marketing Marketing is the process of exploring, creating, and delivering value to meet the needs of a target market in terms of goods and services; potentially including selection of a target audience; selection of certain attributes or themes to emph ...

and the social sciences, observational research (or field research) is a social research technique that involves the direct observation of phenomena in their natural setting. This differentiates it from

experimental research An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a ...

in which a quasi-artificial environment is created to control for spurious factors, and where at least one of the variables is manipulated as part of the experilovement.

In context

Observational research is a method of data collection that has become associated with qualitative research. Compared with

quantitative research Quantitative research is a research strategy that focuses on quantifying the collection and analysis of data. It is formed from a deductive approach where emphasis is placed on the testing of theory, shaped by empiricist and positivist philosop ...

and

, observational research tends to be less reliable but often more valid. The main advantage of observational research is flexibility. The researchers can change their approach as needed. Observational research measures behavior directly, rather than the subject's self-reports of behavior or intentions. The main disadvantage is it is limited to behavioral variables. It cannot be used to study cognitive or affective variables.

Data collection methods

Generally, there are three methods used to collect data in observational research: *Covert observational research – The researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects undetected, or they observe from a distance. The advantages of this approach are: (1) It is not necessary to get the subjects' cooperation, and (2) The subjects' behaviour will not be contaminated by the presence of the researcher. Some researchers have ethical misgivings with the deceit involved in this approach. *Overt observational research – The researchers identify themselves as researchers and explain the purpose of their observations. The problem with this approach is subjects may modify their behaviour when they know they are being watched. They portray their "ideal self" rather than their true self in what is called the

Hawthorne Effect The Hawthorne effect is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. The effect was discovered in the context of research conducted at the Hawthorne Western Electri ...

. The advantage that the overt approach has over the covert approach is that there is no deception (see, for example, PCIA-II *Participant Observation – The researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of the phenomena.

In marketing research

In marketing research, the most frequently used types of observational techniques are: *Personal observation **observing

products Product may refer to: Business * Product (business), an item that serves as a solution to a specific consumer problem. * Product (project management), a deliverable or set of deliverables that contribute to a business solution Mathematics * Produ ...

in use to detect usage patterns and problems ** observing license plates in store parking lots **determining the

socio-economic status Socioeconomic status (SES) is an economic and sociological combined total measure of a person's work experience and of an individual's or family's economic access to resources and social position in relation to others. When analyzing a family's ...

of shoppers **determining the level of package scrutiny **determining the time it takes to make a purchase decision *Mechanical observation ** eye-tracking analysis while subjects watch advertisements *** oculometers – what the subject is looking at ***

pupilometer Pupilometer, also spelled pupillometer, is a name for two different devices—one used to measure the pupillary light reflex, and the other used in ophthalmology, which measures the distance between pupils through visual stimuli. Automated Pupillo ...

s – how interested is the viewer ** electronic checkout scanners – records purchase behaviour **on-site cameras in stores ** people meters (as in monitoring television viewing) e.g. Nielsen box **voice pitch meters – measures emotional reactions **

psychogalvanometer The E-meter, originally the electropsychometer, is an electronic device for displaying the electrodermal activity (EDA) of a human being. It is used for auditing in Scientology and divergent groups. The efficacy and legitimacy of Scientology's ...

– measures galvanic skin response *Audits **retail audits to determine the

quality of service Quality of service (QoS) is the description or measurement of the overall performance of a service, such as a telephony or computer network, or a cloud computing service, particularly the performance seen by the users of the network. To quantitat ...

in stores **inventory audits to determine

product acceptance Product may refer to: Business * Product (business), an item that serves as a solution to a specific consumer problem. * Product (project management), a deliverable or set of deliverables that contribute to a business solution Mathematics * Produ ...

**shelf space audits **scanner based audits *Trace Analysis **credit card records ** computer cookie records **

garbology Garbology is the study of modern refuse and trash as well as the use of trash cans, compactors and various types of trash can liners. As an academic discipline it was pioneered at the University of Arizona and long directed by William Rathje. The ...

– looking for traces of purchase patterns in garbage **detecting store traffic patterns by observing the wear in the floor (long term) or the dirt on the floor (short term) **exposure to advertisements *Content analysisDrisko, J. and Maschi, T., ''Content Analysis,'' Oxford University Press, 2016 **observe the content of magazines, television broadcasts, radio broadcasts, or newspapers, either articles, programs, or advertisements

References

{{reflist

In context

Data collection methods

In marketing research

See also

References

Further reading