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''Otium'', a
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
abstract term, has a variety of meanings, including
leisure Leisure has often been defined as a quality of experience or as free time. Free time is time spent away from business, work, job hunting, domestic chores, and education, as well as necessary activities such as eating and sleeping. Leisure ...
time in which a person can enjoy
eating Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food, typically to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive — carnivores eat other animals, he ...
,
playing Play is a range of Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, intrinsically motivated activities done for recreational pleasure and enjoyment. Play is commonly associated with children and juvenile-level activities, but m ...
, relaxing,
contemplation In a religious context, the practice of contemplation seeks a direct awareness of the divine which transcends the intellect, often in accordance with prayer or meditation. Etymology The word ''contemplation'' is derived from the Latin word '' ...
and
academic An academy (Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary education, secondary or tertiary education, tertiary higher education, higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membershi ...
endeavors. It sometimes, but not always, relates to a time in a person's
retirement Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their j ...
after previous service to the public or private sector, opposing "active public life". ''Otium'' can be a temporary time of leisure, that is sporadic. It can have intellectual, virtuous or immoral implications. It originally had the idea of withdrawing from one's daily business (''neg-otium'') or affairs to engage in activities that were considered to be artistically valuable or enlightening (i.e., speaking, writing, philosophy). It had particular meaning to businessmen, diplomats, philosophers and poets.


Etymology and origin

In ancient Roman culture ''otium'' was a military concept as its first Latin usage. This was in
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia, (Ancient Calabria, ...
' ''Iphigenia''. According to historian
Carl Deroux Carl may refer to: *Carl, Georgia, city in USA *Carl, West Virginia, an unincorporated community * Carl (name), includes info about the name, variations of the name, and a list of people with the name *Carl², a TV series * "Carl", an episode of te ...
in his work ''Studies in Latin literature and Roman history'', the word ''otium'' appears for the first time in a chorus of Ennius' ''Iphigenia''. Ennius' first use of the term ''otium'' around 190 BC showed the restlessness and boredom during a reprieve from war and was termed ''otium negotiosum'' (free time to do what one wanted) and ''otium otiosum'' (idle wasteless free time).
Leisure, Idleness and Virtuous Activity in Shakespearean Drama
'' by Unhae Langis, p. 2
Aulus Gellius, while discussing the word ''praeterpropter'' ("more or less") quotes a fragment of Ennius's ''Iphigenia'', which contrasts ''otium'' with ''negotium'' repeatedly.Aulus Gellius, ''Noctes Atticae''
19, 10
For this fragment as the first instance of ''otium'' in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "''Otium'' as ''Luxuria'': Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's ''Letters''," ''Arethusa'' 36 (2003), p. 148.
Ennius imagined the emotions of Agamemnon's soldiers at Aulus, that while in the field and not at war and not allowed to go home, as "more or less" ''living''. The earliest extant appearance of the word in
Latin literature Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature ...
occurs in a fragment from the soldiers' chorus in the ''Iphigenia'' of
Ennius Quintus Ennius (; c. 239 – c. 169 BC) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce, Apulia, (Ancient Calabria, ...
, where it is contrasted to ''negotium''.Ennius, frg. XCIX in the edition of Jocelyn, ''otio qui nescit uti , plus negoti habet quam cum est negotium in negotio'', rendered by Jocelyn: "the man who has no job to do and does not know how to employ the resulting leisure has more difficulty than when there is difficulty in a job on hand". For this fragment as the first instance of ''otium'' in the extant literature, see Eleanor Winsor Leach, "''Otium'' as ''Luxuria'': Economy of Status in the Younger Pliny's ''Letters''", ''Arethusa'' 36 (2003), p. 148. Researchers have determined the etymological and semantic use of ''otium'' was never a direct translation of the Greek word "schole", but derived from specifically Roman contexts. ''Otium'' is an example of the usage of the term "praeterpropter", meaning more or less of leisure. It was first used in military terms related to inactivity during war.Sadlek, p. 33 In ancient Roman times soldiers were many times unoccupied, resting and bored to death when not at war (i.e., winter months, weather not permitting war). This was associated with ''otium otiosum'' (unoccupied and pointless leisure – idle leisure). The opposite of this was ''otium negotiosum'' (busy leisure) – leisure with a satisfying
hobby A hobby is considered to be a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing Sport, sports, or pursu ...
or being able to take care of one's personal affairs or one's own estate. This was ''otium privatum'' (private leisure), equal to ''negotium'' (a type of business). The oldest citation for ''otium'' is this chorus of soldiers, singing about idleness on campaign, in an otherwise lost Latin tragedy by Ennius. Andre shows in these lines that Ennius is showing the soldiers in the field would rather go home tending to their own affairs (''otium'') than to be idle doing nothing. Its military origin meant to stop fighting in battle and lay down weaponsBernard, p. 16 – a time for peace. Even though originally ''otium'' was a military concept in early Roman culture of laying down one's weapons,Bright, p. 217 it later became an elite prestigious time for caring for oneself. The ancient Romans had a sense of obligatory work ethics in their culture and considered the idle-leisure definition of ''otium'' as a waste of time. Historians of ancient Roman considered ''otium'' a time of laborious leisure of much personal duties instead of public duties. Author Almasi shows that historians Jean-Marie Andre and
Brian Vickers Brian Lee Vickers (born October 24, 1983) is an American professional stock car and sports car racing driver. He last drove the No. 14 Chevrolet SS for Stewart-Haas Racing as an interim driver in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for the injured ...
point out the only legitimate form of ''otium'' was transpired with intellectual activity. ''Otium'' was thought of by the wise elite as being free from work and other obligations (''negotium'') and leisure time spent on productive activities, however a time that should not be wasted as was thought the non-elite did with their leisure time.


Greek philosophers

The favorable sense of ''otium'' in
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
nian Latin reflects the Greek term (''skholē'', "leisure", a meaning retained in
Modern Greek Modern Greek (, , or , ''Kiní Neoellinikí Glóssa''), generally referred to by speakers simply as Greek (, ), refers collectively to the dialects of the Greek language spoken in the modern era, including the official standardized form of the ...
as σχόλη, ''schólē''); "leisure" having a complex history in Greek philosophy before being used in Latin (through Latin the word became the root of many education-related English terms, such as school, scholar and scholastic). In Athens, leisure was one of the marks of the Athenian gentleman: the time to do things right, unhurried time, time to discuss in. From there it became "discussion", and from there, philosophical and educational schools, which were both conducted by discussion. Four major Greek philosophical schools influenced the Roman gentlemen of Cicero's time.
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
(and his contemporaries, if the '' Greater Hippias'' be not authentic) brought ''schole'' into philosophy; as often, Plato can be quoted on both sides of the question whether leisure is better than the business of a citizen. In the ''Greater Hippias'', it is one weakness of the title character that, although he has the education and manners of a gentleman, he has no leisure; but
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
, in the '' Apology'', has no leisure either; he is too busy as a gad-fly, keeping his fellow Athenians awake to virtue. However, by the time the Romans encountered Plato's school, the
Academy An academy ( Attic Greek: Ἀκαδήμεια; Koine Greek Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of secondary or tertiary higher learning (and generally also research or honorary membership). The name traces back to Plato's school of philosophy ...
, they had largely ceased to discuss anything so practical as the good life; the
New Academy The Academy (Ancient Greek: Ἀκαδημία) was founded by Plato in c. 387 BC in Athens. Aristotle studied there for twenty years (367–347 BC) before founding his own school, the Lyceum. The Academy persisted throughout the Hellenistic p ...
of
Carneades Carneades (; el, Καρνεάδης, ''Karneadēs'', "of Carnea"; 214/3–129/8 BC) was a Greek philosopher and perhaps the most prominent head of the Skeptical Academy in ancient Greece. He was born in Cyrene. By the year 159 BC, he had beg ...
practiced verbal agility and boundless skepticism.
Theophrastus Theophrastus (; grc-gre, Θεόφραστος ; c. 371c. 287 BC), a Greek philosopher and the successor to Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. He was a native of Eresos in Lesbos.Gavin Hardy and Laurence Totelin, ''Ancient Botany'', Routledge ...
and
Dicaearchus Dicaearchus of Messana (; grc-gre, Δικαίαρχος ''Dikaiarkhos''; ), also written Dikaiarchos (), was a Greek philosopher, geographer and author. Dicaearchus was a student of Aristotle in the Lyceum. Very little of his work remains exta ...
, students of
Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
, debated much on the contemplative life and the active life. Roman
Epicureans Epicureanism is a system of philosophy founded around 307 BC based upon the teachings of the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus. Epicureanism was originally a challenge to Platonism. Later its main opponent became Stoicism. Few writings by ...
used ''otium'' for the quiet bliss promised by Epicurus.Haase, p. 2265 An Epicurean proverb The phrase "to be at ease" can have the meaning "to be of good cheer" or "to be without fear" these being interdependent. The Epicurean idea of ''otium'' favors contemplation, compassion, gratitude and friendship. The Epicurean view is that wisdom has as much to contribute to the benefit of the public as does that of contributions of politicians and laborers (i.e., sailors). The rustic ''otium'' concept incorporates country living into Epicureanism. The active city public life of ''negotium'' and an ''otium'' of reserved country life of reflection have been much written about by
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
and
Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in ...
.
Epicurus Epicurus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκουρος ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influenced ...
's philosophy was contrary to Hellenistic Stoicism. Epicurus promised enjoyment in retirement as a concept of ''otium''. The concept of the Epicurean ''otium'' (private world of leisure) and the contemplative life were represented in Epicurus' school of philosophy and his garden. The portraits of the Garden of Epicurus near Athens represented political and cultural heroes of the time. Twenty-first–century historians Gregory Warden and David Romano have argued that the layout of the sculptures in "The Garden" were designed to give the viewer contrasting viewpoints of the Epicurean ''otium'' and the Hellenistic Stoic viewpoint of ''otium'' (''i.e.'' private or public; contemplation or "employment"; ''otium'' or ''negotium'').


Roman Republic

In early and colloquial Latin, despite the etymological contrast, ''otium'' is often used pejoratively, in contrast rather to ''officium'', "office, duty" than to ''negotium'' ('business"). There was a difference established in ancient Roman times (second century BCE and forward) developing the idea elite social status was when one fulfilled one's duties in business and then ''otium'' meant "leisure" while ''negotium'' meant "non-leisure" (work duties still needed to be done). This new time of ''otium'' was filled by Greek scholarly pursuits and Greek pleasures. The time environment within which a person existed had sides to it that were filled with Greek customs such as pastimes, hobbies, interchanges of thoughts and ideas, and private bathing. ''Otium'' and ''negotium'' was then a new social concept which has perpetuated to our own time. Historian J. M. Andre concludes that the original sense of ''otium'' was related to military service and the idleness that happened in the winter, as opposed to the business (''negotium'') of the rest of the year. The most ancient Roman calendar divided the year into ten months devoted to war and farming, leaving the winter months of January and February vacant for individual ''otium''. Andre shows that the beauty of the individual ''otium'' poses rest.
Titus Maccius Plautus Titus Maccius Plautus (; c. 254 – 184 BC), commonly known as Plautus, was a Roman playwright of the Old Latin period. His comedies are the earliest Latin literary works to have survived in their entirety. He wrote Palliata comoedia, the gen ...
in his play ''
Mercator __NOTOC__ Mercator (Latin for "merchant") may refer to: People * Marius Mercator (c. 390–451), a Catholic ecclesiastical writer * Arnold Mercator, a 16th-century cartographer * Gerardus Mercator, a 16th-century cartographer ** Mercator 1569 ...
'' says that while you are young is the time to save up for your retirement otium so you can enjoy it later, in his claim ''tum in otium te conloces, dum potes, ames'' (then you may set yourself at your ease, drink and be amorous).
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
speaks of himself, with the expression ''otium cum dignitate'', that time spent in activities one prefers is suitable for a Roman citizen who has retired from public life. When he was ousted from each office, this forced an inactive period, which he used for "worthy leisure". During this time he composed ''
Tusculanae Disputationes The ''Tusculanae Disputationes'' (also ''Tusculanae Quaestiones''; English: ''Tusculan Disputations'') is a series of five books written by Cicero, around 45 BC, attempting to popularise Greek philosophy in Ancient Rome, including Stoicism. It is s ...
'', a series of books on
Stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy * STOIC, a programming language * ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll * ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain * ...
philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
. Cicero saw free time as a time to devote to writing.Stroup, p. 61 Cicero defines ''otium'' as leisure, avoiding active participation in politics. He further defines it as a state of security and peace (pax) – a type of "public health". It is often associated with tranquillity. Cicero advises in his third book ''On Duties'' that when the city life becomes too much, one should retreat to the country for leisure. The term ''otium cum dignitate'' in Cicero's ''Pro Sestio'' was to mean peace (pax) for all and distinction for some. Cicero says in ''Pro Sestio'', XLV., 98 Cicero explains that, while not necessarily his cup of tea, he recognized many different ways to spend leisure time and ''otium''. In one passage of '' De Oratore'' he explains that
Philistus Philistus ( grc-gre, Φίλιστος; c. 432 – 356 BC), son of Archomenidas, was a Greek historian from Sicily. Life Philistus was born in Syracuse around the time the Peloponnesian War began. He was a faithful supporter of the elder Di ...
spent his retirement writing history as his ''otium''. He goes on to say in ''De Oratore'' Book iii that other men passed their ''otium'' of leisure due to bad weather that prevented them from doing their daily chores to playing ball,
knucklebones Knucklebones, also known as scatter jacks, snobs, astragalus, tali, dibs, fivestones, jacks, or jackstones, among many other names, is a game of dexterity played with a number of small objects that are thrown up, caught, and manipulated in va ...
, dice games or just games they made up. Others that were "retired" from public life for whatever reason devoted their ''otium cum seritio'' (leisure with service) to poetry, mathematics, music and teaching children. German historian
Klaus Bringmann Klaus Bringmann (28 May 1936, in Bad Wildungen - 14 July 2021Uwe Walter, ''Sinn fürs Wesentliche - Zum Tod von Klaus Bringmann'', In: Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung vom 19. Juli 2021) was a German historian, an author of books on Roman history, ...
shows in Cicero's works that one can not characterize him as a
hypocrite Hypocrisy is the practice of engaging in the same behavior or activity for which one criticizes another or the practice of claiming to have moral standards or beliefs to which one's own behavior does not conform. In moral psychology, it is the ...
while in ''otium'' because of his sense of duty to serve the state. Cicero's concept of ''otium'' does not mean selfish pursuit of pleasure. It means the well-earned leisure which is a culmination of a long career of action and achievement. It's a reward. Idleness (''desidia'') had derogatory implications and unqualified ''otium'' was a problem for Cicero's elite group of followers. Its break away from civic affairs contrasted with ''negotia publica'', participation in civic affairs of the republican aristocracy. To distinguish between plain "idleness" and aristocratic ''otium homestum'', ''otium liberale'' or ''otium cum dignitate'', writers of the day said that literary and philosophical pursuits were worthwhile activities and that they had benefit to ''res publica'' (the general public). These pursuits were a type of 'employment' and therefore not mere laziness. Cicero praises
Cato the Elder Marcus Porcius Cato (; 234–149 BC), also known as Cato the Censor ( la, Censorius), the Elder and the Wise, was a Roman soldier, senator, and historian known for his conservatism and opposition to Hellenization. He was the first to write histo ...
for his respectful use of ''otium'' in his expression ''non-minus otii quam negotii'' ("no less for doing nothing than business"). Cicero was associating ''otium'' with writing and thinking when he admires Cato for pointing out that
Scipio Africanus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (, , ; 236/235–183 BC) was a Roman general and statesman, most notable as one of the main architects of Rome's victory against Carthage in the Second Punic War. Often regarded as one of the best military com ...
claimed he was "never less idle than when he was at leisure, and never less lonely than when he was alone." Cicero in his '' De Officiis'' (book III, 1–4) further says of Scipio Africanus "Leisure and solitude, which serve to make others idle, in Scipio's case acted as a
goad The goad is a traditional farming implement, used to spur or guide livestock, usually oxen, which are pulling a plough or a cart; used also to round up cattle. It is a type of long stick with a pointed end, also known as the cattle prod. The ...
." Cicero's idea of ''otium cum dignitate'' ("leisure with dignity") is considerably different from today's version of the concept. In his time, this kind of "free time" was only for the few privileged elite and was mostly made possible by the toil of slaves. It was associated with an egotistic and arrogant lifestyle, compared to those who had to earn their own living with no slaves. Today technology and educational systems enter into the equation on making leisure time (''otium'') available to almost everyone, not just the privileged elite, which enables the pursuit of
hobbies A hobby is considered to be a regular activity that is done for enjoyment, typically during one's leisure time. Hobbies include collecting themed items and objects, engaging in creative and artistic pursuits, playing sports, or pursuing oth ...
. Cicero has a number of different concept versions for ''otium''. In one concept he feels that a lifetime of loyalty attending one's duty (''maximos labores'') should be rewarded with some form of retirement. This then promotes great sacrifices which promotes civic peace with honor within the state. He points out that the tranquillity one enjoys is due to the efforts of the majority. This concept of retirement through a lifetime of work was enjoyed only by the ruling class and the elite. The common people could only hope to enjoy a leisurely retirement with dignity as an inheritance.
Catullus Gaius Valerius Catullus (; 84 - 54 BCE), often referred to simply as Catullus (, ), was a Latin poet of the late Roman Republic who wrote chiefly in the neoteric style of poetry, focusing on personal life rather than classical heroes. His s ...
, a late
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
poet, in his poems shows that the significance of ''otium'' of the middle Republican time of
autonomy In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's ...
into the concept of how, why, and when a member of the patronal class might exchange political activity for literary leisure. He tended to mark ''otium'' with erotic influence.


Imperial Rome

The imperial dictatorship by
Augustus Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian, was the first Roman emperor; he reigned from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He is known for being the founder of the Roman Pri ...
during the fall of the
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kin ...
put the Roman ruling classes into a state of change as their traditional role as always being in town was no longer needed. They were given much leisure time (''otium'') because of their wealth. The wives of wealthy men were known to write poetry in special rooms devoted to education of the entire family (except the master of the house as it would have been below his dignity). The home of choice then became the countryside
villa A villa is a type of house that was originally an ancient Roman upper class country house. Since its origins in the Roman villa, the idea and function of a villa have evolved considerably. After the fall of the Roman Republic, villas became s ...
as the rise of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
made some Romans even wealthier. Some, especially among the large and middle class Roman landowners, could afford almost anything they could dream up in the way of a residence. Greek-style architecture became their new villa otium outside of town. In ancient Roman times the "otium villa" was a
Dionysian The Apollonian and the Dionysian are philosophical and literary concepts represented by a duality between the figures of Apollo and Dionysus from Greek mythology. Its popularization is widely attributed to the work ''The Birth of Tragedy'' by Fr ...
idealistic rural home setting that evoked peace, leisure, simplicity and serenity. Often in ancient writings is found the mention of restorative powers due its natural setting (''otium'') in the rural country home, contrasted to the busy city life with all the businesses (''negotium''). The "villa with a garden" and "villa by the sea" was associated with ''otium''. The life at the Roman villa was associated with Greek culture in rooms which had Greek themes indicating a "superior world" of living. The Imperial Roman poet
Statius Publius Papinius Statius ( Greek: Πόπλιος Παπίνιος Στάτιος; ; ) was a Greco-Roman poet of the 1st century CE. His surviving Latin poetry includes an epic in twelve books, the ''Thebaid''; a collection of occasional poetry, ...
writes of an "otium villa" that he planned to retire to in Naples in his work ''
Silvae The is a collection of Latin occasional poetry in hexameters, hendecasyllables, and lyric meters by Publius Papinius Statius (c. 45 – c. 96 CE). There are 32 poems in the collection, divided into five books. Each book contains a prose prefa ...
'': "It has secure peace, an idle life of leisure, non-troubled rest and sleep. There is no madness in the market-place, no strict laws in dispute ..." Pliny the Younger exemplified the philosophy of the Roman elite in ''otium'' of the time by the life he lived from his "otium villas". He would dictate letters to his secretary, read Greek and Latin speeches, go on walks on the villa's grounds, dine and socialize with friends, meditate, exercise, bathe, take naps and occasionally hunt.
Tibullus Albius Tibullus ( BC19 BC) was a Latin poet and writer of elegies. His first and second books of poetry are extant; many other texts attributed to him are of questionable origins. Little is known about the life of Tibullus. There are only a fe ...
was an Augustan
elegiac The adjective ''elegiac'' has two possible meanings. First, it can refer to something of, relating to, or involving, an elegy or something that expresses similar mournfulness or sorrow. Second, it can refer more specifically to poetry composed in ...
poet who offered an alternative lifestyle to the Roman ideal of the military man or the man of action. He preferred the country lifestyle. In his existing first two books of poetry he compares the lifestyle of his chief friend and patron
Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus (64 BC – AD 8 or c. 12) was a Roman general, author, and patron of literature and art. Family Corvinus was the son of the consul in 61 BC, Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger,Syme, R., ''Augustan Aristocracy'', ...
as a commander and soldier to that of a farmer. Tibullus in his poem 1.3 rejects the work style of the rich man, ''adsiduus labor'', and military service (''militia''). He shows in his poetry that originally ''otium'' was a military concept, the disuse of one's weapons. Tibullus prefers the rustic agricultural landscape and a simple life. He indicates that while he would do agricultural work, he would only be interested in doing it sometimes (''interdum'') and therefore inserts ''otium'' (peace and leisure time) into agricultural life.Myers, p. 73 He expresses in his attitude of his poetry that the qualities of the Epicurean resolve to quietism (occultism – religious mysticism) and pacifism (abstention from violence) as the pursuits of ''ignobile otium'' (mean leisure) – peace of mind (peace with one's self) and detachment from worldly ambitions.
Seneca Seneca may refer to: People and language * Seneca (name), a list of people with either the given name or surname * Seneca people, one of the six Iroquois tribes of North America ** Seneca language, the language of the Seneca people Places Extrat ...
compares the difference in the Epicurean and Stoic choice of ''otium''. He confesses that classic Stoicism urges active public life while Epicurus has a tendency not to advance public life unless forced to. Seneca views
Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century Common Era, BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asser ...
and Epicureanism as legitimate to inaction in the proper situations. He defends the Stoic philosophy as leaning toward ''otium''. The main responsibility for the Stoic is to benefit the public in some manner. This could be done by the cultivation of virtue or the research of nature in retirement. This would mean a life of meditation and contemplation rather than an active political life. Seneca shows that ''otium'' is not really "free time", but a study of other matters (i.e., reading, writing) other than political and career gains. Retirees retreating to rural villas increased as writers of the day wrote that Stoic ways included pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy. This meant that the work of public duties was replaced by ''otium liberale'' (liberal leisure) and was sanctified if the retiree did pursuits of reading, writing and philosophy. The benefits of the simplicity of rustic country life was reinforced in the intellectual legitimacy of ''otium ruris'' (rural leisure) because it drew out the spiritual implications of Horatian and Vergilian images of this type of life. Seneca's doctrine of ''De Otio'' describes retirement from public life. The contemplative life that Seneca revised was a Roman debate on ''otium'' (a productive peaceful time) and at some point in the evolution of the term was later contrasted to ''negotium''. These are some of the elements in Seneca's doctrine of ''De Otio'': # virtue, freedom and happiness by reasoning. # the military metaphor. # that the virtuous person chooses ''statio'', a specific place for doing one's 'employment'. # ''otium'' (leisure) is still ''negotium'' (business) even if withdrawal from public activity. # that the virtuous person's ''otium'', as a citizen of the universe, is the field for the performance of his duty.


Later writers

While Seneca's doctrine appears to be close to the doctrine of Athenodorus's ''De Tranquillitate'' it is basically different. In ''De Otio 3.5'' Seneca points out the benefits towards man in general, while in ''De Tranquillitate'' the theme is peace of mind.
Saint Augustine of Hippo Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Afric ...
reminded Romans of ''otium philosophandi'', a positive element, that life was happiest when one had time to philosophize. Augustine points out that ''otium'' was the prerequisite for contemplation. It was because of ''otium'' that
Alypius of Thagaste Alypius of Thagaste was bishop of the see of Tagaste (in what is now Algeria) in 394. He was a lifelong friend of Augustine of Hippo and joined him in his conversion (in 386; ''Confessions'' 8.12.28) and life in Christianity. He is credited wit ...
steered Augustine away from marriage. He said that they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine described ''Christianae vita otium'' as the Christian life of leisure. Many Christian writers of the time interpreted the Roman idea of ''otium'' as the deadly sin of
acedia Acedia (; also accidie or accedie , from Latin , and this from Greek , "negligence", "lack of" "care") has been variously defined as a state of listlessness or torpor, of not caring or not being concerned with one's position or condition in th ...
(sloth). Some Christian writers formulated ''otium'' as meaning to serve God through deep thought. Christian writers encouraged biblical studies to justify ''otium''. These same Christian writers also showed ''otium ruris'' (secluded rural leisure) as a needed step to monastic ''propositum''. Augustine describes the monastic life as ''otium sanctum'' (sanctified leisure or approved leisure). In Augustine's time the idea of philosophy had two poles of ambitions – one to be a worthy Christian (vacation – ''negotium'') and the other to be a worthy friend of God (devotion – ''otium'').Prosperetti, p. 48
Petrarch Francesco Petrarca (; 20 July 1304 – 18/19 July 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch (), was a scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited w ...
, 14th-century poet and
Renaissance humanist Renaissance humanism was a revival in the study of classical antiquity, at first in Italy and then spreading across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term ''humanist'' ( it, umanista) referred to teache ...
, discusses ''otium'' in his ''
De vita solitaria ' ("Of Solitary Life" or "On the Solitary Life"; translated as ''The Life of Solitude'') is a philosophical treatise composed in Latin and written between 1346 and 1356 (mainly in Lent of 1346) by Italian Renaissance humanist Petrarch. It constit ...
'' as it relates to a human life of simple habits and self-restraint. Like his favorite Roman authors Cicero, Horace, Seneca, Ovid and Livy, he sees ''otium'' not as leisure time devoted to idleness, passion, entertainment or mischievous wrongdoing; but time ideally spent on nature appreciation, serious research, meditation, contemplation, writing and friendship. Petrarch considered solitude (i.e., rural setting, "villa otium", his Vaucluse home) and its relationship to ''otium'' as a great possession for a chance at intellectual activity, the same philosophy as Cicero and Seneca. He would share such a precious commodity with his best friends in the spirit of Seneca when he said "no good thing is pleasant to possess without friends to share it". Historian Julia Bondanella translates Petrarch's Latin words of his own personal definition of ''otium'': Petrarch stressed the idea of an active mind even in ''otium'' (leisure). He refers back to Augustine's ''Vetus Itala'' in ''De otio religioso'' where in
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
it was associated with contemplation and ''vacatio'' (vacate – be still). He points out that this is associated with ''videre'' (to see), which in Christianity is physical and mental activity aimed at moral perfection. He relates this concept of ''otium'' as ''vacate et videte'' (be still and see – a form of
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...
, contemplation). Petrarch points out that one should not take leisure as so relaxed as to weaken the mind, but to be active in leisure to build up strength in the view of a unique character and religion.
Andrew Marvell Andrew Marvell (; 31 March 1621 – 16 August 1678) was an English metaphysical poet, satirist and politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1659 and 1678. During the Commonwealth period he was a colleague and friend ...
's seventeenth-century poem The Garden is a lyric of nine stanzas in which he rejects all forms of activity in the world in favor of solitude of the retiree in a garden. It is a type of retirement poem expressing the love of retirementan ancient Roman concept related to ''otium''. The poem shows the high degree of pleasure of rural retirement. Some critics see that he shows ''otium'' to mean peace, quiet and leisure – a goal for retirement from politics and business. Others see a Christianized ''otium'' with Marvell showing a representation of the progress of a soul from the pursuit for the pagan promised land of the peaceful countryside and contemplation to the search for the lost heaven on earth.; page 5 Part of Marvell's poem "The Garden" below:
Brian Vickers Brian Lee Vickers (born October 24, 1983) is an American professional stock car and sports car racing driver. He last drove the No. 14 Chevrolet SS for Stewart-Haas Racing as an interim driver in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series for the injured ...
, a 20th-century British literary scholar, points out an expression made by
Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; or ; 15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher, prose poet, cultural critic, philologist, and composer whose work has exerted a profound influence on contemporary philosophy. He began his ...
, a 19th-century German philosopher, on scholars' opinion of ''otium'' in his 1878 publication '' Menschliches, Allzumenschliches'':


Private life and public life meanings

Private life meaning of ''otium'' meant personal
retirement Retirement is the withdrawal from one's position or occupation or from one's active working life. A person may also semi-retire by reducing work hours or workload. Many people choose to retire when they are elderly or incapable of doing their j ...
– the opposite of business. It meant leisure only for one's own pleasure with no benefit to the state or public. Examples here is where one attends only his own farm or estate. Another is hunting. It was the opposite of "active public life". One would not be a historian in this case. In public life ''otium'' meant public peace and relief after war. It meant freedom from the enemy with no hostilities. It was not only freedom from external assault (the enemy), it was also freedom from internal disorder (civil war). This then had the meaning of leisure, peace and safety at the homeland. This eventually became the ''
status quo is a Latin phrase meaning the existing state of affairs, particularly with regard to social, political, religious or military issues. In the sociological sense, the ''status quo'' refers to the current state of social structure and/or values. W ...
'': acceptance of existing political and social conditions of the local laws, the custom of the ancestors, the powers of magistrates, authority of the senate, religions, the military, the treasury, and the praise of the empire.


Other uses

] * The term ''cum dignitate otium'' ("leisure with dignity") is found in
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
's writings and refers to an aim and purpose of the
Optimates Optimates (; Latin for "best ones", ) and populares (; Latin for "supporters of the people", ) are labels applied to politicians, political groups, traditions, strategies, or ideologies in the late Roman Republic. There is "heated academic dis ...
. * "Leisure without literature is death and burial for a living man." – a quote from
Seneca the Younger Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known mononymously as Seneca, was a Stoic philosopher of Ancient Rome, a statesman, dramatist, and, in one work, satirist, from the post-Augustan age of Latin literature. Seneca was born in ...
. * "Leisure is a system of symbols which acts to establish a feeling of freedom and pleasure by formulating a sense of choice and desire." * "Mr. Morgan was enjoying his otium in a dignified manner, surveying the evening fog, and smoking a cigar ..." * The Art nouveau or Jugendstyle residence of the
United States Ambassador to Norway The United States Ambassador to Norway (formally the Ambassador of the United States to the Kingdom of Norway) is the official representative of the President and the Government of the United States of America to the King and Government of Norw ...
is called the Villa Otium.By Norwegian architect
Henrik Bull Henrik Bull (28 March 1864 – 2 June 1953) was a Norwegian architect and designer. Among his works are the Paulus Church at Grünerløkka in Oslo, the National Theater, the Historical Museum in Oslo, and the Government Building. He also d ...
. The building was inspired by Russian architecture, and was built for Hans Andreas Olsen, who had encountered it when he was the Consul General for Norway at
St. Petersburg, Russia Saint Petersburg ( rus, links=no, Санкт-Петербург, a=Ru-Sankt Peterburg Leningrad Petrograd Piter.ogg, r=Sankt-Peterburg, p=ˈsankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk), formerly known as Petrograd (1914–1924) and later Leningrad (1924–1991), i ...
with his wife Ester, the niece of
Alfred Nobel Alfred Bernhard Nobel ( , ; 21 October 1833 – 10 December 1896) was a Swedes, Swedish chemist, engineer, inventor, businessman, and Philanthropy, philanthropist. He is best known for having bequeathed his fortune to establish the Nobel ...
.
* ''Otium'' is the name of several USCG documented yachts.


Synonyms

''Otium'' carried with it many different meanings (including but not limited to time, chance, opportunity), depending on the time period or the philosophers involved in determining the concept.


Positive sense

Synonyms of positive connotations are: * ''quies'': rest, repose, relief from toil. * ''requies'': rest, repose, rest from labor, a hobby. * ''tranquilitas'': tranquility, calm, quiet. * ''peace'': as a state or condition of freedom from external enemies.Maclardy, p. 195 * ''pax'': to pacify or appease, as the outcome of diplomatic conference and agreement with an enemy.


Negative sense

Synonyms of negative connotations are: * ''inhonestum otium'': dishonorable leisure, idle self-indulgence leisure. * ''desidia'': slackness, idleness. * ''inertia'': sloth, idleness, indolence. * ''ignavia'': sloth, idleness, faint-heartedness. * ''desidiosissimum otium'': a sluggard's free time, he that fears labor; a man careless to attend to his duty first.Dumesnil, p. 224


See also

*
Italian Renaissance garden The Italian Renaissance garden was a new style of garden which emerged in the late 15th century at villas in Rome and Florence, inspired by classical ideals of order and beauty, and intended for the pleasure of the view of the garden and the landsc ...
* Sabbatical


References


Footnotes


Citations


Bibliography

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Further reading

* * * www.otiumeats.com


External links


Hellenistic Philosophy


Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...
{{Authority control Ancient Roman virtues Epicureanism Latin legal terminology Latin words and phrases Leisure Philosophy of law Political philosophy Roman law Roman-era philosophy Stoicism