Paharnic

The ''Paharnic'' (plural: ''Paharnici''; also known as ''Păharnic'', ''Paharnec'', or ''Păharnec''; Moldavian dialect: ''ceașnic'', el, παχαρνίκοσ, ''pakharnikos'', russian: пахарник, ''paharnik'') was a historical Romanian rank, one of the non-hereditary positions ascribed to the boyar aristocracy in Moldavia and Wallachia (the Danubian Principalities). It was the local equivalent of a cup-bearer or ''cześnik'', originally centered on pouring and obtaining wine for the court of Moldavian and Wallachian Princes. With time, it became a major administrative office and, in Wallachia, also had a lesser military function. The retinue of such boyars, usually called ''Păhărnicei'', was in both countries also a private army.

Dating back to ca. 1400, the ''Paharnici'' were at the forefront of political life in Wallachia over the following two centuries, often as a title associated with the Craiovești and Florescu boyars. Wallachian ''Paharnici'' were especially important during the 16th and 17th centuries, when they included figures such as Lupu Mehedințeanu, Șerban of Coiani, and Matei Basarab. They and other ''Paharnici'' established means of boyar protection against the social ascent of immigrant Greeks. Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu, himself a former ''Paharnic'', gave a privileged position to the ''Păhărnicei'', but put to death their controversial ''Paharnic'', Staico Bucșanu. Before 1700, figures associated with the Moldavian office included close relatives of the monarchs, such as Alexandru Coci and Ștefan Lupașcu Hâjdău. Though the office itself steadily declined in importance, it was still subjected to a meritocratic reform by Prince Dimitrie Cantemir.

The ''Paharnici'' grew in numbers and declined in political relevancy from ca. 1720, with the rise of the Phanariotes, and ultimately fell into a second class of boyars. Their descendants were recognized as a branch of the small boyardom, alongside the ''Păhărnicei''. While these became a rural middle class, the ''Paharnici'' offices were increasingly permeable to the commercial classes of the city. The three groups intertwined, with some ''Paharnici'', including Ianache Hafta and Manuc Bei, having a noted effect on the development of Bucharest. Various ''Paharnici'' also participated first-hand in the cultivation of Romanian nationalism, leading up to Gavril Istrati's clashes with the Greek " Sacred Band".

From Moldavia, the office was for a while inherited by the Russian Empire, which preserved titular ''Paharnici'' in its Bessarabia Governorate. In both Moldavia and Wallachia, the Russian regime of 1834–1854 recognized a multitude of titular ''Paharnici'', from inspectors Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Constantin N. Brăiloiu to painter Constantin Lecca. The proliferation of ''Paharnici'' and other offices, taken up by Moldavian Princes Ioan and Mihail Sturdza, contributed to social tensions, and then to a failed revolutionary attempt. Following the Crimean War, the position of ''Paharnic'' was abolished, alongside all other historical titles.

Name

''Paharnic'' is a Romanianized term, originating with the Church Slavonic variant, (''Peharnik''). Dimitrie Cantemir, the intellectual Prince of Moldavia, was the first to note that the institution was copied from the old Serbian nomenclature, as opposed to other boyar titles, which were originally Byzantine or (in one case) Hungarian. However, legal historian Ivan Biliarsky notes that both the Serbian and the Romanian term originate with a Byzantine office, the ''Pinkernes'', being its functional equivalents. The component Romanian term is ''pahar'' ("glass" or "chalice"), which reached Romanian either from the Hungarian ''pohár'' or the Serbo-Croatian ''pehar''. After passing through Slavonic, ''Paharnic'' acquired a form in historical Romanian, and Romanian Cyrillic, as , transliterated ''Păharnic'' (, rather than ). It was still codified in this manner by the early-18th-century scholar Anthim the Iberian.

All these terms continued to be spelled in Cyrillic for as long as the titles they represented were in use. However, attempts at Romanization were made as early as 1468, when ''Paharnic'' appeared as ''Poharnig'' in a Renaissance Latin document; this was also rendered as ''Paharnig''.Biliarsky, p. 332 In the 1670s, Miron Costin, using standardized Polish spellings, produced ''Paharnik''. Before 1600, Slavonic documents also admitted a Romanian translation, ''Canatnic'', created from the dialectal ''canată'', "tiny mug". ''Ceașnic'' was another Slavonic variant which acquired use in Moldavia, where it was generally spelled as ; it could also appear in Wallachia, but as . Both have their etymological source in ''Cześnik'', used by '' szlachta'' nobility to the north. A synonymous term originating from the Second Bulgarian Empire, (''Picernic''), only appears once, in 1392 Wallachia.

History

Creating the office

''Paharnici'' or similar were first mentioned in Wallachia under Mircea the Old (1386–1418) and in Moldavia under Alexander the Good (1400–1432).Rezachevici (1971), p. 24 The Moldavian version of the office ranked it immediately after the ''Spatharios''; in Wallachia, it was originally mentioned as below the '' Vistier'', who was fourth or fifth in line in the Boyar Council: the '' Ban'', ''Vornic'', ''Logothete'', and sometimes also the ''Spatharios'', ranked above them. A social and functional differentiation cut across these boyar classes. According to such typologies, some boyar offices were administrative or "public" (''Ban'' or ''Logothete''), while others, including ''Ban'' and ''Spatharios'', were purely military. ''Paharnici'' fell into a third category of offices, deemed "courtly" (''de curte'')—alongside '' Cluceri'', '' Jitniceri'', '' Medelniceri'', '' Pitari'', ''Postelnici'', '' Slugeri'', and '' Stolnici''.

As summarized by historian Constantin Rezachevici, a ''Paharnic''s function was "to fill up the first cup at the prince's table, and while in the country he supervised the princely vineyards and made sure that these were well kept". Biliarsky also notes that the ''Paharnic'' acted as a waiter and a wine taster, who made sure that the beverage was safe to drink, being thus "close to and very highly trusted by the ruler." From the beginning, these attributes alternated with the business of state: in October 1407, ''Paharnic'' Iliaș "Dumitrovscio" was present on the Moldavian delegation which swore fealty to the Kingdom of Poland, and consequently fought at Grunwald. A variation of the office, already present in 1540s Moldavia, was the ''Paharnic'' in service to the Princess-consort.

Also in Moldavia, ''Paharnici'' had direct control over the '' Staroste'' of Cotnari, who produced the eponymous sweet wine variety, seen as the region's best, as well as over the wine regions of Dealu Morii, Hârlău, Huși, and Târgu Trotuș.Stoicescu, p. 79 After 1482, the Moldavian institution also appeared in the wine-rich Panciu, Putna County, which had been previously disputed between the two principalities. By 1700, the greater ''Paharnic'' was, '' ex officio'', the head of Putna's administration, while his assistant only controlled the princely vineyards of Huși.Mihordea, p. 1090 Historian N. Stoicescu proposes that the Wallachian ''Paharnici'' may have also exercised some control over the winemakers of Dealurile Buzăului. This function remains unattested, but is suggested by the ''Paharnici'' being traditionally reliant on support from that area, on the Wallachian border with Putna.

In tandem, ''Paharnici'' in both principalities operated as tax farmers, receiving a small contribution from all other winemakers. This was presented to them personally on September 14 of each year. Moldavia's ''Paharnic'' collected only the wine tithe known as ''vinărici''. For the Wallachians, the ''vinărici'' was set at 1,000 barrels of wine yearly, from the wineries of Argeș County ( Ștefănești, Topoloveni) and Vâlcea County (Drăgășani). Here, another special tribute, also collected from private wine cellars, was generally known as ''păhărnicie'', and was primarily lucrative in Bucharest. 18th-century sources inform that the ''Paharnic'' of Wallachia also collected the wine tax known as ''cămănărit'', which had its origins in feudal aid (''plocon'').

Early feudal revolts

The ''Paharnici'' were assisted by their own private army, the ''Păhărnicei'' ("little ''Paharnici''", singular ''Păhărnicel''). At least originally, these were junior members of the aristocracy: the first known Moldavian ''Păhărnicel'', mentioned as such in December 1437, was a '' Pan'' Ureche. He had earlier been Iliaș I's ''Paharnic'', and went on to become his ''Vornic'' in 1438.Stoicescu, p. 78 At some point in or after 1479, Stephen the Great rewarded another ''Păhărnicel'', Cârstea, with the deeds to Coșești village. Also in Moldavia, ''Paharnici'' were the only ones mandated to pass judgment in cases involving their retinue. Other records show that they (assisted by the relevant '' Pârcălabi'') passed judgment in all cases directly involving wine, either at Cotnari or Hârlău. The ''Paharnici'' were nevertheless entirely subject to the Prince's expedient justice, as already shown in the 1480s, when Stephen the Great ordered the execution of his ''Paharnic'' Negrilă, for reasons unrecorded.

During the Wallachian 15th century, the titles of ''Paharnic'' and ''Ban'' were closely associated with a family known as Craiovești. Its founder, Barbu I, emerged ca. 1431 as ''Paharnic'' of Alexander I Aldea, sitting on the Boyar Council, but was probably chased out of the country by Vlad II Dracul. This period highlighted the civil war between the houses of Dănești, to whom the Craiovești were loyal, and the family of Vlad II, or Drăculești. A differentiation of boyar offices first occurred in Wallachia under Dănești rulers. Vladislav II (1447–1456) created the Craiovești family as his ''Vlastelini'', presumably meaning "strong" or "immovable boyars". That category included the ''Paharnic'' alongside the ''Ban'', ''Vornic'', ''Logothete'' and other lesser dignities. Most of these functions (20/34) went to boyars who were also family with the Prince, descending from the earlier House of Basarab.

Later in the 1450s, Vlad the Impaler staged a boyar purge, reportedly killing all of his Council who identified the Dănești as actual Princes. In 1482, Basarab Țepeluș, who also relegated the Craiovești, raised his ''Paharnic'' Mircea to a second position in the Council ranks. The first Craiovești Prince, Neagoe Basarab (reigned 1512–1521), assigned the office of ''Paharnic'' to a more distant relative, Drăghici Florescu, to whom he also gave ownership of Tismana. The ''Teachings'', a political treatise often attributed to Neagoe, go further in proposing that the office of ''Paharnic'' be assigned to foreign mercenaries, thus ensuring meritocracy. Historian P. P. Panaitescu notes that this detail, as well as the designation of ''Paharnici'' as ''Credinciari'', establishes that the book is a forgery.

The Wallachian ''Paharnic'' was also a rank in the feudal levy army, commanding the ''Păhărnicei'' as a mounted corps. The latter, alongside lesser boyars in service to the ''Paharnici'', formed a special military corps and fiscal category, separate from the retinues of other boyar ranks. There were probably 13 such "orders" in 1580s Moldavia, where the ''Păhărnicei'' themselves were still relevant landowners. Before 1600, a ''Păhărnicel'' Ionașcu owned the entire village of Drăgușeni, which his family later sold to Prince Miron Barnovschi. Nevertheless, the office of ''Paharnic'' in itself did not guarantee financial independence. In 1557, under Wallachia's Pătrașcu the Good, ''Paharnic'' Vlad of Bârsești became financially destitute and, as one record shows, even faced starvation.

Michael the Brave's boyars

With the delegation of military power came the ''Paharnic''s involvement in more rebellions. This also coincided with the increase of power for the Ottoman Empire, which was Wallachia and Moldavia's suzerain power throughout the Late Medieval and Early Modern eras. In the early 1540s, a holder of the title, Stroe Florescu, followed Șerban of Izvorani and fought against Wallachian Prince Radu Paisie; both rebels were executed. At around the same time, Moldavia's Petru Rareș was facing boyar rebellions in Cârligătura County, confiscating a village from ''Paharnic'' Ștefan Mânjea and donating another to the loyalist replacement, Nicoară. The 1570s witnessed one of several wars between the two principalities, with Moldavia's John III occupying Bucharest, allowing Radu Paisie's putative grandson, Vintilă, to take over as Prince of Wallachia. This days-long reign was probably ended by the supporters of Alexandru Mircea, including a ''Paharnic'' Bratu. In the early 1580s, one of Vintilă's surviving brothers, Prince Petru Cercel, ordered the execution of another rebellious ''Paharnic'', Gonțea.

In 1595, Vintilă and Cercel's alleged brother, Michael the Brave, took up the anti-Ottoman cause in the Long Turkish War. Shortly after, he punished his ''Paharnic'' Iane of Boleasca, taking over Iane's estate at Daia. This was possibly a payback for cowardice shown in the battle of Călugăreni. Instead, Michael's other ''Paharnici'' were held in high esteem for their service, and received villages from Michael's personal land fund: Lupu Mehedințeanu took the villages of Dobra and Ponorălul; ''Paharnic'' Turturea was awarded Găuriciu. A mercenary commander, known as Necula ''Paharnic'', was also awarded the village of Roșiani, in Romanați County.

Among the holders of the ''Paharnic'' title since the days of Mihnea Turcitul was a matrilineal Craiovești, Șerban of Coiani, who successfully litigated over his family's assets. Șerban continued to serve under Michael the Brave and his son Nicolae Pătrașcu, selling his estates at Seaca de Pădure and Segarcea to the former. In 1600, having already conquered the Principality of Transylvania, Michael also extended his rule into Moldavia. The uprooted Movilești regime of Moldavia continued to exist in exile, receiving crucial backing from the loyalist ''Paharnic'' and diplomat, Ion Caraiman. The following year, during the troubles that followed Michael's downfall, Șerban of Coiani was elected Wallachian Prince by the boyar assembly at Sălătrucu, taking the new name of ''Radu Șerban''.

This new ruler extended his protection to Michael's other associates. Turturea was present by Michael's side at Câmpia Turzii, where Michael was assassinated. He rescued his lord's severed head and kept it as a relic. Radu Șerban's court also included Mehedințeanu as a ''Paharnic'', until 1611, when he defected to the Ottoman-appointed Prince, Radu Mihnea. The office of ''Paharnic'' was also a major station in the career of Matei Basarab, a junior Craiovești boyar; in 1612, Matei began using a personal seal that showed the ''Paharnic'' seated on a throne and carrying his special cane. Radu Șerban's regime, allied with the Holy Roman Empire, was finally ended by the Ottomans. The deposed Prince tried to return by way of Moldavia, supported by the local Prince, Alexandru Movilă. However, Costea Bucioc, the Moldavian ''Paharnic'', ended this campaign by refusing to fight.

Mehedințeanu, who continued to serve as ''Paharnic'', found himself at odds with the new establishment and especially the Greek immigrants, fleeing the country during the reign of Alexandru IV Iliaș (1616–1618). He returned as leader of a popular revolt, taking control of both Bucharest and Târgoviște, where he inspired an anti-Greek pogrom. Appointed Prince by the Ottomans, Gabriel Movilă handed Mehedințeanu over to Iskender Pasha, who ordered the ''Paharic'' impaled at Ciocănești. A decade later, under Leon Tomșa, the office of ''Paharnic'' was held by a Greek, Balasache Muselim, whose tenure sparked another revolt, which peaked at Bucharest and had Matei Basarab among its leaders. The movement was weakened when Prince Leon appointed locals to the higher offices, making Barbu Brădescu his new ''Paharnic''. Brădescu switched sides in 1632, helping to seize Wallachia's throne for Matei.

In ca. 1655, the ''Paharnic''s private army was largely amassed on the border with Moldavia: in Buzău and Râmnicu Sărat Counties there were 300–400 ''Păhărnicei''. These were commanded by a captain, 6 ''Iuzbași'', and 6 '' Ceauși''.Stoicescu, p. 77 By that moment in history, ''Paharnici'' had declined in relative importance. This was manifest under Matei Basarab, who ordered his new ''Paharnic'', Chisar Rudeanu, to be caned in the throne room, then jailed. Under his regime, the ''Păhărnicei'' and other servants of the ''Paharnic'' owed a yearly tax of 8 ducats, while boyars subordinated to the ''Spatharios'' paid 12. Both countries' ''Paharnici'' were soon outranked by the ''Stolnici'' and '' Comiși''; in Wallachia, however, they continued to command the ''Păhărnicei'', and were also placed in charge of a new cavalry force, the ''Roșii'' ("Redcoats"). Both groups fought alongside the Ottoman Army in the Polish war of 1672.

Cantacuzino era

After 1650, some Wallachian ''Paharnici'' opposed the steady rise of the Cantacuzino family, whose scion Drăghici Cantacuzino also held the title in 1661–1662, while others embraced it. Among the anti-Cantacuzino boyars, 1660s ''Paharnic'' Constantin Vărzarul plotted, alongside Stroe Leurdeanu, to have Constantin I Cantacuzino unlawfully executed. Another such conflict erupted in the early 1680s between Prince Șerban Cantacuzino and his ''Paharnic'', Papa Buicescul (son of the ''Spatharios'' Diicul). Under the Cantacuzinos, the lesser ''Paharnici'' were all placed under the command of the greater ''Paharnic'', who organized them into a single military unit. By then, the armed retinues, and those of all other high-ranking boyars, were collectively known as ''Feciori'' ("Young Men" or "Boys") or ''Slugi'' ("Servants"). With the peak of serfdom in both countries, these ''Feciori'' were exclusively recruited from among free or manumitted peasants. According to historian Constantin Giurescu, the Wallachian ''Păhărnicei'', as a special set of ''Feciori'', might have been supporting themselves from ''păhărnicie'' revenues, which they collected for their patron. This practice is attested in Moldavia, where, following the drought of September 1663, Princess Ecaterina Dabija warned ''Feciori'' not to collect the tithe from Armenians and Jews, as this would have exhausted the supply.

A Cantacuzino ally, Constantin Brâncoveanu, took the throne in 1688, replacing Șerban. He himself had for long been a regular boyar, first serving as a ''Paharnic'' when he was aged 17. During his subsequent reign, the ''Păhărnicei'' appear to have been almost exclusively confined to Râmnicu Sărat County, with some also present in Mehedinți County. Scholar Alexandru Ligor notes that, "during and especially after Brâncoveanu's era", the ''Păhărnicei'' and other such boyar retinues "will be more seriously engaged in productive life (in agriculture, in trades, etc.)." Brâncoveanu's reign was overall marked by a steady increase in taxation, but the ''Păhărnicei'' were explicitly excluded from some of the new duties, including a levy on vacated villages (''siliști''). Ligor proposes that this exemption reflected the Prince's military priorities, and his secret anti-Ottoman alliance with the Tsardom of Russia.

Brâncoveanu's first ''Paharnic'' was Staico Bucșanu, whose scheming against the regime ended with his public hanging at Bucharest's Outer Market. His public humiliation and killing were received with hostility by the Bucharest populace. The period thus inaugurated came with a set of administrative reforms, recorded in the princely register, or ''Anatefter''. This shows ''Paharnic'' as one of the great offices, but also creates an overlapping function therein, as ''Cupar'' (from ''cupă'', "cup"); at the top of boyar advancement, these two offices coexisted with ''Spatharios'', '' Stolnic'', '' Clucer'', and another new office, that of ''Șufar'' (the intendant of kitchen staffs). Under Brâncoveanu, these particular offices were designated as ''Zvolearnici''. In addition to receiving payment from the exercise of their offices, they relied on princely handouts, including kaftans colored in accordance with their function.

Until his own downfall in 1714, Brâncoveanu relied on various other noblemen to fill in Bucșanu's role. One of these, Cornea Brăiloiu, served the Prince as both ambassador and organizer of defense expeditions against the ''Kurucok''. In 1696, the Greek ''Paharnic'' Vergo was part of a caretaker government of ''Caimacami''.C. C. Giurescu, p. 344 The following year, Brâncoveanu had another Greek ''Paharnic'', Skarlatakes Mavrocordatos, son of the influential Alexander Mavrocordatos. In October, Skarlatakes married the Prince's daughter, Ilinca. Brâncoveanu also promoted Șerban II Cantacuzino as ''Paharnic'', in which capacity Cantacuzino attended, in 1702, the formal meeting between the Prince and Baron Paget. Brăiloiu returned as ''Paharnic'' under the last Cantacuzino Prince, Ștefan, with increased powers that allowed him to set an arbitrary ''vinărici'' and "collect wine as he pleases".

Moldavia's own ''Paharnici'' and ''Păhărnicei'' greatly increased in number between 1550 and 1650; by 1710, some 24 were permanently present at the princely court in Iași, acting as waiters to the Moldavian Princes' foreign guests. Though the office's prestige declined, various Moldavian rulers maintained a practice of assigning it, alongside other offices, to their most trusted courtiers, often members of the monarchs' own families. Vasile Lupu (reigned 1634–1653) made his young nephew, Alexandru Coci, a ''Paharnic''; meanwhile Lupu's in-laws, including ''Paharnici'' Alexandru Ciogolea and Neculai Mogâldea, were involved in conspiracies to topple him. Coci and his brother Enache were later tortured and killed by Lupu's rival, Gheorghe Ștefan, at the princely court in Podoleni. In the 1670s, holders of the ''Paharnic'' title included Ștefan Lupașcu Hâjdău, who was both a close relative and in-law of Prince Ștefan Petriceicu. The office of ''Cupar'' also existed in Moldavia, for instance during Petriceicu's successor Antonie Ruset, who assigned it to his brother Constantin. This function was alluded to in the canting arms used by the Rosetti family, which prominently feature a silver cup.

Moldavia also experienced a Cantacuzino ascendancy, which resulted in the promotion of Greek boyars, to the irritation of local competitors. The latter sentiment was notably expressed in the anti-Greek outburst of 1673, narrated favorably by chronicler Ion Neculce. It came shortly after Dumitrașcu Cantacuzino abdicated, and targeted his courtiers, notably the ''Paharnic'' Mavrodin, who was paraded on a donkey and made to speak shibboleth phrases in Romanian. Upon returning to the throne, Petriceicu maintained a court that included Greek boyars such as Ilie Stamatie, who was a ''Paharnic'' of Huși. By 1703, the Moldavian Cantacuzinos were in conflict with the Greek Prince Constantine Ducas, with ''Paharnic'' Ilie Cantacuzino fleeing the country. Brâncoveanu's contemporary Dimitrie Cantemir, a native boyar and Enlightened absolutist, strove to reform the old order, appointing distinguished soldiers, such as Adam Luca, as his ''Paharnici''. Under Cantemir, the ''Postelnic'' was the seventh of eight boyars admitted to a privy council, while the ''Păhărnicei'' were inducted en masse into a category called ''boiernași'' ("little boyars"). His second and final reign was curbed by the Pruth River Campaign, during which Cantemir supported Russia. When he left into exile, he took with him Neculce and the ''Paharnic'' Gheorghiță, both of them against their will.

Phanariote reforms

Progressively over the 1710s, competing dynasties of culturally Greek aristocrats, collectively known as "Phanariotes", took power as Ottoman intermediaries in both Wallachia and Moldavia. The first such ruler, Nicholas Mavrocordatos, awarded tax privileges to the ''Paharnici'', exempting them from the levy on ''siliști''. The ''Păhărnicei'' continued to be a strong presence in the borderland region of Wallachia, where in 1729 they still had a corps and a captain. Overtures were made to tone down conflicts between the Romanians and the Greeks in Moldavia, such as when Grigore II Ghica refused to prosecute a treasonous ''Paharnic'' Gavriil. In 1754, Matei Ghica created more resources for the two ''Paharnici'' of Panciu, allowing them to collect half of the tax revenue previously kept by the '' Staroste''. However, the erosion of ''Paharnici'' importance continued and was enhanced: under the same Matei Ghica, who ruled over both countries in succession, twenty ''Paharnici'' were created at each court. While some historians credit this anomaly to the Prince, others identify his ''Postelnic'', Alexandros Soutzos, as the culprit.

Matei's predecessor, Mihai Racoviță, had redesigned the Wallachian table of ranks, making ''Paharnic'' the eighth position, within a second category of boyars. Accordingly, ''Paharnici'' were entitled to 40 '' scutelnici'', or clients, and had a yearly salary of 960 thaler; by comparison, all boyars of the first class received 70 ''scutelnici'' and 1,680 thaler. As noted by historian Pompiliu Eliade, "an inflexible protocol govern dthe relationship between classes." Third-class boyars were required to bow down and kiss the hem of first-class superiors. ''Paharnici'' and others of the intermediary class were only expected to kiss their hand and display timidity in interactions. Under the new Phanariote regulations, these second-class aristocrats could not wear fur kaftans and had special ''kalpaks'', surmounted by green cushions; their coats could only be colored in dark tones of green, blue, and brown, but, unlike inferior boyars, they were allowed to grow beards.

In parallel, scholar Nicolae Iorga notes, Wallachia's "old ''cursus honorum'' had yielded to personal assets or demands." Before 1796, the ''Paharnici'' had fallen to ninth or tenth place, but only because higher offices had been "doubled"—for instance, in 1768 there were two Wallachian ''Vornici''. Another stratification occurred in Moldavia. There were 27 ''Paharnici'' at Grigore Callimachi's court: 13 enjoyed the full privileges; 14 were secondary (''vtori-'') and tertiary (''treti-'') ''Paharnici''. There were still 14 ''Păhărnicei'' performing military duty at the Moldavian court in 1763. Their commander, now called ''Vătaf'' (plural: ''Vătafi''), was a Greek boyar, Miche. Reduced to the role of rural legatees of the urban ''Paharnic'', the ''Păhărnicei'' of both countries were then stripped of all their remaining tax privileges under Constantine Mavrocordatos; the ''Paharnici'' themselves were required to pay for any military levy. Nevertheless, these new norms also stipulated that holders of any boyar rank from the top 19 would be spared taxation. That privilege was also extended to three generations of their descendants, known as ''Mazili'' or ''Mazâli''. A Western visitor, Friedrich Wilhelm von Bauer, assessed that Mavrocordatos' intervention had only left 100 ''Păhărnicei'' throughout Wallachia, with 12 more performing service for the Prince as ''Mazili''. By 1760, the boyars, including three ''Paharnici'', had lodged a formal complaint against Mavrocordatos with Sultan Mustafa III, accusing him of embezzlement.

Shortly after Mavrocordatos' death in the Russian occupation of 1769, the chronicler Franz Sulzer noted that the function of Moldavia's great ''Paharnic'' was to reside in Cotnari and collect revenue for Princess-dowager Ecaterina. The town, Sulzer noted, had greatly declined. Before 1810, the ''Paharnic'' had fallen to an even lesser position on the table of ranks of Moldavia. It was twelfth, although ahead of the ''Stolnic'' and ''Serdar''. The ''Păhărnicei''s ''Vătafi'' moved in the opposite direction and, by 1796, had been recognized as a component of Wallachia's fifth-class boyardom.

''Paharnici'' and ''Păhărnicei'' also had a decorative function at the ceremonies in honor of Wallachia's Phanariote Princes, notably at the coronations of Alexander Ypsilantis (1775) and Nicholas Mavrogenes (1786), and the wedding of Princess Zamfira, daughter of John Caradja (1782). Some of the holders of the title focused their activity on cultural and educational projects. In Oltenia, Romanian or Greek schools were founded by local ''Paharnici'', including Fota Vlădoianu ( Craiova, 1777), Stan Jianu ( Preajba, 1783), and Alexandru Farfara ( Cerneți, 1793). The 1780s ''Paharnic'' Mihail Fotino, a Wallachian Greek, became noted for his contributions to jurisprudence and moral philosophy. By 1806, Toma Carra, the Moldavian ''Paharnic'', was helping to draft a set of modernizing ''Pandects'', to be used by Prince Alexander Mourouzis in reforming the justice system.

As a middle-class and nationalist layer

Other ''Paharnici'' were primarily involved in administrative or entrepreneurial work. Under Prince John Mavrocordatos, the Bucharest caretakers, or ''ispravnici'', comprised ''Paharnic'' Nicolae Ruset. In 1724, ''Paharnic'' Manolache owned one of the larger Bucharest bakeries. By 1804, Wallachian dignitaries included an Armenian businessman and ''Paharnic'', Manuc Bei, made famous by his establishing of Manuc's Inn. In 1800, while reigning in Wallachia, Mourouzis appointed his ''Paharnic'' Ștefănică, alongside Constantin Pastia, to redesign a system for Bucharest's drainage and sewage. In 1819, Wallachian Prince Alexandros Soutzos ordered his ''Paharnic'', Ianache Hafta, to carry out a modern surveying of Bucharest. Another ''Paharnic'', Vasile Iconomu, helped ''Spatharios'' Gheorghe Vlahuț in capturing a gang of English counterfeiters. Moldavia's second-class boyars were similarly dedicated to commercial pursuits. Around 1740, ''Paharnic'' Radu Racoviță established a pioneering glass factory at Luizi-Călugăra. While ranked as ''Paharnici'', Ioniță Cuza took up usury (1770s) and Ionică Tăutu became one of the major tenant farmers in Hotin County (1810).

Frictions between the Phanariotes and the provincial second-class boyars continued with some regularity. In one incident of 1799, ''Paharnic'' Constantin Bălăceanu of Ialomița County refused to carry out an order issued by Constantine Hangerli. Under Constantine Ypsilantis, another Ialomița ''Paharnic'', Fălcoianu, was charged with embezzlement. With the era of national awakening, the ''Paharnici'' opposition to the Greeks extended to other classes of foreigners. In 1784, a ''Paharnic'' "Carpoff" made sustained efforts to block the penetration into Moldavia of Galician Armenians. ''Paharnic'' Manuc remained one of only three only Armenians to have reached a boyar rank in either country under the Phanariote reigns. During the war of 1806, a Wallachian ''Paharnic'', Ștefan Belu, had a publicized conflict with the Bulgarians colonized at Lichirești, who were under the protection of Dimitrie Macedonski.

The Phanariote era also pushed Moldavia and Wallachia into the orbit of the Russian Empire, prompting some boyars to accept Russian suzerainty. In the 1760s, a ''Paharnic'', Semyon Mikulin, moved to Novorossiya and was received into Russian nobility. In 1812, pursuant to the Treaty of Bucharest, eastern Moldavia was detached and assigned to Russia. This led to the creation of a Bessarabian Governorate which recognized Moldavian titles, including that of ''Paharnic'', as the basis for inclusion into Russian nobility. Two of the earliest Bessarabian ''Paharnici'' were Nicolae Done and Toma Stamati. From a Wallachian family, Done served as judge in Hotin County during the early 1820s; Stamati, who took part in the inaugural gentry assembly, was the father of poet Constantin Stamati. Yet another ''Paharnic'' under Russian rule, Dinu Negruzzi of Șirăuți was the father of writer Costache Negruzzi.

Under late Phanariotes such as Wallachia's Caradja, the rank of a lesser ''Paharnic'' was openly trafficked: Hagi Ianus, a merchant from Craiova, offered to purchase it at 400 ducats in 1816. By the time of Soutzos' death in 1821 there were six greater ''Paharnici'' in Wallachia, all of them present at his funeral. According to a note by visiting bureaucrat Ignaty Yakovenko, the number of ''scutelnici'' had increased, with each of these ''Paharnici'' commanding the allegiance of 25 clients; the ''Păhărnicei''s ''Vătafi'' had three ''scultenici'' of their own.

The rise of Wallachian clienteles was again curbed in 1821 by an anti-boyar uprising, under Tudor Vladimirescu; having a peasant base, this insurgency was probably led by disgruntled third-class boyars. Also in 1821, the Phanariote warlord Alexander Ypsilantis, leading a " Sacred Band" of Greek revolutionaries, had taken control over Moldavia and parts of Wallachia. Ypsilantis' expedition sparked another Ottoman intervention, which provided a settling of scores between Romanians and Greeks. Second-class boyars played significant parts: according to Eliade, a ''Spatharios'' and a ''Paharnic'' traveled from one Moldavian town to another, replacing Ypsilantis' men with friendly locals. The ''Paharnic'' Gavril Istrati was involved alongside Sturdza in the fight against Sacred Band Greeks, at the head of a national party. At Zvoriștea, he organized a guerrilla force which flew red flags. It then marched on Botoșani, driving out the Greek insurgents.

Disintegration

Istrati's counterpart in Wallachia was Scarlat Cerchez, who organized the reception of Moldavia's first post-Phanariote Prince, Ioan Sturdza. Even before arriving in his capital, Sturdza rewarded the expectations of Romanian nationalists, inducting his partisans into the boyardom. By 1825, he had created 350 second-class boyars, ''Paharnici'' included. These changes perplexed Moldavia's first-class boyardom, whose delegates asked Mahmud II to mediate. Eventually, the Russo-Turkish War of 1828 drove Sturdza into exile in Bessarabia. This moment showed the tensions between the two aristocratic systems, as Sturdza began handing out titles to commoners, and allegedly created a house servant as ''Paharnic''.

The post-Phanariote agitation ended as a lengthy Russian occupation of both principalities, providing them with a modernizing constitution known as ''Regulamentul Organic''. Under this system, ''Paharnici'' were a seventh aristocratic rank, below ''Cluceri'' and ahead of ''Serdari''.Laurențiu Vlad, "Scurte note cu privire la cenzura din Țara Românească. Două episoade din biografia lui Constantin N. Brăiloiu (1849–1850, 1858)", in ''Analele Universității București. Seria Științe Politice'', Vol. 4, 2002, p. 36 The Russian-appointed Moldavian Prince, Mihail Sturdza, replicated the policy of inducting new boyars, and, in 1835, raised most civil servants into the aristocracy: 140 ''Paharnici'' and 352 ''Serdari'' were counted in the census of 1849. In 1820, in Botoșani alone there were five ''Paharnici'': Alexandru, Ion Brănișteanu, Necula Dalamaci, Gavril Istrati, and Sterie. By 1847, the same city held six ''Paharnici'', none of them present in the older count. Nationality restrictions for Armenians were also lifted with the Treaty of Adrianople. As noted by scholar H. Dj. Siruni, 35 Armenians became Moldavian boyars in the subsequent social uplift, including ''Paharnici'' Hacic Cerchez at Roman and G. Țăranu at Botoșani.

Sturdza's measures were derided by the genealogist Constantin Sion, himself a ''Paharnic''. According to Sion, Sturdza had managed to make boyars out of "the sons of butchers and publicans", and "condemned the country to fall under his companions". In one fragment of his genealogical tract, Sion confesses that he himself had taken a bribe to facilitate the ennobling of a priest's son, Iordachi Popa, also as a ''Paharnic''. The spread of liberal and radical ideas influenced such perceptions, leading up to the abortive coup of 1848. During the preceding crisis in 1846, the ''Paharnic'' Teodor Sion (Constantin Sion's brother) was arrested, alongside ''Spahtarios'' Tucidide Durmuz, for having joined Teodor Râșcanu's attempt at tax resistance against Sturdza.

The Wallachian and Moldavian military forces were both restructured, though some importance was paid to the old table of ranks and the concept of ''Mazili''. As such, the radical conspirator Ion Câmpineanu was allowed to serve as a Wallachian Major because of his descent from a ''Paharnic''. By 1841, the role of ''Paharnici'' in Bucharest's government had been formalized, with ''Paharnic'' Scarlat Rosetti serving as City Council President. Other boyars of that rank continued to be involved primarily in trade. Pitești was home to a ''Paharnic'' Berindei, who, by 1855, was a major player in Wallachia's pork trade. In Moldavia's Piatra Neamț, the era is commemorated by a former manor-and-warehouse, known as ''Casa Paharnicului'' ("House of the ''Paharnic''"). It was built by the boyar and grain trader Dimitrie C. Gheorghiadis, who held the office for only part of his career.

The title was also held in the 1830s and '40s by two inspector-generals of Wallachia's schools, Ion Heliade Rădulescu and Constantin N. Brăiloiu, as well as by painter Constantin Lecca. The former complained that the appointment was insignificant, since such titles were being offered to all educated youth, turning each one into a "servant of the servants, a nobody among the nobodies." Before the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, which sought to outlaw boyar ranks, the father of revolutionary Gheorghe Magheru also served as ''Paharnic'' and administrator of Romanați County. Another ''Paharnic'', the poet Grigore Alexandrescu, discarded his rank and job in the bureaucracy to participate in the revolutionary events.

The revolution was defeated, but Russian influence was curbed from 1853, with the Crimean War. Under the regime of Prince Barbu Dimitrie Știrbei, Wallachian revolutionaries were allowed back home from exile. They included the ''Paharnic'' Rădulescu, who alternated roles between civilian boyar and general in the Ottoman Army. Eventually, all boyar ranks and tax privileges were ended by the Convention of Paris (1858), which also opened the way for a Moldo–Wallachian union in 1859. The title continued to be used in the 1860s by those who already held it, including jurists Gheorghe Lehliu and Barbu Slătineanu.D. Cernovodeanu, pp. 406, 408

Notes

References

{{columns-list, colwidth=30em,
*Elena Aramă, Ion Jecev, "Organizarea judecătorească în timpul dominației otomane", in ''Revista Națională de Drept'', Issue 10, 2016, pp. 2–4.
*Sergiu Bacalov, ''Boierimea Țării Moldovei la mijlocul secolului al XVII-lea–începutul secolului al XVIII-lea. Studiu istorico-genealogic''. Chișinău: Academy of Sciences of Moldova, 2012. {{ISBN, 978-9975-71-282-8
*Dan Berindei, Irina Gavrilă, "Mutații în sînul clasei dominante din Țara Românească în perioada de destrămare a orînduirii feudale", in ''Revista de Istorie'', Vol. 34, Issue 11, 1981, pp. 2029–2046.
*Gheorghe G. Bezviconi, ''Boierimea Moldovei dintre Prut și Nistru'', Vol. I. Bucharest: Fundația Regele Carol I, 1940; Vol. II, Bucharest: National Institute of History, 1943.
*Ivan Biliarsky, ''Word and Power in Mediaeval Bulgaria''. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2011. {{ISBN, 978-90-04-19145-7
*Gheorghe Bogdan-Duică, ''Istoria literaturii române. Întâii poeți munteni''. Cluj: Cluj University & Editura Institutului de Arte Grafice Ardealul, 1923. {{OCLC, 28604973
*Ariasna Camariano-Cioran, "Miscellanea. Măsuri fiscale și administrative în Moldova (1753—1754)", in ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', Vol. V, 1962, pp. 505–514.
*Dan Cernovodeanu, ''Știința și arta heraldică în România''. Bucharest: Editura științifică și enciclopedică, 1977. {{OCLC, 469825245
*Paul Cernovodeanu, "Elemente incipiente ale burgheziei în societatea românească sub fanarioți", in ''Revista de Istorie'', Vol. 40, Issue 5, 1987, pp. 479–492.
*Adina Chirilă, ''Limba scrierilor lui Antim Ivireanul. Partea I: Fonetica; morfologia''. Iași: Alexandru Ioan Cuza University Press, 2013. {{ISBN, 978-973-703-932-3
*Ion Donat, ''Domeniul domnesc în Țara Românească (sec. XIV–XVI)''. Bucharest: Editura enciclopedică, 1996. {{ISBN, 973-454-170-6
* Pompiliu Eliade, ''De l'influence française sur l'esprit public en Roumanie. Les origines. Étude sur l'état de la société roumaine a l'époque des règnes phanariotes''. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1898. {{OCLC, 6967920
* Gheorghe Ghibănescu, "Sama visteriei Moldovei din 1763 (Iunie–Decembrie)", in ''Ioan Neculce. Buletinul Muzeului Municipal Iași'', Fasc. 5, 1925, pp. 70–121.
*Constantin C. Giurescu, ''Istoria Bucureștilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre''. Bucharest: Editura pentru literatură, 1966. {{OCLC, 1279610
* Dinu C. Giurescu, "Miscellanea. ''Anatefterul''. Condica de porunci a vistieriei lui Constantin Brîncoveanu", in ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', Vol. V, 1962, pp. 353–364.
*Arthur Gorovei, ''Monografia Orașului Botoșani''. Botoșani: Ediția Primăriei de Botoșani, 1938.
*N. N. Hêrjeu, ''Istoria Partidului Național Liberal; De la origină până în zilele noastre. Volumul 1''. Bucharest: Institutul de Arte Grafice Speranța, 1915. {{OCLC, 38789356
*Liliana Hoinărescu, "Discurs și reprezentare socială în cronica lui Ion Neculce: imaginea grecului", in ''Analele Universității din București. Limba și Literatura Română'', Vol. LXIII, 2014, pp. 27–49.
*I. Ionașcu,
**''Biserici, chipuri și documente din Olt'', Vol. I. Craiova: Ramuri, 1934. {{OCLC, 935559527
**"Date noi relative la Radu Vodă Mihnea în Țara Romînească", in ''Studii. Revistă de Istorie'', Vol. XIV, Issue 3, 1961, pp. 699–720.
*Nicolae Iorga,
**"Două comunicații la Academia Română. II: O foaie de popularisare igienică și economică la 1844–45. Rolul fraților Vîrnav în Renașterea romănească", in ''Revista Istorică'', Vol. V, Issues 8–10, August–October 1919, pp. 170–187.
**''Pedagogia unui jurisconsult fanariot din București la 1780. Intoarcerea unei pribege: Doamna Maria Minio''. Bucharest: Monitorul Oficial, 1932.
**"La titlurile boierești în epoca fanariotă", in ''Revista Istorică'', Vol. XIX, Issues 1–3, January–March 1933, pp. 10–11.
**"Două arzuri ale țării către Sultan în sec. XVIII"; "Practica domnească a unui ideolog: D. Cantemir", in ''Memoriile Secțiunii Istorice'', Vol. XVI, 1934, pp. 205–219.
*Alexandru Ligor, "În jurul unui nou exemplar al celui dintîi formular diplomatic tipărit în limba română", in ''Muzeul Național'', Vol. I, 1974, pp. 259–266.
*V. Mihordea, "Vinăriciul domnesc și vadrăritul", in ''Studii. Revistă de Istorie'', Vol. 22, Issue 6, 1969, pp. 1077–1101.
*Radu Oprea, "Ascensiunea politică a boierilor Craiovești în veacul al XV-lea", in ''Argesis. Studii și Comunicări. Seria Istorie'', Vol. XVIII, 2009, pp. 133–141.
*Lucian Constantin Palade, "Relațiile Drăculeștilor cu boierimea în veacul al XV-lea", in ''Argesis. Studii și Comunicări. Seria Istorie'', Vol. XVIII, 2009, pp. 143–149.
*P. P. Panaitescu, ''Contribuții la istoria culturii românești''. Bucharest: Editura Minerva, 1971. {{OCLC, 432822509
*George Potra, ''Din Bucureștii de ieri'', Vols. I–II. Bucharest: Editura științifică și enciclopedică, 1990. {{ISBN, 973-29-0018-0
*Ion Pușcă, "Contribuții privind viticultura din bazinul Panciu", in ''Studii și Comunicări (Complexul Muzeal al Județului Vrancea)'', Vol. III, 1980, pp. 359–372.
*Daniela Rădescu, "Mazilii – categorie socială distinctă în epoca regulamentară", in ''Analele Universității din Craiova. Seria Istorie'', Vol. XIV, Issue 2, 2009, pp. 135–142.
*Constantin Rezachevici,
**"Dicționar istoric. Marile dregătorii ale Moldovei și Țării Românești", in ''Magazin Istoric'', January 1971, pp. 22–25.
**"Politica internă a lui Petru Rareș (a doua domnie, 1541—1516)", in ''Revista de Istorie'', Vol. 30, Issue 1, 1977, pp. 67–93.
**"Fenomene de criză social-politică în Țara Românească în veacul al XVII-lea", in ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', Vol. IX, 1978, pp. 59–84.
*Pompei Samarian, ''Istoria orașului Călărași (Ialomița). Dela origine până la anul 1852''. Bucharest: Institutul de Arte Grafice E. Marvan, 1931. {{OCLC, 935464269
* H. Dj. Siruni, ''Armenii în viața economică a Țărilor Române'', Bucharest: Institutul de Studii și Cercetări Balcanice, 1944. {{OCLC, 13144522
*N. Stoicescu, "Despre subalternii marilor dregători din Țara Românească și Moldova (sec. XV—mijlocul sec. XVIII)", in ''Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie'', Vol. VI, 1973, pp. 61–90.
*George Felix Tașcă, "Paharnicul Iliaș fiul lui Dumitru. În sfatul Țării Moldovei între anii 1407–1429", in ''Carpica'', Vol. XXVI, Issue 2, 1997, pp. 7–14.
*Gh. Ungureanu, "Frămîntări social-politice premergătoare mișcării revoluționare din 1848 în Moldova", in ''Studii. Revistă de Istorie'', Vol. XI, Issue 3, 1958, pp. 51–76.

Ceremonial occupations
Romanian noble titles
Noble titles of Russia
Romanian words and phrases
Romanian wine
Wine terminology
People associated with wine