant of modern-day Greek realities, to be Greek sovereigns.
During the later 19th century the new studies of archaeology and anthropology began to offer a quite separate view of ancient Greece, which had previously been experienced at second-hand only through
Greek literature
Greek literature () dates back from the ancient Greek literature, beginning in 800 BC, to the modern Greek literature of today.
Ancient Greek literature was written in an Ancient Greek dialect, literature ranges from the oldest surviving writte ...
,
Greek sculpture and
architecture
Architecture is the art and technique of designing and building, as distinguished from the skills associated with construction. It is both the process and the product of sketching, conceiving, planning, designing, and constructing buildings ...
. 20th century heirs of the 19th-century view of an unchanging, immortal quality of "Greekness" are typified in J. C. Lawson's ''Modern Greek Folklore and Ancient Greek Religion'' (1910) or R. and E. Blum's ''The Dangerous Hour: The lore of crisis and mystery in rural Greece'' (1970); according to the Classicist
Paul Cartledge, they "represent this ideological construction of Greekness as an essence, a Classicizing essence to be sure, impervious to such historic changes as that from
paganism
Paganism (from classical Latin ''pāgānus'' "rural", "rustic", later "civilian") is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Judaism. ...
to
Orthodox Christianity
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
, or from
subsistence peasant agriculture to more or less internationally
market-driven capitalist farming."
The Philhellenic movement led to the introduction of
Classics or ''Classical studies'' as a key element in education, introduced in the
Gymnasien in
Prussia
Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an ...
. In
England
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to its west and Scotland to its north. The Irish Sea lies northwest and the Celtic Sea to the southwest. It is separated from continental Europe ...
the main proponent of Classics in schools was
Thomas Arnold, headmaster at
Rugby School
Rugby School is a public school (English independent boarding school for pupils aged 13–18) in Rugby, Warwickshire, England.
Founded in 1567 as a free grammar school for local boys, it is one of the oldest independent schools in Britain. ...
.
The theme of
Nikos Dimou's ''The Misfortune to be Greek'' is the perception that the Philhellenic West's projected desire for the modern Greeks to live up to their ancestors' glorious past has always been a burden upon the Greeks themselves. In particular, Western Philhellenism focused exclusively on the heritage of Classical Greek history, in effect negating or rejecting the heritage of
Byzantine
The Byzantine Empire, also referred to as the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantium, was the continuation of the Roman Empire primarily in its eastern provinces during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, when its capital city was Constantin ...
history which for the Greeks themselves is at least as important.
Philhellenism and art
Philhellenism also created a renewed interest in the artistic movement of
Neoclassicism, which idealized 5th-century Classical Greek art and architecture, very much at second hand, through the writings of the first generation of art historians, like
Johann Joachim Winckelmann and
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (, ; 22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781) was a philosopher, dramatist, publicist and art critic, and a representative of the Enlightenment era. His plays and theoretical writings substantially influenced the developm ...
.
The groundswell of the Philhellenic movement was result of two generations of intrepid artists and amateur treasure-seekers, from Stuart and Revett, who published their measured drawings as ''The Antiquities of Athens'' and culminating with the removal of sculptures from
Aegina
Aegina (; el, Αίγινα, ''Aígina'' ; grc, Αἴγῑνα) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens. Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the hero Aeacus, who was born on the island a ...
and the
Parthenon
The Parthenon (; grc, Παρθενών, , ; ell, Παρθενώνας, , ) is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, that was dedicated to the goddess Athena during the fifth century BC. Its decorative sculptures are conside ...
(the
Elgin marbles
The Elgin Marbles (), also known as the Parthenon Marbles ( el, Γλυπτά του Παρθενώνα, lit. "sculptures of the Parthenon"), are a collection of Classical Greece, Classical Greek marble sculptures made under the supervision of th ...
), works that ravished the British Philhellenes, many of whom, however, deplored their removal.
Philhellenism in the Greek War of Independence and later
Many well known philhellenes supported the Greek Independence Movement such as
Shelley,
Thomas Moore,
Leigh Hunt,
Cam Hobhouse
John Cam Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton, (27 June 1786 – 3 June 1869), known as Sir John Hobhouse, Bt, from 1831 to 1851, was an English politician and diarist.
Early life
Born at Redland near Bristol, Broughton was the eldest son of Sir ...
,
Walter Savage Landor and
Jeremy Bentham
Jeremy Bentham (; 15 February 1748 O.S. 4 February 1747">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="nowiki/>Old Style and New Style dates">O.S. 4 February 1747ref name="Johnson2012" /> – 6 June 1832) was an English philosopher, jurist, an ...
.
Some, notably
Lord Byron
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and Peerage of the United Kingdom, peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and h ...
, even took up arms to join the Greek revolutionaries. Many more financed the revolution or contributed through their artistic work.
Throughout the 19th century, philhellenes continued to support Greece politically and militarily. For example,
Ricciotti Garibaldi led a volunteer expedition (''Garibaldini'') in the
Greco-Turkish War of 1897.
[Gilles Pécout, "Philhellenism in Italy: political friendship and the Italian volunteers in the Mediterranean in the nineteenth century", ''Journal of Modern Italian Studies'' 9:4:405–427 (2004) ] A group of Garibaldini, headed by the Greek poet
Lorentzos Mavilis, fought also with the Greek side during the
Balkan Wars
The Balkan Wars refers to a series of two conflicts that took place in the Balkan States in 1912 and 1913. In the First Balkan War, the four Balkan States of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria declared war upon the Ottoman Empire and defe ...
.
File:Une Assemblée d’Officiers Européens, accourus au secours de la Grèce en 1822.jpg, Depiction of Philhellenes in Greece in 1822
File:Zografos-Makriyannis 24 I Ellas evgomonousa List of Philhellenes.jpg, List of philhellenes who contributed during the Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. The Greeks were later assisted ...
( National Historical Museum). The first two columns from the left are the names of those having died
File:Dupre-Salona-1821.jpg, Louis Dupré's depiction of Greek irregulars hoisting the flag at Salona
Salona ( grc, Σάλωνα) was an ancient city and the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia. Salona is located in the modern town of Solin, next to Split, in Croatia.
Salona was founded in the 3rd century BC and was mostly destroyed i ...
File:Panagiotis Kefalas by Hess.jpg, ''Panagiotis Kephalas plants the flag of liberty upon the walls of Tripolizza'' ( Siege of Tripolitsa)" by Peter von Hess
File:Pushkin Alexander, 1826 by Vivien.jpg, Alexander Pushkin
File:Athens, George Gordon Byron 02.JPG, A statue of Lord Byron
George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824), known simply as Lord Byron, was an English romantic poet and Peerage of the United Kingdom, peer. He was one of the leading figures of the Romantic movement, and h ...
in Athens
File:Santorre di Santarosa.jpg, Annibale Santorre di Rossi de Pomarolo, Count of Santarosa
Santorre Annibale De Rossi di Pomerolo, Count of Santa Rosa (born 18 November 1783, Saviglianodied 8 May 1825, Sphacteria) was an Italian insurgent and leader in Italy's revival (''Risorgimento'').
250px, left, Statue of Santarosa in Savigliano. ...
File:Karl von Normann-Ehrenfels.jpg, Karl von Normann-Ehrenfels
Karl Friedrich Leberecht Graf von Normann-Ehrenfels ( el, Κάρολος Νόρμαν, Stuttgart, 14 September 1784 – Missolonghi, 15 November 1822) was a Württembergian soldier who fought in the Napoleonic Wars. As a Philhellene he sailed to G ...
File:Portrait de Charles Nicolas Fabvier.jpg, Charles Nicolas Fabvier
File:Rosaroll, Giuseppe.jpg, Giuseppe Rosaroll
Giuseppe Maria Rosaroll-Scorza (16 September 1775 – 2 December 1825) was an Italian essayist and a general in the army of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. He was also the father of the Italian patriotic hero Cesare Rosaroll.
Military caree ...
File:Ricciotti Garibaldi.jpg, Ricciotti Garibaldi
File:Peppino Garibaldi.jpg, Giuseppe Garibaldi II
File:Henry Morgenthau crop.jpg, Henry Morgenthau Sr.
Henry Morgenthau (; April 26, 1856 – November 25, 1946) was a German-born American lawyer and businessman, best known for his role as the United States Ambassador to Turkey, ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Morgenthau was on ...
File:David Lloyd George.jpg, David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during ...
Notable 20th- and 21st-century philhellenes
*
Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known for developing the theor ...
, a German-born theoretical physicist widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time.
*
Stephen Fry
Stephen John Fry (born 24 August 1957) is an English actor, broadcaster, comedian, director and writer. He first came to prominence in the 1980s as one half of the comic double act Fry and Laurie, alongside Hugh Laurie, with the two starrin ...
, English actor and writer.
*
Giuseppe Garibaldi II, Italian soldier and revolutionary, grandson of
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Giuseppe Maria Garibaldi ( , ;In his native Ligurian language, he is known as ''Gioxeppe Gaibado''. In his particular Niçard dialect of Ligurian, he was known as ''Jousé'' or ''Josep''. 4 July 1807 – 2 June 1882) was an Italian general, patr ...
and son of Ricciotti Garibaldi.
*
Ricciotti Garibaldi, Italian soldier, son of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
*
David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George, 1st Earl Lloyd-George of Dwyfor, (17 January 1863 – 26 March 1945) was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1916 to 1922. He was a Liberal Party politician from Wales, known for leading the United Kingdom during ...
, Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
.
*
Boris Johnson
Alexander Boris de Pfeffel Johnson (; born 19 June 1964) is a British politician, writer and journalist who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 2019 to 2022. He previously served as F ...
, Prime Minister of the
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the European mainland, continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
.
*
Dilys Powell
Elizabeth Dilys Powell, CBE (20 July 1901 – 3 June 1995) was a British film critic and travel writer who contributed to ''The Sunday Times'' for more than 50 years. Powell was known for her receptiveness to cultural change in the cinema an ...
, film critic, author of several books about Greece, and president of the
Classical Association 1966–1967.
*
Gough Whitlam
Edward Gough Whitlam (11 July 191621 October 2014) was the 21st prime minister of Australia, serving from 1972 to 1975. The longest-serving federal leader of the Australian Labor Party (ALP) from 1967 to 1977, he was notable for being the he ...
, 21st Prime Minister of Australia.
*
Christopher Hitchens, was a British-American author and journalist.
Notes
References
Paul Cartledge, Clare College Cambridge, "The Greeks and Anthropology"in ''Classics Ireland'' 2 (Dublin 1995)
*
Further reading
*
Thomas Cahill, ''Sailing the Wine-Dark Sea: Why the Greeks Matter'' (Nan A. Talese, 2003)
* Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme d’inspiration conservatrice en Europe et en Russie », in ''Peuples, Etats et nations dans le Sud-Est de l'Europe'', (Bucarest, Ed. Anima, 2004.)
* Stella Ghervas, « Le philhellénisme russe : union d'amour ou d'intérêt? », in ''Regards sur le philhellénisme'', (Genève, Mission permanente de la Grèce auprès de l'ONU, 2008).
* Stella Ghervas, ''Réinventer la tradition.
Alexandre Stourdza
Prince Alexandru Sturdza (Александр Скарлатович Стурдза; Iași, Moldavia, 18 November 1791Odessa, 13 June 1854) was a Russian publicist and diplomat of Romanian origin. In his writings, he referred to himself with a Frenc ...
et l'Europe de la Sainte-Alliance'' (Paris, Honoré Champion, 2008).
* Konstantinou, Evangelos
''Graecomania and Philhellenism'' European History Online, Mainz:
Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: December 17, 2012.
* Emile Malakis, ''French travellers in Greece (1770–1820): An early phase of French Philhellenism''
* Suzanne L. Marchand, 1996. ''Down from Olympus : Archaeology and Philhellenism in Germany, 1750–1970''
* M. Byron Raizis, 1971. ''American poets and the Greek revolution, 1821–1828;: A study in Byronic philhellenism'' (Institute of Balkan Studies)
Terence J. B Spencer, 1973. ''Fair Greece! Sad relic: Literary philhellenism from Shakespeare to Byron''* Caroline Winterer, 2002. ''The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Intellectual Life, 1780–1910''. Johns Hopkins University Press.
External links
{{Cultural appreciation
Admiration of foreign cultures
Ancient Greece studies
Greek nationalism
Theories of aesthetics