geographical region
In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as zones, lands or territories, are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and t ...
that includes
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
,
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
,
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
, and
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of and a population of around 44.5 million as of 2021. When compared with (and sometimes described as being one of) the
continent
A continent is any of several large landmasses. Generally identified by convention rather than any strict criteria, up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from largest in area to smallest, these seven ...
s, the region of Oceania is the smallest in land area and the second least populated after
Antarctica
Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest contine ...
. Its major population centres are
Sydney
Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
,
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
,
Brisbane
Brisbane ( ) is the capital and most populous city of the states and territories of Australia, Australian state of Queensland, and the list of cities in Australia by population, third-most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a populati ...
,
Perth
Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. It is the fourth most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a population of 2.1 million (80% of the state) living in Greater Perth in 2020. Perth is ...
,
Auckland
Auckland (pronounced ) ( mi, Tāmaki Makaurau) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. The List of New Zealand urban areas by population, most populous urban area in the country and the List of cities in Oceania by po ...
,
Adelaide
Adelaide ( ) is the capital city of South Australia, the state's largest city and the fifth-most populous city in Australia. "Adelaide" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including the Adelaide Hills) or the Adelaide city centre. The dem ...
,
Honolulu
Honolulu (; ) is the capital and largest city of the U.S. state of Hawaii, which is in the Pacific Ocean. It is an unincorporated county seat of the consolidated City and County of Honolulu, situated along the southeast coast of the island ...
, and
Christchurch
Christchurch ( ; mi, Ōtautahi) is the largest city in the South Island of New Zealand and the seat of the Canterbury Region. Christchurch lies on the South Island's east coast, just north of Banks Peninsula on Pegasus Bay. The Avon River / ...
.
Oceania has a diverse mix of economies from the highly developed and globally competitive
financial markets
A financial market is a market in which people trade financial securities and derivatives at low transaction costs. Some of the securities include stocks and bonds, raw materials and precious metals, which are known in the financial markets ...
of
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
,
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
,
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
,
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
, and
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
, which rank high in
quality of life
Quality of life (QOL) is defined by the World Health Organization as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards ...
and
Human Development Index
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system), and per capita income indicators, whi ...
Kiribati
Kiribati (), officially the Republic of Kiribati ( gil, ibaberikiKiribati),Kiribati ''The Wor ...
,
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
,
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
,
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
, and
Western New Guinea
Western New Guinea, also known as Papua, Indonesian New Guinea, or Indonesian Papua, is the western half of the Melanesian island of New Guinea which is administered by Indonesia. Since the island is alternatively named as Papua, the region ...
Pacific islands
Collectively called the Pacific Islands, the islands in the Pacific Ocean are further categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term ''Pacific Islands'' may refer to one of se ...
such as
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
,
Palau
Palau,, officially the Republic of Palau and historically ''Belau'', ''Palaos'' or ''Pelew'', is an island country and microstate in the western Pacific. The nation has approximately 340 islands and connects the western chain of the Caro ...
, and
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
. The largest and most populous country in Oceania is Australia, and the largest city is Sydney.
Puncak Jaya
Puncak Jaya (; literally "Glorious Peak") or Carstensz Pyramid, Mount Jayawijaya or Mount Carstensz () on the island of New Guinea, with an elevation of , is the list of islands by highest point, highest mountain peak of an island on Earth. Th ...
in
Highland Papua
Highland Papua ( id, Papua Pegunungan) is a province of Indonesia, which roughly follows the borders of Papuan customary region of Lano-Pago, shortened to La Pago. It covers an area of and had a population of 1,408,641 according to the official es ...
,
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
is the highest peak in Oceania at .
The first settlers of Australia, New Guinea, and the large islands just to the east arrived more than 60,000 years ago. Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onward. Portuguese explorers, between 1512 and 1526, reached the Tanimbar Islands, some of the Caroline Islands and west
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
. On his first voyage in the 18th century,
James Cook
James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean an ...
, who later arrived at the highly developed
Hawaiian Islands
The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost Kur ...
, went to
Tahiti
Tahiti (; Tahitian ; ; previously also known as Otaheite) is the largest island of the Windward group of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. It is located in the central part of the Pacific Ocean and the nearest major landmass is Austr ...
and followed the
east coast of Australia
The eastern states of Australia are the states adjoining the east continental coastline of Australia. These are the mainland states of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, and the island state of Tasmania. The Australian Capital Territory ...
for the first time.
The arrival of European settlers in subsequent centuries resulted in a significant alteration in the social and political landscape of Oceania. The Pacific theatre saw major action during the
Second World War
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
,
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, and
Axis power
The Axis powers, ; it, Potenze dell'Asse ; ja, 枢軸国 ''Sūjikukoku'', group=nb originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis, was a military coalition that initiated World War II and fought against the Allies. Its principal members were Na ...
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
. The
rock art
In archaeology, rock art is human-made markings placed on natural surfaces, typically vertical stone surfaces. A high proportion of surviving historic and prehistoric rock art is found in caves or partly enclosed rock shelters; this type also ...
of
Aboriginal Australians
Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait Islands ...
is the longest continuously practiced artistic tradition in the world. Most Oceanian countries are multi-party
representative
Representative may refer to:
Politics
*Representative democracy, type of democracy in which elected officials represent a group of people
*House of Representatives, legislative body in various countries or sub-national entities
*Legislator, someon ...
tourism
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring (disambiguation), touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tour (disambiguation), tours. Th ...
being a large source of income for the
Pacific Islands
Collectively called the Pacific Islands, the islands in the Pacific Ocean are further categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term ''Pacific Islands'' may refer to one of se ...
nations.
Definitions and extent
Characteristics
Definitions of Oceania vary. The broadest definition of Oceania encompasses the many islands between mainland
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
and the
Americas
The Americas, which are sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North and South America. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and comprise the New World.
Along with th ...
; The island nation of
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
is the only piece of land in the area which is large enough to typically be considered a continent. The culture of the people who lived on these islands was often distinct from that of Asia and
pre-Columbian
In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...
America, hence a lack of association with either. Before
Europeans
Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common genetic ancestry, common language, or both. Pan and Pfeil (2004) ...
arrived in the area, the sea shielded Australia and south central Pacific islands from cultural influences that spread through large continental landmasses and adjacent islands. The islands of the
Malay archipelago
The Malay Archipelago (Indonesian/Malay: , tgl, Kapuluang Malay) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the " Malay world," "Nusantara", "East Indies", Indo-Australian Archipelago, Spices Archipe ...
, north of Australia, mainly lie on the
continental shelf
A continental shelf is a portion of a continent that is submerged under an area of relatively shallow water, known as a shelf sea. Much of these shelves were exposed by drops in sea level during glacial periods. The shelf surrounding an island ...
of Asia, and their inhabitants had more exposure to mainland Asian culture as a result of this closer proximity. The island of
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
similarly lies on the continental shelf of Asia, with their inhabitants historically having had exchange with mainland Asia.
The geographer Conrad Malte-Brun coined the
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
expression ''Terres océaniques'' (Oceanic lands) 1804, then in 1814 another French cartographer, , coined from this expression the shorter "Océanie" putting it on a map, « ''Océanie, ou cinquième partie du monde, comprenant l'archipel d'Asie, l'Australasie et la Polynésie (ou le continent de la Nouvelle Hollande et les îles du Grand Océan)'' ». ''Océanie'' derives from the
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
word , and this from the Greek word (''ōkeanós''), "ocean". The term ''Oceania'' is used because, unlike the other continental groupings, it is the ocean that links the parts of the region together. John Eperjesi's 2005 book ''The Imperialist Imaginary: Visions of Asia and the Pacific in American Culture'' says that it has "been used by western
cartographer
Cartography (; from grc, χάρτης , "papyrus, sheet of paper, map"; and , "write") is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an im ...
s since the mid-nineteenth century to give order to the complexities of the Pacific area." The ''Handbook of Religion'' (2014) states that it was "introduced by westerners" and in the 19th century helped describe "a sociopolitical reality of the islands of the southwest Pacific and Australia." In the 19th century, many geographers divided up Oceania into mostly racially based subdivisions; ''Australasia'', ''Malaysia'' (encompassing the Malay archipelago), ''Melanesia'', ''Micronesia'' and ''Polynesia''. The 2011 book ''Maritime Adaptations of the Pacific'', by Richard W. Casteel and Jean-Claude Passeron, states that, "for the purpose of
anthropology
Anthropology is the scientific study of humanity, concerned with human behavior, human biology, cultures, societies, and linguistics, in both the present and past, including past human species. Social anthropology studies patterns of behavi ...
, Oceania has long been a continent like Africa, Asia and America." Scottish geographer
John Bartholomew
John Bartholomew (25 December 1831 – 29 March 1893) was a Scottish cartographer.
Life
Bartholomew was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His father, John Bartholomew Sr., started a cartographical establishment in Edinburgh, and he was educated ...
wrote in 1873 that, "the
New World
The term ''New World'' is often used to mean the majority of Earth's Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: Oxford University Press, p. 3 ...
consists of
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...
, and the peninsula of
South America
South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...
attached to it. These divisions regenerally themselves spoken as continents, and to them has been added another, embracing the large island of Australia and numerous others in the acificOcean, under the name of Oceania. There are thus six great divisions of the earth —
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
, Asia,
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, North America, South America and Oceania." American author
Samuel Griswold Goodrich
Samuel Griswold Goodrich (August 19, 1793 – May 9, 1860), better known under his pseudonym Peter Parley, was an American author.
Biography
Goodrich was born at Ridgefield, Connecticut, the son of a Congregational minister. Goodrich was la ...
wrote in his 1854 book ''History of All Nations'' that, "geographers have agreed to consider the island world of the Pacific Ocean as a third continent, under the name Oceania." In this book the other two continents were categorized as being the New World (consisting of North America and South America) and the
Old World
The "Old World" is a term for Afro-Eurasia that originated in Europe , after Europeans became aware of the existence of the Americas. It is used to contrast the continents of Africa, Europe, and Asia, which were previously thought of by the ...
(consisting of Africa, Asia and Europe). One study from 1884 describes Oceania as a continent, stating that “South of the continent of Asia is found a large island nearly as large as the continent of Europe. This, with a great number of small islands in the neighbourhood, is regarded as forming a fourth continent known as Oceania.” Other studies from the early Twentieth Century also described Oceania as a continent. In his 1879 book ''Australasia'', British naturalist
Alfred Russel Wallace
Alfred Russel Wallace (8 January 1823 – 7 November 1913) was a British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator. He is best known for independently conceiving the theory of evolution through natural se ...
commented that, "Oceania is the word often used by continental geographers to describe the great world of islands we are now entering upon" and that "Australia forms its central and most important feature." He did not explicitly label Oceania a continent in the book, but did note that it was one of the six major divisions of the world. ''The Oxford Handbook of World History'' (2011) describes the areas encompassed in Oceania as being "afterthoughts in world history texts, lumped together and included at the end of global surveys as areas largely marginal to the main events of world history".
In non-
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
speaking countries such as
Argentina
Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...
,
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
,
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
,
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...
,
Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
,
Ecuador
Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ''Eku ...
,
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
,
Greece
Greece,, or , romanized: ', officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the southern tip of the Balkans, and is located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Greece shares land borders with ...
,
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
,
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, the
Netherlands
)
, anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau")
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, subdivision_type = Sovereign state
, subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands
, established_title = Before independence
, established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
,
Spain
, image_flag = Bandera de España.svg
, image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
, national_motto = ''Plus ultra'' (Latin)(English: "Further Beyond")
, national_anthem = (English: "Royal March")
, i ...
,
Switzerland
). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
or
Venezuela
Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
, Oceania is treated as a continent in the sense that it is "one of the parts of the world", and Australia is only seen as an island nation. In other countries, including
Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country located mainly in Central Asia and partly in Eastern Europe. It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbeki ...
,
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
,
Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populous ...
and
Russia
Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
, Australia and
Eurasia
Eurasia (, ) is the largest continental area on Earth, comprising all of Europe and Asia. Primarily in the Northern and Eastern Hemispheres, it spans from the British Isles and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Japanese archipelago a ...
are thought of as continents, while Asia, Europe and Oceania are regarded as "parts of the world". Prior to the 1950s, before the popularization of the theory of
plate tectonics
Plate tectonics (from the la, label=Late Latin, tectonicus, from the grc, τεκτονικός, lit=pertaining to building) is the generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth's lithosphere to comprise a number of large ...
,
Antarctica
Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean, it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest contine ...
, Australia and
Greenland
Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...
were sometimes described as island continents, but none were usually taught as one of the world's continents in English-speaking countries.: "...the 1950s... was also the period when... Oceania as a "great division" was replaced by Australia as a continent along with a series of isolated and continentally attached islands. [Footnote 78: When Southeast Asia was conceptualised as a world region during World War II..., Indonesia and the Philippines were perforce added to Asia, which reduced the extent of Oceania, leading to a reconceptualisation of Australia as a continent in its own right. This manoeuvre is apparent in postwar atlases]" In her 1961 book ''The United States and the Southwest Pacific'', American author C. Hartley Grattan, Clinton Hartley Grattan commented that, "the use of the word Oceania to cover Australia,
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
, and the acificislands now has a slightly old-fashioned flavor." Australia is a founding member of the
Pacific Islands Forum
The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) is an inter-governmental organization that aims to enhance cooperation between countries and territories of Oceania, including formation of a trade bloc and regional peacekeeping operations. It was founded in 197 ...
in 1971, and at times has been interpreted as the largest Pacific island. For example,
Tony deBrum
Tony deBrum (also Anton deBrum) (February 26, 1945 – August 22, 2017) was a Marshallese politician and government minister. His cabinet posts included Minister in Assistance to the President of Marshall Islands, Minister of Finance, Minister of ...
, Foreign Minister for the
Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Internati ...
, stated in 2014, "not only
s Australia
S, or s, is the nineteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''ess'' (pronounced ), plural ''esses''.
History ...
our big brother down south, Australia is a member of the Pacific Islands Forum and Australia is a Pacific island, a big island, but a Pacific island." Some geographers group the Australian tectonic plate with others in the Pacific to form a geological continent. ''
National Geographic
''National Geographic'' (formerly the ''National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is a popular American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widely ...
'' states that the term Oceania "establishes the Pacific Ocean as the defining characteristic of the continent." Others have labelled it as the "liquid continent". The Pacific Ocean itself has been labelled as a "continent of islands", and contains approximately 25,000, which is more than all the other major oceans combined. In a 1991 article for the
Submerged Resources Center The Submerged Resources Center is a unit within the United States National Park Service. The unit is based out of Lakewood, Colorado in the NPS Intermountain Region headquarters.
History
In 1976, the Submerged Cultural Resources Unit (known as SCRU ...
, American archeologist Toni L. Carrell wrote, "the immensity of and great distances within the Pacific Basin often make it difficult to conceptualize the basin as a single earth feature." She adds that most islands in the Pacific are "close enough together to be easily clustered into archipelagos or groups. The notable exceptions, those islands more than 400 statute miles from any other, are: Clipperton Island,
Easter Island
Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
,
Salas y Gómez
Salas, from Spanish ''salas'' (rooms, halls), is a Spanish surname and a common family name in the Hispanic-speaking world. It is ranked amongst the most common surnames found in Costa Rica and in Mexico.
People
* Ada Salas (born 1965), Spanis ...
,
Johnston Atoll
Johnston Atoll is an Unincorporated territories of the United States, unincorporated territory of the United States, currently administered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). Johnston Atoll is a National Wildlife Refuge and ...
,
Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island (, ; Norfuk: ''Norf'k Ailen'') is an external territory of Australia located in the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and New Caledonia, directly east of Australia's Evans Head and about from Lord Howe Island. Together with ...
,
Marcus Island
, also known as Marcus Island, is an isolated Japanese coral atoll in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, located some southeast of Tokyo and east of the closest Japanese island, South Iwo Jima of the Ogasawara Islands, and nearly on a straight line ...
and
Parece Vela
, or Parece Vela, is a coral reef with two rocks enlarged with tetrapod-cement structures. It is administered by Japan with a total shoal area of and land area . Its dry land area is mostly made up by three concrete encasings and there is a st ...
." In a 1947 article on the Pacific area for the ''Expedition'' journal, author D. Sutherland Davidson observed, "islands are not equally distributed throughout this vast expanse of water. The majority, including the continent of Australia and the very large islands, are found in the western third of the Pacific. Most of the remainder, generally in clusters or chains, fall within the central third, whereas virtually none is present in the eastern or American third. With the important exceptions of
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
and the southern portions of New Zealand and Australia, and the Aleutian and
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese islands, the Pacific islands are confined to tropical latitudes." In his 2013 book ''Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide'', American herpetologistGeorge R. Zug wrote, "what is and is not part of the Pacific—particularly the western Pacific—is variously delimited. Some authorities have the Pacific and the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
s abutting the western edge of the
Lesser Lesser, from Eliezer (, "Help/Court of my God"), is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
* Adolf Lesser (1851–1926), German physician
* Aleksander Lesser (1814–1884), Polish painter and art critic
* Anton Lesser (born 1952), Bri ...
and Greater Sunda Islands. Other authorities set the western edge at the eastern edge of this Sundan platform. A majority viewpoint accepts the landmasses of Japan, Taiwan, the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
,
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
, and eastern Australia, which face the open waters of the Pacific, as its western edge." He adds that, "a broad array of regions, islands, island groups, and nations are encompassed within the Pacific." Oceania's subregions of
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
,
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
,
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
and
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
cover two major plates; the Australian Plate (also known as the
Indo-Australian Plate
The Indo-Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate that includes the continent of Australia and the surrounding ocean and extends northwest to include the Indian subcontinent and the adjacent waters. It was formed by the fusion of the Indian an ...
) and the
Pacific Plate
The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate.
The plate first came into existence 190 million years ago, at the triple junction between the Farallon, Phoenix, and Iza ...
, in addition to two minor plates; the
Nazca Plate
The Nazca Plate or Nasca Plate, named after the Nazca region of southern Peru, is an oceanic tectonic plate in the eastern Pacific Ocean basin off the west coast of South America. The ongoing subduction, along the Peru–Chile Trench, of the Na ...
and the
Philippine Sea Plate
The Philippine Sea Plate or the Philippine Plate is a tectonic plate comprising oceanic lithosphere that lies beneath the Philippine Sea, to the east of the Philippines. Most segments of the Philippines, including northern Luzon, are part of ...
. The Australian Plate includes Australia,
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
,
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
,
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
,
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
and parts of New Zealand. The Pacific Plate covers the
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and north-west of Vanuatu. It has a land area of , and a population of approx. 700,000. Its capita ...
and parts of New Zealand, as well as Micronesia (excluding the westernmost islands near the Philippine Sea Plate) and Polynesia (excluding Easter Island). The Nazca Plate, which includes Easter Island, neighbors the
South American Plate
The South American Plate is a major tectonic plate which includes the continent of South America as well as a sizable region of the Atlantic Ocean seabed extending eastward to the African Plate, with which it forms the southern part of the Mid-A ...
, and is still considered to be a separate tectonic plate, despite only containing a handful of islands.
Boundaries
Islands at the geographic extremes of Oceania are generally considered to be the
Bonin Islands
The Bonin Islands, also known as the , are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands, some directly south of Tokyo, Japan and northwest of Guam. The name "Bonin Islands" comes from the Japanese word ''bunin'' (an archaic readi ...
, a politically integral part of Japan;
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
, a state of the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
; Clipperton Island, a possession of
France
France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
; the
Juan Fernández Islands
The Juan Fernández Islands ( es, Archipiélago Juan Fernández) are a sparsely inhabited series of islands in the South Pacific Ocean reliant on tourism and fishing. Situated off the coast of Chile, they are composed of three main volcanic i ...
, belonging to Chile; and Macquarie Island, belonging to Australia.
United Nations interpretation
The
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
(UN) has used its own geopolitical definition of Oceania since its foundation in 1947, which utilizes four of the five subregions from the 19th century; Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. This definition consists of discrete political entities, and so excludes the Bonin Islands, Hawaii, Clipperton Island and the Juan Fernández Islands, along with Easter Island — which was annexed by Chile in 1888. It is used in statistical reports, by the
International Olympic Committee
The International Olympic Committee (IOC; french: link=no, Comité international olympique, ''CIO'') is a non-governmental sports organisation based in Lausanne, Switzerland. It is constituted in the form of an association under the Swiss ...
, and by many atlases. The UN categorizes Oceania, and by extension the Pacific area, as one of the major continental divisions of the world, along with Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. Their definition includes
American Samoa
American Samoa ( sm, Amerika Sāmoa, ; also ' or ') is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the island country of Samoa. Its location is centered on . It is east of the International ...
Cook Islands
)
, image_map = Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, capital = Avarua
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Avarua
, official_languages =
, lan ...
,
Federated States of Micronesia
The Federated States of Micronesia (; abbreviated FSM) is an island country in Oceania. It consists of four states from west to east, Yap, Chuuk, Pohnpei and Kosraethat are spread across the western Pacific. Together, the states comprise a ...
,
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
, Fiji,
Guam
Guam (; ch, Guåhan ) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. It is the westernmost point and territory of the United States (reckoned from the geographic cent ...
,
Kiribati
Kiribati (), officially the Republic of Kiribati ( gil, ibaberikiKiribati),Kiribati ''The Wor ...
, the Marshall Islands,
Nauru
Nauru ( or ; na, Naoero), officially the Republic of Nauru ( na, Repubrikin Naoero) and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island country and microstate in Oceania, in the Central Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Ki ...
, New Caledonia, New Zealand,
Niue
Niue (, ; niu, Niuē) is an island country in the South Pacific Ocean, northeast of New Zealand. Niue's land area is about and its population, predominantly Polynesian, was about 1,600 in 2016. Niue is located in a triangle between Tong ...
, the
Northern Mariana Islands
The Northern Mariana Islands, officially the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI; ch, Sankattan Siha Na Islas Mariånas; cal, Commonwealth Téél Falúw kka Efáng llól Marianas), is an unincorporated territory and commonw ...
,
Palau
Palau,, officially the Republic of Palau and historically ''Belau'', ''Palaos'' or ''Pelew'', is an island country and microstate in the western Pacific. The nation has approximately 340 islands and connects the western chain of the Caro ...
, Papua New Guinea,
Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four isl ...
,
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
,
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
,
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
,
Wallis and Futuna
Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (; french: Wallis-et-Futuna or ', Fakauvea and Fakafutuna: '), is a French island collectivity in the South Pacific, situated between Tuvalu to the northwest, Fiji ...
and the
United States Minor Outlying Islands
The United States Minor Outlying Islands is a statistical designation defined by the International Organization for Standardization's ISO 3166-1 code. The entry code is ISO 3166-2:UM. The minor outlying islands and groups of islands consist ...
Midway Atoll
Midway Atoll (colloquial: Midway Islands; haw, Kauihelani, translation=the backbone of heaven; haw, Pihemanu, translation=the loud din of birds, label=none) is a atoll in the North Pacific Ocean. Midway Atoll is an insular area of the Unit ...
Wake Island
Wake Island ( mh, Ānen Kio, translation=island of the kio flower; also known as Wake Atoll) is a coral atoll in the western Pacific Ocean in the northeastern area of the Micronesia subregion, east of Guam, west of Honolulu, southeast of To ...
). The original UN definition of Oceania from 1947 included these same countries and semi-independent territories, which were mostly still
colonies
In modern parlance, a colony is a territory subject to a form of foreign rule. Though dominated by the foreign colonizers, colonies remain separate from the administration of the original country of the colonizers, the '' metropolitan state'' ...
at that point. Hawaii had not yet become a U.S. state in 1947, and as such was part of the original UN definition of Oceania. The island states of
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
, Japan, the Philippines and Taiwan, all located within the bounds of the Pacific, are excluded from the UN definition. The nation of
Malaysia
Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federation, federal constitutional monarchy consists of States and federal territories of Malaysia, thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two r ...
, which is located in both mainland Asia and the Pacific, is also excluded. Further excluded are
East Timor
East Timor (), also known as Timor-Leste (), officially the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste, is an island country in Southeast Asia. It comprises the eastern half of the island of Timor, the exclave of Oecusse on the island's north-weste ...
The World Factbook
''The World Factbook'', also known as the ''CIA World Factbook'', is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available ...
also categorizes Oceania as one of the major continental divisions of the world, but the name "Australia and Oceania" is used. Their definition does not include all of Australia's external territories, but is otherwise the same as the UN's definition, and is also used for statistical purposes. In a 2008 article for the ''
India Quarterly
''India Quarterly'' is a peer reviewed journal. It functions as a forum for discussion on matters concerning international relations and national foreign policies. It is published quarterly bSAGE Publicationsin association with Indian Council of ...
'' journal titled ''Oceania and Security: A Perspective from New Zealand'', author Peter Cozens stated, "the region of Oceania is characterised by vast distances across the sea between continental land masses ..It is difficult to be precise about the term Oceania and its exact delimitation", adding that "the principal regional political grouping is contained within the Pacific Island Forum (PIF) - the 16 states making up the Forum are: Australia, Cook Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu - in general terms this is the area referred to as Oceania by the United Nations and similar agencies." The Pacific Islands Forum expanded during the early 2010s, and areas that were already included in the UN definition of Oceania, such as French Polynesia, gained membership.
Early interpretations
French writer
Gustave d'Eichthal
Gustave Séligmann d'Eichthal (3 March 1804, Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle - 9 April 1886, Paris) was a French writer, publicist, and Hellenist.
Life
At the age of thirteen he became a convert to Roman Catholicism from Judaism, and when he left the L ...
remarked in 1844 that, "the boundaries of Oceania are in reality those of the great ocean itself." Conrad Malte-Brun in 1824 defined Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. American lexicographer
Joseph Emerson Worcester
Joseph Emerson Worcester (August 24, 1784 – October 27, 1865) was an American lexicographer who was the chief competitor to Noah Webster of ''Webster's Dictionary'' in the mid-nineteenth-century. Their rivalry became known as the "dictionary ...
wrote in 1840 that Oceania is "a term applied to a vast number of islands which are widely dispersed in the Pacific Ocean ..they are considered as forming a fifth grand division of the world." He also viewed Oceania as covering Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 1887, the
Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland
The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, commonly known as the Royal Asiatic Society (RAS), was established, according to its royal charter of 11 August 1824, to further "the investigation of subjects connected with and for the en ...
referred to Australia as the area's westernmost land, while in 1870, British Reverend Alexander Mackay identified the Bonin Islands as its northernmost point, and Macquarie Island as its southernmost point. The Bonin Islands at that time were a possession of Britain; Macquarie Island, to the south of Tasmania, is a subantarctic island in the Pacific. It was politically associated with Australia and Tasmania by 1870.
Alfred Russel Wallace believed in 1879 that Oceania extended to the Aleutian Islands, which are among the northernmost islands of the Pacific. The islands, now politically associated with
Alaska
Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...
, have historically had
inhabitants
Domicile is relevant to an individual's "personal law," which includes the law that governs a person's status and their property. It is independent of a person's nationality. Although a domicile may change from time to time, a person has only one ...
that were related to Indigenous Americans, in addition to having non-tropical biogeography similar to that of Alaska and
Siberia
Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is an extensive geographical region, constituting all of North Asia, from the Ural Mountains in the west to the Pacific Ocean in the east. It has been a part of ...
. Wallace insisted while the surface area of this wide definition was greater than that of Asia and
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
combined, the land area was only a little greater than that of Europe. American geographer Sophia S. Cornell claimed that the Aleutian Islands were not part of Oceania in 1857. She stated that Oceania was divided up into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Zealand and the Melanesian islands), Polynesia (which included both the Polynesian and Micronesian islands in her definition) and Malaysia (which included all present-day countries within the Malay archipelago such as Indonesia and the Philippines, not just the country of Malaysia). Aside from mainland Australia, areas that she identified as of high importance were
Borneo
Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and eas ...
, Hawaii, Indonesia's
Java
Java (; id, Jawa, ; jv, ꦗꦮ; su, ) is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea to the north. With a population of 151.6 million people, Java is the world's List ...
and
Sumatra
Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
, New Guinea, New Zealand, the Philippines, French Polynesia's
Society Islands
The Society Islands (french: Îles de la Société, officially ''Archipel de la Société;'' ty, Tōtaiete mā) are an archipelago located in the South Pacific Ocean. Politically, they are part of French Polynesia, an overseas country of the F ...
, Tasmania, and Tonga.
American geographer
Jesse Olney
Jesse Olney (12 October 1798 Union, Connecticut – 31 July 1872 Stratford, Connecticut) was a geographer. He was particularly active in the improvement of school textbooks on this subject, and was amply rewarded by substantial sales, second only ...
's 1845 book ''A Practical System of Modern Geography'' stated that it "comprises the numerous isles of the Pacific, lying south east of Asia." Olney divided up Oceania into three groups; Australasia (which included Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand), Malaysia and Polynesia (which included the combined islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia in his definition). Publication ''Missionary Review of the World'' claimed in 1895 that Oceania was divided up into five groups; Australasia, Malaysia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. It did not consider Hawaii to be part of Polynesia, due to its geographic isolation, commenting that Oceania also included, "isolated groups and islands, such as the Hawaiian and Galápagos."Rand McNally & Company, an American publisher of maps and atlases, claimed in 1892 that, "Oceania comprises the large island of Australia and the innumerable islands of the Pacific Ocean" and also that the islands of the Malay archipelago "should be grouped in with Asia." British linguist
Robert Needham Cust
Robert Needham Cust (24 February 1821 – 27 October 1909) was a British administrator and judge in colonial India apart from being an Anglican evangelist and linguist. He was part of the Orientalism movement and active within the British and F ...
argued in 1887 that the Malay archipelago should be excluded since it had participated in Asian civilization. Cust considered Oceania's four subregions to be Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. New Zealand were categorized by him as being in Polynesia; and the only country in his definition of Australasia was Australia. His definition of Polynesia included both Easter Island and Hawaii, which had not yet been annexed by either Chile or the United States.
The '' Journal of the Royal Statistical Society'' stated in 1892 that Australia was a large island within Oceania rather than a small continent. It additionally commented, "it is certainly not necessary to consider the Hawaiian Islands and Australia as being in the same part of the world, it is however permissible to unite in one group all the islands which are scattered over the great ocean. It should be remarked that if we take the Malay archipelago away from Oceania, as do generally the German geographers, the insular world contained in the great ocean is cut in two, and the least populated of the five parts of the world is diminished in order to increase the number of inhabitants of the most densely populated continent." Regarding Australia and the Pacific, ''Chambers's New Handy Volume American Encyclopædia'' observed in 1885 that, "the whole region has sometimes been called Oceania, and sometimes Australasia—generally, however, in modern times, to the exclusion of the islands in the alayarchipelago, to which certain writers have given the name of Malaysia." It added there was controversy over the exact limits of Oceania, saying that, "scarcely any two geographers appear to be quite agreed upon the subject". British physician and ethnologist
James Cowles Prichard
James Cowles Prichard, FRS (11 February 1786 – 23 December 1848) was a British physician and ethnologist with broad interests in physical anthropology and psychiatry. His influential ''Researches into the Physical History of Mankind'' touched ...
claimed in 1847 that the Aleutian Islands and the
Kuril Islands
The Kuril Islands or Kurile Islands (; rus, Кури́льские острова́, r=Kuril'skiye ostrova, p=kʊˈrʲilʲskʲɪjə ɐstrɐˈva; Japanese: or ) are a volcanic archipelago currently administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast in the ...
form "the northern boundary of this fifth region of the world, and with the coasts of Asia and America completing its literal termination." However, he wrote that these islands "are not usually reckoned as belonging to it, because they are known to be inhabited by races of people who came immediately from the adjacent continents and are unconnected with those tribes of the human race who peopled the remote islands of this great ocean." He added that Hawaii was the most northerly area to be inhabited by races associated with Oceania.
The 1926 book ''Modern World History, 1776-1926: A Survey of the Origins and Development of Contemporary Civilization'', by Alexander Clarence Flick, considered Oceania to include all islands in the Pacific, and associated the term with the Malay archipelago, the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, the Aleutian Islands, Japan's
Ryukyu Islands
The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yonaguni ...
, Taiwan and the Kuril Islands (currently administered by Russia, but which were then partly split between Japan and Russia). He also included in his definition
, an island which is geologically part of the Japanese archipelago, but which has been administered by Russia since
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. Australia and New Zealand were grouped together by Flick as Australasia, and included as being in the same area of the world as the islands of Oceania. Flick estimated this definition of Oceania had a population of 70,000,000, and commented that, "brown and yellow races constitute the vast majority" and that the minority of whites were mainly "owners and rulers". He added, "through trade relations, the work of
missionaries
A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
and teachers, and political control, western civilization is slowly penetrating these out of the way places either directly, or indirectly through Europeanized powers like Japan." Hutton Webster's 1919 book ''Medieval and Modern History '' also considered Oceania to encompass all islands in the Pacific, stating that, "the term Oceania, or Oceanica, in its widest sense applies to all the Pacific Islands." Webster broke Oceania up into two subdivisions; the continental group, which included Australia, the Japanese archipelago, the Malay archipelago and Taiwan, and the oceanic group, which included New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In his 1846 book ''A Universal Pronouncing Gazetteer'', author Thomas Baldwin wrote that Oceania includes Australia and Pacific islands which "are considered, from their proximity, not to belong to the continents of Asia or America." He defined Oceania as not including Japan or Taiwan, and noted that "its limits are somewhat indefinite."
Charles Marion Tyler's 1885 book ''The Island World of the Pacific Ocean'' considered Oceania to ethnographically encompass Australia, New Zealand, the Malay archipelago and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. However, Tyler included other Pacific islands in his book as well, such as the Aleutian Islands, the Bonin Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Kuril Islands, the Ryukyu Islands, Taiwan,
California
California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...
's
Channel Islands
The Channel Islands ( nrf, Îles d'la Manche; french: îles Anglo-Normandes or ''îles de la Manche'') are an archipelago in the English Channel, off the French coast of Normandy. They include two Crown Dependencies: the Bailiwick of Jersey, ...
and
Farallon Islands
The Farallon Islands, or Farallones (from the Spanish ''farallón'' meaning "pillar" or "sea cliff"), are a group of islands and sea stacks in the Gulf of the Farallones, off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States. The island ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
's
Vancouver Island
Vancouver Island is an island in the northeastern Pacific Ocean and part of the Canadian Provinces and territories of Canada, province of British Columbia. The island is in length, in width at its widest point, and in total area, while are o ...
and Queen Charlotte Islands (now known as Haida Gwaii), Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Mexico's
Guadalupe Island
Guadalupe Island ( es, Isla Guadalupe, link=no) is a volcanic island located off the western coast of Mexico's Baja California Peninsula and about southwest of the city of Ensenada in the state of Baja California, in the Pacific Ocean. The ...
Peru
, image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg
, image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg
, other_symbol = Great Seal of the State
, other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal
, national_motto = "Fi ...
Anson archipelago
The Anson Archipelago was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Western North Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The group was supposed to include Wake Island and Marcus Island, as well as many phantom islands ...
, which during the 19th century was a designation for a widely scattered group of purported islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean between Japan and Hawaii. The Anson archipelago included
phantom islands
A phantom island is a purported island which was included on maps for a period of time, but was later found not to exist. They usually originate from the reports of early sailors exploring new regions, and are commonly the result of navigati ...
such as
Ganges Island Ganges Island, a phantom island known as in Japanese, appeared at on maps of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Reports of its disappearance appeared in 1933.Los Jardines
Los Jardines or Los Buenos Jardines (Spanish for "the good gardens") are phantom islands supposedly located northeast of the Mariana Islands.
The islands were reportedly visited by Spanish explorers Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón (who named them ...
which were proven to not exist, as well as real islands such as Marcus Island and Wake Island. Tyler described Australia as "the leviathan of the island groups of the world", and stated that the Juan Fernández Islands "will always retain a marked prominence in island histories, being at one time the home of that celebrated castaway Alexander Selkirk, whose life and adventures have been made so intensely interesting to youthful minds, and older ones too, for that matter, by
Defoe Defoe may refer to:
People
*Defoe (surname), most notably English author Daniel Defoe
Places
*Defoe, Webster County, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
Other uses
*Defoe (comics), a zombie story
*Defoe Shipbuilding Company, a former shipy ...
Music Educators Journal
The ''Music Educators Journal'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal that covers in the field of education. The editor-in-chief is Ella Wilcox, and the Academic Editor is Corin Overland (University of Miami). It was established in 1914 and ...
'' titled ''Musics of Oceania'', author Raymond F. Kennedy wrote, "many meanings have been given to the word Oceania. The most inclusive–but not always the most useful–embraces about 25,000 land areas between Asia and the Americas. A more popular and practical definition excludes Indonesia, East Malaysia (Borneo), the Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and other islands closely related to the Asian mainland, as well as the Aleutians and the small island groups situated near the Americas. Thus, Oceania most commonly refers to the land areas of the South and Central Pacific." Kennedy defined Oceania as including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. The
U.S. Government Publishing Office
The United States Government Publishing Office (USGPO or GPO; formerly the United States Government Printing Office) is an agency of the legislative branch of the United States Federal government. The office produces and distributes information ...
's ''Area Handbook for Oceania'' from 1971 states that Australia and New Zealand are the principal large sovereignties of the area. It further states, "In its broadest definition Oceania embraces all islands and island groups of the Pacific Ocean that lie between Asia and the two American continents. In popular usage, however, the designation has a more restricted application. The islands of the North Pacific, such as the Aleutians and the Kuriles, usually are excluded. In addition, the series of sovereign island nations fringing Asia (Japan, Taiwan, the Philippines, East Malaysia, the Republic of Indonesia) are not ordinarily considered to be part of the area." In 1948, American military journal ''Armed Forces Talk'' broke the islands of the Pacific up into five major subdivisions; Indonesia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and the non-tropical Islands. The Indonesia subdivision consisted of the islands of the Malay archipelago, while the non-tropical islands were categorized as being North Pacific islands such as Alaska's
Kodiak archipelago
The Kodiak Archipelago (russian: Кадьякский архипелаг , translit = Kad'yakskiy arkhipelag) is an archipelago (group of islands) south of the main land-mass of the state of Alaska (United States), about by air south-west of A ...
, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, the Kuril Islands and Sakhalin. Japan's Bonin and Ryukyu Islands are also considered to be subtropical islands, with the main Japanese archipelago being non-tropical. The journal associated the term Oceania with the Melanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian subdivisions, but not with the Indonesian or non-tropical subdivisions. The ''Pacific Islands Handbook'' (1945), by Robert William Robson, stated that, "Pacific Islands generally are regarded as Pacific islands lying within the tropics. There are a considerable number of Pacific Islands outside the tropics. Most of them have little economic or political importance." He noted the political significance of the Aleutian Islands, which were invaded by the Japanese military in World War II, and categorized New Zealand's Antipodes Islands, Auckland Islands,
Bounty Islands
The Bounty Islands ( mi, Moutere Hauriri; "Island of angry wind") are a small group of 13 uninhabited granite islets and numerous rocks, with a combined area of , in the South Pacific Ocean. Territorially part of New Zealand, they lie about e ...
Lord Howe Island
Lord Howe Island (; formerly Lord Howe's Island) is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, part of the Australian state of New South Wales. It lies directly east of mainland P ...
and Norfolk Island (which are also considered to be subtropical islands). Other non-tropical areas below the
equator
The equator is a circle of latitude, about in circumference, that divides Earth into the Northern and Southern hemispheres. It is an imaginary line located at 0 degrees latitude, halfway between the North and South poles. The term can als ...
, such as Macquarie Island and the southern portions of mainland Australia and New Zealand, were not included in this category.
According to the 1998 book ''Encyclopedia of Earth and Physical Sciences'', Oceania includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and more than 10,000 islands scattered across the Pacific Ocean. It notes that, "the term asalso come under scrutiny by many geographers. Some experts insist that Oceania encompasses even the cold Aleutian Islands and the islands of Japan. Disagreement also exists over whether or not Indonesia, the Philippines and Taiwan should be included in Oceania." Taiwan and the Japanese and Malay archipelagos are often deemed as a geological extension of Asia, since they do not have oceanic geology, instead primarily being detached fragments of the Eurasian continent that were once physiologically connected. Certain Japanese islands off the main archipelago are not geologically associated with Asia. The book ''The World and Its Peoples: Australia, New Zealand, Oceania'' (1966) asserts that, "Japan, Taiwan, the Aleutian Islands, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia ndthe Pacific archipelagos bordering upon the
Far East Asia
East Asia is the eastern region of Asia, which is defined in both geographical
Geography (from Greek: , ''geographia''. Combination of Greek words ‘Geo’ (The Earth) and ‘Graphien’ (to describe), literally "earth description ...
n mainland are excluded from Oceania", and that "all the islands lying between Australia and the Americas, including Australia, are part of Oceania." Furthermore, the book adds that Hawaii is still within Oceania, despite being politically integrated into the U.S., and that the Pacific Ocean "gives unity to the whole" since "all these varied lands emerge from or border upon the Pacific."
The 1876 book ''The Countries of the World: Volume 4'', by British scientist and explorer Robert Brown, labelled the Malay archipelago as Northwestern Oceania, but Brown still noted that these islands belonged more to the Asian continent. They are now often referred to as Maritime Southeast Asia, with Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines being founding members of the
ASEAN
ASEAN ( , ), officially the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a political and economic union of 10 member states in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and facilitates economic, political, security, militar ...
regional organization for
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
in 1967. Brown also categorized Japan and Taiwan as being in the same part of the world as the islands of Oceania, and excluded them from ''The Countries of the World: Volume 5'', which focused on Asia. However, Brown did not explicitly associate Japan or Taiwan with the term Oceania. He divided Oceania into two subregions; Eastern Oceania, which included the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, and Southwestern Oceania, which included Australia and New Zealand. The Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands and the Revillagigedo Islands were identified as the easternmost areas of Oceania in the book. Brown wrote, "they lie nearest the American continent of all oceanic islands, and though rarely associated with Polynesia, and never appearing to have been inhabited by any aboriginal races, are, in many ways, remarkable and interesting." Brown went on to add, "the small islands lying off the continent, like the Queen Charlotte's in the North Pacific, the
Farallones
The Farallon Islands, or Farallones (from the Spanish ''farallón'' meaning "pillar" or "sea cliff"), are a group of islands and sea stacks in the Gulf of the Farallones, off the coast of San Francisco, California, United States. The islands ...
off California, and the Chinchas off Peru are — to all intents and purposes, only detached bits of the adjoining shores. But in the case of the Galápagos, at least, this is different." He also claimed that they are "often cited as illustrating the peculiar relation of such islands to continents. Mr. Darwin has, for instance, adducted them as an illustration of the fact that such islands are inhabited by plants and animals closely allied to those of the nearest mainland, without actually being the same." The Juan Fernández Islands and the neighboring Desventuradas Islands are today seen as the easternmost extension of the Indo-West Pacific biogeographic region. The islands lie on the Nazca Plate with Easter Island and the Galápagos Islands, and have a significant south central Pacific component to their marine fauna. According to scientific journal '' PLOS One'', the
Humboldt Current
The Humboldt Current, also called the Peru Current, is a cold, low- salinity ocean current that flows north along the western coast of South America.Montecino, Vivian, and Carina B. Lange. "The Humboldt Current System: Ecosystem components and pr ...
helps create a biogeographic barrier between the marine fauna of these islands and South America. Chile's government have occasionally considered them to be within Oceania along with Easter Island. Chile's government also categorize Easter Island, the Desventuradas Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being part of a region titled
Insular Chile
Insular Chile, also called ''Las islas Esporádicas'', or "the Sporadic Islands", is a scattered group of oceanic islands of volcanic origin located in the South Pacific, at some distance from mainland Chile, and which are under the sovereig ...
. They further include in this region Salas y Gómez, a small uninhabited island to the east of Easter Island. ''PLOS One'' describe Insular Chile as having "cultural and ecological connections to the broader insular Pacific."
The
International Union for Conservation of Nature
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
stated in a 1986 report that they include Easter Island in their definition of Oceania "on the basis of its Polynesian and biogeographic affinities even though it is politically apart", further noting that other oceanic islands administered by Latin American countries had been included in definitions of Oceania. In 1987, ''The Journal of Australasian Cave Research'' described Oceania as being "the region from Irian Jaya (Western New Guinea, a province of New Guinea) in the west to Galápagos Islands (Equador) and Easter Island (Chile) in the east." In a 1980 report on
venereal disease
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs), also referred to as sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and the older term venereal diseases, are infections that are spread by sexual activity, especially vaginal intercourse, anal sex, and oral se ...
s in the South Pacific, the ''British Journal of Venereal Diseases'' categorized the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands as being in an eastern region of the South Pacific, along with areas such as Pitcairn Islands and French Polynesia, but noted that the Galápagos Islands were not a member of the
South Pacific Commission
The Pacific Community (PC), formerly the South Pacific Commission (SPC), is an international development organisation governed by 27 members, including 22 Pacific island countries and territories. The organisation's headquarters are in Nouméa, ...
, like other islands in the South Pacific. The South Pacific Commission is a developmental organization formed in 1947 and is currently known as the Pacific Community; its members include Australia and other Pacific Islands Forum members. In a 1947 article on the formation of the South Pacific Commission for the ''Pacific Affairs'' journal, author Roy E. James stated the organization's scope encompassed all non-self governing islands below the equator to the east of Papua New Guinea (which itself was included in the scope and then known as
Dutch New Guinea
Dutch New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea ( nl, Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea, id, Nugini Belanda) was the western half of the island of New Guinea that was a part of the Dutch East Indies until 1949, later an overseas territory of the Kingdo ...
). The Galápagos Islands and Chile's islands were defined by James as falling within the organization's geographical parameters. The 2007 book ''Asia in the Pacific Islands: Replacing the West'', by New Zealand Pacific scholar
Ron Crocombe Ronald Gordon Crocombe (8 October 1929 – 19 June 2009) was a Professor of Pacific Studies at the University of the South Pacific. His reputation was such that he was described as the "father of Pacific Studies".
Biography
Ron Crocombe was born in ...
, defined the term "Pacific Islands" as being islands in the South Pacific Commission, and stated that such a definition "does not include Galápagos and other ceanicislands off the Pacific coast of the Americas; these were uninhabited when Europeans arrived, then integrated with a South American country and have almost no contact with other Pacific Islands." He adds, "Easter Island still participates in some Pacific Island affairs because its people are Polynesian."
Thomas Sebeok
Thomas Albert Sebeok ( hu, Sebők Tamás, ; 1920–2001) was a Hungarian-born American polymath,Cobley, Paul; Deely, John; Kull, Kalevi; Petrilli, Susan (eds.) (2011). Semiotics Continues to Astonish: Thomas A. Sebeok and the Doctrine of Signs'. ...
's two volume 1971 book ''Linguistics in Oceania'' defines Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands,
Costa Rica
Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
's
Cocos Island
Cocos Island ( es, Isla del Coco) is an island in the Pacific Ocean administered by Costa Rica, approximately southwest of the Costa Rican mainland. It constitutes the 11th of the 13 districts of Puntarenas Canton of the Province of Puntarenas ...
and
Colombia
Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...
Spanish language
Spanish ( or , Castilian) is a Romance languages, Romance language of the Indo-European language family that evolved from colloquial Latin spoken on the Iberian peninsula. Today, it is a world language, global language with more than 500 millio ...
segment of Oceania. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island are the only landmasses located on the
Cocos Plate
The Cocos Plate is a young oceanic tectonic plate beneath the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of Central America, named for Cocos Island, which rides upon it. The Cocos Plate was created approximately 23 million years ago when the Farallon Plate ...
, which is to the north of the Nazca Plate. The book observed that a native Polynesian language was still understood on Easter Island, unlike with the other islands, which were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans and mostly being used as prisons for convicts. Additionally, the book includes Taiwan and the entire Malay archipelago as part of Oceania. While not oceanic in nature, Taiwan and Malay archipelago countries like Indonesia and the Philippines share
Austronesia
The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austrone ...
n linguistic origins with Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia, hence their inclusion in the book. The book defined Oceania's major subregions as being Australia, Indonesia (which included all areas associated with the Malay archipelago), Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. In 2010, Australian historian Bronwen Douglas claimed in ''The Journal of Pacific History'' that "a strong case could be made for extending Oceania to at least Taiwan, the homeland of the Austronesian language family whose speakers colonized significant parts of the region about 6,000 years ago." For political reasons, Taiwan was a member of the
Oceania Football Confederation
The Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) is one of the six continental confederations of international association football. The OFC has 13 members, 11 of which are full members and two which are associate members not affiliated with FIFA. It ...
during the 1970s and 1980s, rather than the
Asian Football Confederation
The Asian Football Confederation is the governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal in some countries/territories in Asia and Oceania. It has 47 member countries most of which are located in Asia. Australia, formerly in ...
.
Ian Todd's 1974 book ''Island Realm: A Pacific Panorama'' also defines oceanic Latin American islands as making up a Spanish language segment of Oceania, including in this category the Desventuradas Islands, Easter Island, the Galápagos Islands, Guadalupe Island, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and Salas y Gómez. Cocos Island and Malpelo Island were not explicitly referenced in the book, and Mexico's Tres Marías Islands were not included as they are continental in nature, unlike Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands (both situated on the Pacific Plate). Todd defined the oceanic Bonin Islands as making up a
Japanese language
is spoken natively by about 128 million people, primarily by Japanese people and primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. Japanese belongs to the Japonic or Japanese- Ryukyuan language family. There have been ma ...
segment of Oceania, and excluded the Ryukyu Islands and the main Japanese archipelago, which are geologically associated with Asia. Todd further included the Aleutian Islands in his definition of Oceania. The island chain borders both the Pacific Plate as well as the
North American Plate
The North American Plate is a tectonic plate covering most of North America, Cuba, the Bahamas, extreme northeastern Asia, and parts of Iceland and the Azores. With an area of , it is the Earth's second largest tectonic plate, behind the Pacific ...
, and is geologically a partially submerged western extension of the Aleutian Range on the Alaskan mainland, that stretches for another 1,600 kilometers. He did not include the Kuril Islands, which similarly border both the
Eurasian Plate
The Eurasian Plate is a tectonic plate that includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional continents of Europe and Asia), with the notable exceptions of the Indian subcontinent, the Arabian subcontinent and ...
and the Pacific Plate, nor did he include the neighboring Kodiak archipelago, which is situated on the North American Plate. ''The Stockholm Journal of East Asian Studies'' stated in 1996 that Oceania was defined as Australia and an ensemble of various Pacific Islands, "particularly those in the central and south Pacific utnever those in the extreme north, for example the Aleutian chain." In the ''Pacific Ocean Handbook'' (1945), author Eliot Grinnell Mears wrote that "it is customary to exclude the Aleutians of the North Pacific", and that he included Australia and New Zealand in Oceania for "scientific reasons; Australia's fauna is largely continental in character, New Zealand's are clearly insular; and neither
Commonwealth realm
A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state in the Commonwealth of Nations whose monarch and head of state is shared among the other realms. Each realm functions as an independent state, equal with the other realms and nations of the Commonwealt ...
has close ties with Asia." He further added that, "the term ''Australasia'' is not relished by New Zealanders and this name is too often confused with ''Australia''." In his 2002 book ''Oceania: An Introduction to the Cultures and Identities of Pacific Islanders'', Andrew Strathern excluded
Okinawa
is a prefecture of Japan. Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan, has a population of 1,457,162 (as of 2 February 2020) and a geographic area of 2,281 km2 (880 sq mi).
Naha is the capital and largest city ...
and the rest of the Ryukyu Islands from his definition of Oceania, but noted that the islands and their indigenous inhabitants "show many parallels with Pacific island societies."
In his 1994 book ''Familia Gekkonidae (Reptilia, Sauria). Part 1: Australia and Oceania'', German herpetologist Klaus Henle referred to the area as the Pacific region, and defined it as covering Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Henle included the Indonesian half of New Guinea, but excluded the rest of Indonesia and the Malay archipelago, as well as all Japanese islands and oceanic Latin American islands (with the exception of Easter Island). In the 2006 book ''Extinction and Biogeography of Tropical Pacific Birds'', American paleontologist
David Steadman David William Steadman is a paleontologist and ornithologist, and serves as the curator of ornithology at the Florida Museum of Natural History at the University of Florida.
His research has concentrated on the evolution, biogeography, conservation ...
wrote, "no place on earth is as perplexing as the 25,000 islands that make Oceania." Steadman viewed Oceania as encompassing Melanesia, Micronesia and Polynesia (including Easter Island). He excluded from his definition Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand, and argued that Cocos Island, the Galápagos Islands, the Juan Fernández Islands, the Revillagigedo Islands and other oceanic islands nearing the Americas were not part of Oceania, due to their biogeographical affinities with that area and lack of prehistoric indigenous populations. He wrote, "modern political boundaries in Oceania may not agree with those based on geology, biogeography or ethnicity." In his 2018 book ''Regionalism in South Pacific'', Chinese author Yu Changsen wrote that some "stress a narrow vision of the Pacific as those Pacific Islands excluding Australia and even sometimes New Zealand", adding that the term Oceania "promotes a broader concept that has room for Australia and New Zealand." The 1995 book ''World Librarianship'', by
Bangladeshi
Bangladeshis ( bn, বাংলাদেশী ) are the citizens of Bangladesh, a South Asian country centered on the transnational historical region of Bengal along the eponymous bay.
Bangladeshi citizenship was formed in 1971, when the ...
author A.M. Abdul Huq, defined the term '
Pacific Rim
The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The ''Pacific Basin'' includes the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geologic Pacific Ring of Fire.
List of co ...
' as being "a term used to describe the outer reaches of Oceania." He claimed that it "consists of Australia as well as the Asian island groups that comprise Japan, Indonesia and the Philippines", adding that "the Aleutian Islands and coastal island groups such as the Galápagos form the American boundary of the Pacific Rim."
American marine geologist Anthony A.P. Koppers wrote in the 2009 book ''Encyclopedia of Islands'' that, "as a whole, the islands of the Pacific Region are referred to as Oceania. Inherent to their remoteness and because of the wide variety of island types, the Pacific Islands have developed unique social, biological and geological characteristics." Koppers considered Oceania to encompass all 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean, and included in this book the Aleutian Islands, the Galápagos Islands, the Japanese archipelago, the Kuril Islands and continental islands off the coast of the Americas such as the Channel Islands, the Farallon Islands and Vancouver Island. In the 2013 book ''The Environments of the Poor in Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific'', Paul Bullen critiqued the definition of Oceania in ''Encyclopedia of Islands'', and wrote that since Koppers included areas such as Vancouver Island, it is "not clear what the referents of 'Pacific Region', 'Oceania' or 'Pacific Islands' are." He added that, "Asia, Europe and the Maritime Continent are not literal geographic continents. The '
Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific (APAC) is the part of the world near the western Pacific Ocean. The Asia-Pacific region varies in area depending on context, but it generally includes East Asia, Russian Far East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia and Pacific Isla ...
region' would comprise two quasi-continents. 'The Pacific' would not refer to the Pacific Ocean and everything in it e.g., the Philippines." ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Place Names'' (2017), by John Everett-Heath, states that Oceania is "a collective name for more than 10,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean" and that "it is generally accepted that Indonesia, Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and the islands north of Japan (the Kurils and Aleutians) are excluded." In his 1993 book ''A New Oceania: Rediscovering Our Sea of Islands'', Fijian and
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
n scholar
Epeli Hauofa Epeli is a Fijian male given name. Notable people with this name include:
* Epeli Baleibau (born 1972), Fijian athlete
* Epeli Ganilau (born 1951), Fijian military officer and politician
* Epeli Hauʻofa (1939–2009), Tongan and Fijian writer and ...
wrote that, "Pacific Ocean islands from Japan, through the Philippines and Indonesia, which are adjacent to the Asian mainland, do not have oceanic cultures, and are therefore not part of Oceania."
In 1961, Japanese novelist and World War II navy veteran Toshio Shimao coined the term "Japonesia", which refers to the idea of mapping Japan as a Pacific archipelago rather than as an outlying region of Asia. He wrote that, "our Japan is often considered in terms of its separation from continental Asia, but there is another way of seeing it. Together with Polynesia, Micronesia and Indonesia, it is also one of a number of island groups in the Pacific Ocean. When we become more conscious of this facet of our Japan, its ''Japonesian'' aspect will be assured." In a 2003 article titled ''Japonesia, Organic Geopolitics and the South'', Barnaby Breaden wrote that, "the discourse of Japonesia began as a way of understanding Japanese cultural identity in terms of its links with the islands of the western Pacific, rather than in more conventional terms as an extension of continental Asia. During the 1970s, the concept came to be associated with political and geo-political discourse. In particular, Okinawan reversion to Japanese control." In 2014, American historian Ryan Tucker Jones argued in ''The Journal of Pacific History'' that "several themes prominent in the history of Oceania – such as humans' orientation towards the ocean, the complex ways in which European and Indigenous histories mixed in the colonial era, and the notion of vast, interconnected spaces – apply to North Pacific history as well", adding that "the history of the
Russian Far East
The Russian Far East (russian: Дальний Восток России, r=Dal'niy Vostok Rossii, p=ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ) is a region in Northeast Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent; and is admini ...
and Alaska could be written as Pacific history and integrated into histories of Oceania. Such an integration would provide numerous benefits for historians and activists in the North Pacific." He noted, "though
Aleuts
The Aleuts ( ; russian: Алеуты, Aleuty) are the indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleut people and the islands are politically divided between the U ...
,
Nivkhs
The Nivkh, or Gilyak (also Nivkhs or Nivkhi, or Gilyaks; ethnonym: Нивхгу, ''Nʼivxgu'' (Amur) or Ниғвңгун, ''Nʼiɣvŋgun'' (E. Sakhalin) "the people"), are an indigenous ethnic group inhabiting the northern half of Sakhalin Island ...
and others are separated by several thousand miles and many degrees of average yearly temperature from Oceania, they have created and experienced histories that echo and have an impact on those further south."
In his 2015 book ''Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues'', American historian
Steven L. Danver
Steven Laurence Danver (born October 17, 1967 in Orange County, California) is an American historian. He is Managing Editor of the Journal of the West and has taught widely and written numerous influential works on the history of the Western Unite ...
claimed that, "the term Oceania, in its broadest sense, includes all insular regions between Asia and the Americas. While Japan and the Ryukyu Islands usually are considered part of Asia, and the Aleutians are viewed as a part of the Americas, in fact, these islands represent the northern part of Oceania. Likewise, the islands of the
East Indies
The East Indies (or simply the Indies), is a term used in historical narratives of the Age of Discovery. The Indies refers to various lands in the East or the Eastern hemisphere, particularly the islands and mainlands found in and around t ...
, the Philippines, Taiwan and Indonesia belong to Oceania, as does Australia. However, Oceania most commonly is understood to refer to the islands in the center of the Pacific Ocean." Alain Chenevière and Roger Sabater's 1995 book ''Pacific: the Boundless Ocean'' similarly states that, "In its restricted sense, Oceania includes all land masses in the Pacific." However, the book added that, "the peripheral archipelagos in the Pacific like the Aleutians, Japan, the Philippines and Indonesia do not form part of it, since they are attached both geologically, historically and ethnologically to
ther Ther may refer to:
*''Thér.'', taxonomic author abbreviation of Irénée Thériot (1859–1947), French bryologist
* Agroha Mound, archaeological site in Agroha, Hisar district, India
*Therapy
*Therapeutic drugs
See also
*''Ther Thiruvizha
''T ...
continents." The book defined Oceania as encompassing Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. The 1978 book ''The Changing Pacific'', by Niel Gunson, stated that "the Japanese, or say the Aleuts are "Pacific peoples", but in practice hefield of Pacific history has come to meant that of the islanders of Oceania. The other peoples are marginal to the Ocean, not embraced in it." British historian David Armitage wrote in his 2014 book ''Pacific Histories: Ocean, Land, People'' that, "New Zealand and Australia are sometimes considered part of the Pacific, sometimes not. Archipelagos which might otherwise appear to be "in" the Pacific are by convention usually excluded: Indonesia (excluding West Papua), the Philippines, the Aleutians or even Japan. And yet Timor Leste (or East Timor) is an observer of the Pacific Islands Forum." Armitage adds that, "various geographers carve up this part of the world differently, using a range of labels such as Oceania, Asia-Pacific, the Pacific-Basin, the South Pacific or South Seas (which commonly includes islands in the north) or the Pacific Islands. Of course, all the seas are connected, and there are no neat limits. But the struggle for putting the Pacific into discourse is partly decided by how it is defined." Australian historian Stuart Macintyre reflects in his 2009 book ''A Concise History of Australia'' that, "Australians commonly regard themselves, along with New Zealanders, as part of Oceania, and they have liked to think they enjoy a special relation with the most powerful of all
English-speaking
Speakers of English are also known as Anglophones, and the countries where English is natively spoken by the majority of the population are termed the ''Anglosphere''. Over two billion people speak English , making English the largest language ...
countries on the other side of that ocean", however, he added that "as the balance of regional power shifted, Australians increasingly claim they are part of Asia and regard their earlier presence in the Pacific as a romantic interlude in tropical islands far removed from the business hub of Asian tigers." In a 2021 poll by Australian
think tank
A think tank, or policy institute, is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy, political strategy, economics, military, technology, and culture. Most think tanks are non-governmenta ...
the Lowy Institute, the majority of respondents (62%) chose Australia as being part of Oceania. 38% also selected the
Indo-Pacific
The Indo-Pacific is a vast biogeographic region of Earth.
In a narrow sense, sometimes known as the Indo-West Pacific or Indo-Pacific Asia, it comprises the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean, the western and central Pacific Ocean, and the ...
, while 32% selected the West and 21% selected Asia.
In ''Reptiles and Amphibians of the Pacific Islands: A Comprehensive Guide'' (2013), George R. Zug wrote that his preferred definition of Oceania emphasis islands with oceanic geology, stating that oceanic islands are, "islands with no past connections to a continental landmass" and that, "these boundaries encompass the Hawaiian and Bonin Islands in the north and Easter Island in the south, and the
Palau
Palau,, officially the Republic of Palau and historically ''Belau'', ''Palaos'' or ''Pelew'', is an island country and microstate in the western Pacific. The nation has approximately 340 islands and connects the western chain of the Caro ...
Islands in the west to the Galápagos Islands in the east." Unlike the United Nations, the World Factbook defines the still-uninhabited Clipperton Island as being a discrete political entity, and they categorize it as part of North America, presumably due to its relative proximity (situated 1,200 kilometers off Mexico on the Pacific Plate). Clipperton is not politically associated with the Americas, as is the case with other oceanic islands nearing the Americas, having had almost no interaction with the continent throughout its history. From the early 20th century to 2007, the island was administratively part of French Polynesia, which itself was known as French Oceania up until 1957. In terms of marine fauna, Clipperton shares similarities with areas of the Pacific which are much farther removed from the Americas. Scottish author
Robert Hope Moncrieff
Robert Hope MoncrieffAscott was never part of his name, but was adopted by him as part of his pseudonym. It may have been a punning reference to his origin ''A Scot''. He used the name A. R. Hope Moncrieff for some of his books for adults, incl ...
considered Clipperton to be the easternmost point of Oceania in 1907.
Other uninhabited Pacific Ocean landmasses have been explicitly associated with Oceania, including the highly remote Baker Island and Wake Island (now administered by the
U.S. military
The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is the ...
). This is due to their location in the center of the Pacific, their biogeography and their oceanic geology. Less isolated oceanic islands that were once uninhabited, such as the Bonin Islands and the Juan Fernández Islands, have since been sparsely populated by citizens of their political administrators. Archaeological evidence suggests that
Micronesians
The Micronesians or Micronesian peoples are various closely related ethnic groups native to Micronesia, a region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They are a part of the Austronesian ethnolinguistic group, which has an Urheimat in Taiwan.
Ethno ...
may have lived on the Bonin Islands 2,000 years ago, but they were uninhabited at the time of European discovery in the 16th century.
Like with these historically uninhabited areas, Australia, Hawaii, New Zealand, and Western New Guinea have also had diverging developments since European discovery, and they are still intertwined to the region not just through their geographical location or geology, but through past and present indigenous populations as well. The ''East Asia'' journal observes that, "Australia is often described as a "big brother" to island countries: part of the Pacific family by geography and history but set apart by wealth and national identity. With its Polynesian heritage, New Zealand has a greater claim to cultural connection with the Pacific. Australia and New Zealand are close allies, and consult closely on their engagement with Pacific island states. For the most part, they pursue a shared approach."
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians or Australian First Nations are people with familial heritage from, and membership in, the ethnic groups that lived in Australia before British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal peoples ...
are not considered to be Austronesians, although in 1940 Australian anthropologist Fred McCarthy described their culture as being "indissolubly bound up with that of Oceania." On the United States Census, they are categorized under the Pacific Islander American umbrella with Melanesians, Micronesians and Polynesians. Some theorize that Indigenous Australians are related to the
Ainu people
The Ainu are the indigenous people of the lands surrounding the Sea of Okhotsk, including Hokkaido Island, Northeast Honshu Island, Sakhalin Island, the Kuril Islands, the Kamchatka Peninsula and Khabarovsk Krai, before the arrival of the Y ...
, who are the original inhabitants of Japan's
Hokkaido
is Japan's second largest island and comprises the largest and northernmost prefecture, making up its own region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō from Honshu; the two islands are connected by the undersea railway Seikan Tunnel.
The la ...
and Russia's Kuril Islands. The indigenous inhabitants of Japan's Ryukyu Islands are also theorized to be related to Austronesians.
Boundaries between subregions
Depending on the definition, New Zealand could be part of Polynesia, or part of Australasia with Australia. New Zealand was originally settled by the Polynesian
Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
s, and has long maintained a political influence over the subregion. Through immigration and high Māori birth rates, New Zealand has attained the largest population of Polynesians in the world, while Australia has the third largest Polynesian population (consisting entirely of immigrants). Modern-day Indigenous Australians are loosely related to Melanesians, and Australia maintains political influence over Melanesia, which is mostly located on the same tectonic plate. Despite this, Australia is rarely seen as a part of the subregion. As with Australia and New Zealand, Melanesia's New Caledonia has a significant non-indigenous European population, numbering around 71,000. Conversely, New Caledonia has still had a similar history to the rest of Melanesia, and their
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
-speaking Europeans make up only 27% of the total population. As such, it is not also culturally considered a part of the predominantly English-speaking Australasia. Some cultural and political definitions of Australasia include most or all of Melanesia, due to its geographical proximity to Australia and New Zealand, but these are rare. Australia, New Zealand and the islands of Melanesia are more commonly grouped together as part of the Australasian biogeographical realm. The UN's name for the Australasia subregion is "Australia and New Zealand"; their definition includes New Zealand, but places Papua New Guinea in Melanesia. Papua New Guinea is geographically the closest country to Australia, and is often geologically associated with Australia as it was once physiologically connected. The UN's definition of this subregion also includes Australia's Indian Ocean external territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands. They lie within the bounds of the Australian Plate and are sometimes geographically associated with Southeast Asia due to their proximity to western Indonesia. Both were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans during the 17th century. Approximately half of the population on these islands are European Australian mainlanders (with smaller numbers being European New Zealanders), while the other half are immigrants from China or the nearby Malay archipelago. The UN further define the subregion as including Australia's Indian Ocean external territory Heard Island and McDonald Islands. These islands lie on the Antarctic Plate and are also thought of as being in Antarctica or no region at all, due to their extreme geographical isolation. The World Factbook define Heard Island and McDonald Islands as part of Antarctica, while placing Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands as the westernmost extent of Oceania.
Norfolk Island
Norfolk Island (, ; Norfuk: ''Norf'k Ailen'') is an external territory of Australia located in the Pacific Ocean between New Zealand and New Caledonia, directly east of Australia's Evans Head and about from Lord Howe Island. Together with ...
, an external territory of Australia, was inhabited in prehistoric times by either Melanesians or Polynesians, and is geographically adjacent to the islands of Melanesia. The current inhabitants are mostly European Australians, and the UN categorize it as being in the Australasia subregion. The 1982 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'', by David Stanley, groups Australia, New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and Hawaii together under an "Anglonesia" category. This is in spite of the geographical distance separating these areas from Hawaii, which technically lies in the North Pacific. The 1985 edition of the ''South Pacific Handbook'' also groups the Galápagos Islands as being in Polynesia, while noting that they are not culturally a part of the subregion. The islands are typically grouped with others in the southeastern Pacific that were never inhabited by Polynesians.
The Bonin Islands are in the same biogeographical realm as the geographically adjacent Micronesia, and are often grouped in with the subregion because of this.
History
Australia
Indigenous Australians
Indigenous Australians or Australian First Nations are people with familial heritage from, and membership in, the ethnic groups that lived in Australia before British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal peoples ...
are the original inhabitants of the Australian continent and nearby islands who migrated from
Africa
Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
to
Asia
Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...
70,000 years ago and arrived in Australia 50,000 years ago. They are believed to be among the earliest human migrations out of Africa. Although they likely migrated to Australia through Southeast Asia they are not demonstrably related to any known Asian or Polynesian population. There is evidence of genetic and linguistic interchange between Australians in the far north and the Austronesian peoples of modern-day
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
and the islands, but this may be the result of recent trade and intermarriage.
They reached
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
40,000 years ago by migrating across a land bridge from the mainland that existed during the last
ice age
An ice age is a long period of reduction in the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere, resulting in the presence or expansion of continental and polar ice sheets and alpine glaciers. Earth's climate alternates between ice ages and gree ...
. It is believed that the first
early human migration
Early human migrations are the earliest Human migration, migrations and expansions of Homo, archaic and modern humans across continents. They are believed to have begun approximately 2 million years ago with the early expansions of hominin ...
to Australia was achieved when this landmass formed part of the
Sahul continent
__NOTOC__
Sahul (), also called Sahul-land, Meganesia, Papualand and Greater Australia, was a paleocontinent that encompassed the modern-day landmasses of mainland Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and the Aru Islands.
Sahul was in the south-we ...
, connected to the island of New Guinea via a land bridge. The Torres Strait Islanders are indigenous to the
Torres Strait
The Torres Strait (), also known as Zenadh Kes, is a strait between Australia and the Melanesian island of New Guinea. It is wide at its narrowest extent. To the south is Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost extremity of the Australian mai ...
Islands, which are at the northernmost tip of
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
near
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
. The earliest definite human remains found in Australia are that of
Mungo Man Mungo may refer to:
People
* Mungo (name), a list of people with the given name or surname
* Mungo people, an ethnic group in Cameroon
Places
* Mungo, Angola, a town and municipality
* Mungo National Park, Australia
* Lake Mungo, Australia
* M ...
, which have been dated at 40,000 years old.
Melanesia
The original inhabitants of the group of islands now named Melanesia were likely the ancestors of the present-day Papuan-speaking people. Migrating from South-East Asia, they appear to have occupied these islands as far east as the main islands in the
Solomon Islands archipelago
The Solomon Islands (archipelago) is an island group in the western South Pacific Ocean, north-east of Australia. The archipelago is in the Melanesian subregion and bioregion of Oceania and forms the eastern boundary of the Solomon Sea. The ...
, including Makira and possibly the smaller islands farther to the east.
Particularly along the north coast of New Guinea and in the islands north and east of New Guinea, the
Austronesian people
The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austrones ...
, who had migrated into the area somewhat more than 3,000 years ago, came into contact with these pre-existing populations of Papuan-speaking peoples. In the late 20th century, some scholars theorized a long period of interaction, which resulted in many complex changes in genetics, languages, and culture among the peoples.
Micronesia
Micronesia began to be settled several millennia ago, although there are competing theories about the origin and arrival of the first settlers. There are numerous difficulties with conducting archaeological excavations in the islands, due to their size, settlement patterns and storm damage. As a result, much evidence is based on linguistic analysis.
The earliest archaeological traces of civilization have been found on the island of
Saipan
Saipan ( ch, Sa’ipan, cal, Seipél, formerly in es, Saipán, and in ja, 彩帆島, Saipan-tō) is the largest island of the Northern Mariana Islands, a Commonwealth (U.S. insular area), commonwealth of the United States in the western Pa ...
, dated to 1500 BCE or slightly before. The ancestors of the
Micronesians
The Micronesians or Micronesian peoples are various closely related ethnic groups native to Micronesia, a region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They are a part of the Austronesian ethnolinguistic group, which has an Urheimat in Taiwan.
Ethno ...
settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious culture centered on Yap and
Pohnpei
Pohnpei "upon (''pohn'') a stone altar (''pei'')" (formerly known as Ponape or Ascension, Proto-Chuukic-Pohnpeic: ''*Fawo ni pei)'' is an island of the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group. It belongs to Pohnpei ...
. The prehistories of many Micronesian islands such as Yap are not known very well.
The first people of the Northern Mariana Islands navigated to the islands and discovered it at some period between 4000 BCE to 2000 BCE from South-East Asia. They became known as the Chamorros. Their
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of met ...
was named after them. The ancient Chamorro left a number of megalithic ruins, including Latte stone. The Refaluwasch or Carolinian people came to the Marianas in the 1800s from the Caroline Islands. Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the
2nd millennium BC
The 2nd millennium BC spanned the years 2000 BC to 1001 BC.
In the Ancient Near East, it marks the transition from the Middle to the Late Bronze Age.
The Ancient Near Eastern cultures are well within the historical era:
The first half of the mil ...
The Polynesian people are considered to be by linguistic, archaeological and human genetic ancestry a subset of the sea-migrating
Austronesian people
The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austrones ...
prehistoric
Prehistory, also known as pre-literary history, is the period of human history between the use of the first stone tools by hominins 3.3 million years ago and the beginning of recorded history with the invention of writing systems. The use of ...
origins in the
Malay Archipelago
The Malay Archipelago (Indonesian/Malay: , tgl, Kapuluang Malay) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the " Malay world," "Nusantara", "East Indies", Indo-Australian Archipelago, Spices Archipe ...
, and ultimately, in
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
. Between 3000 and 1000 BCE, speakers of Austronesian languages began spreading from Taiwan into Island South-East Asia, as tribes whose natives were thought to have arrived through South China 8,000 years ago to the edges of western Micronesia and on into Melanesia.
In the archaeological record there are well-defined traces of this expansion which allow the path it took to be followed and dated with some certainty. It is thought that by roughly 1400 BCE, "
Lapita
The Lapita culture is the name given to a Neolithic Austronesian people and their material culture, who settled Island Melanesia via a seaborne migration at around 1600 to 500 BCE. They are believed to have originated from the northern Philipp ...
Peoples", so-named after their pottery tradition, appeared in the
Bismarck Archipelago
The Bismarck Archipelago (, ) is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and is part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. Its area is about 50,000 square km.
History
The first inhabitants o ...
of north-west Melanesia.
Easter Islanders claimed that a chief
Hotu Matu'a Hotu may refer to:
* Hotu Matu'a, legendary first settler of Easter Island
* The Yellow River Map
The acronym HOTU may stand for:
* Home of the Underdogs
Home of the Underdogs (often called HotU) is an abandonware archive founded by Sarinee Acha ...
discovered the island in one or two large canoes with his wife and extended family. They are believed to have been Polynesian. Around 1200, Tahitian explorers discovered and began settling the area. This date range is based on
glottochronological Glottochronology (from Attic Greek γλῶττα ''tongue, language'' and χρόνος ''time'') is the part of lexicostatistics which involves comparative linguistics and deals with the chronological relationship between languages.Sheila Embleton ...
calculations and on three radiocarbon dates from charcoal that appears to have been produced during forest clearance activities. Moreover, a recent study which included radiocarbon dates from what is thought to be very early material suggests that the island was discovered and settled as recently as 1200.
European exploration
Oceania was first explored by Europeans from the 16th century onwards. Portuguese navigators, between 1512 and 1526, reached the
Maluku Islands
The Maluku Islands (; Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Maluku'') or the Moluccas () are an archipelago in the east of Indonesia. Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located eas ...
(by
António de Abreu
António de Abreu () was a 16th-century Portuguese navigator and naval officer. He participated under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque in the conquest of Ormus in 1507 and Malacca in 1511, where he got injured. Departing from Malacca in Nove ...
and
Francisco Serrão
Francisco Serrão (died 1521) was a Portuguese explorer and a possible cousin of Ferdinand Magellan. His 1512 voyage was the first known European sailing east past Malacca through modern Indonesia and the East Indies. He became a confidant of Su ...
in 1512),
Timor
Timor is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is East Timor–Indonesia border, divided between the sovereign states of East Timor on the eastern part and Indonesia on the western p ...
Gomes de Sequeira
Gomes de Sequeira was a Portuguese explorer in the early 16th century. It has been suggested by some historians that Gomes de Sequeira may have sailed to the northeast coast of Australia as part of his explorations, although this is disputed.
See ...
in 1525), and west
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
(by
Jorge de Menezes
Jorge de Menezes (c. 1498 – 1537) was a Portuguese explorer, who in 1526–27 landed on the islands of Biak (Cenderawasih Bay), whilst he awaited the passing of the monsoon season, and on the northern coasts of the Bird's Head Peninsula, calling ...
in 1526). In 1519, a Spanish expedition led by Ferdinand Magellan sailed down the east coast of South America, found and sailed through the strait that bears his name and on 28 November 1520 entered the ocean which he named "Pacific". The three remaining ships, led by Magellan and his captains Duarte Barbosa and
João Serrão
Juan Rodríguez Serrano, also known as João Rodrigues Serrão in the Portuguese version, (Fregenal de la Sierra - Cebu, 1521) was a 16th-century Spanish navigator, born in Fregenal de la Sierra, Badajoz,''Auto das perguntas que se fizeram a dois ...
, then sailed north and caught the
trade winds
The trade winds or easterlies are the permanent east-to-west prevailing winds that flow in the Earth's equatorial region. The trade winds blow mainly from the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and from the southeast in the Southern Hemisph ...
which carried them across the Pacific to the Philippines where Magellan was killed. One surviving ship led by Juan Sebastián Elcano returned west across the Indian Ocean and
the other
In phenomenology, the terms the Other and the Constitutive Other identify the other human being, in their differences from the Self, as being a cumulative, constituting factor in the self-image of a person; as acknowledgement of being real; he ...
went north in the hope of finding the
westerlies
The westerlies, anti-trades, or prevailing westerlies, are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. They originate from the high-pressure areas in the horse latitudes and trend to ...
and reaching Mexico. Unable to find the right winds, it was forced to return to the East Indies. The Magellan-Elcano expedition achieved the first
circumnavigation
Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island, continent, or astronomical object, astronomical body (e.g. a planet or natural satellite, moon). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth.
The first recorded circ ...
of the world and reached the
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
, the
Mariana Islands
The Mariana Islands (; also the Marianas; in Chamorro: ''Manislan Mariånas'') are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen longitudinally oriented, mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, betw ...
, and other islands of Oceania.
From 1527 to 1595 a number of other large Spanish expeditions crossed the Pacific Ocean, leading to the arrival in
Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Internati ...
and
Palau
Palau,, officially the Republic of Palau and historically ''Belau'', ''Palaos'' or ''Pelew'', is an island country and microstate in the western Pacific. The nation has approximately 340 islands and connects the western chain of the Caro ...
in the North Pacific, as well as
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
, the
Marquesas Islands
The Marquesas Islands (; french: Îles Marquises or ' or '; Marquesan: ' ( North Marquesan) and ' ( South Marquesan), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in th ...
, the
Solomon Islands archipelago
The Solomon Islands (archipelago) is an island group in the western South Pacific Ocean, north-east of Australia. The archipelago is in the Melanesian subregion and bioregion of Oceania and forms the eastern boundary of the Solomon Sea. The ...
, the
Cook Islands
)
, image_map = Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, capital = Avarua
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Avarua
, official_languages =
, lan ...
Pitcairn
The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four isl ...
and
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
archipelagos, and sailed the
Torres Strait
The Torres Strait (), also known as Zenadh Kes, is a strait between Australia and the Melanesian island of New Guinea. It is wide at its narrowest extent. To the south is Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost extremity of the Australian mai ...
between Australia and New Guinea, named after navigator
Luís Vaz de Torres
Luís Vaz de Torres ( Galician and Portuguese), or Luis Váez de Torres in the Spanish spelling (born c. 1565; fl. 1607), was a 16th- and 17th-century maritime explorer of a Spanish expedition noted for the first recorded European navigation of ...
. Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in Australia (1606), in
Cape York Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula is a large peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest unspoiled wilderness in northern Australia.Mittermeier, R.E. et al. (2002). Wilderness: Earth’s last wild places. Mexico City: Agrupación ...
.Abel Tasman circumnavigated and landed on parts of the Australian continental coast and discovered
Van Diemen's Land
Van Diemen's Land was the colonial name of the island of Tasmania used by the British during the European exploration of Australia in the 19th century. A British settlement was established in Van Diemen's Land in 1803 before it became a sepa ...
(now
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
), New Zealand in 1642, and
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
. He was the first known European explorer to reach these islands.
On 23 April 1770, British explorer
James Cook
James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean an ...
made his first recorded direct observation of
Aboriginal Australians
Aboriginal Australians are the various Indigenous peoples of the Australian mainland and many of its islands, such as Tasmania, Fraser Island, Hinchinbrook Island, the Tiwi Islands, and Groote Eylandt, but excluding the Torres Strait Islands ...
at
Brush Island
The Brush Island is a continental island, contained within the Brush Island Nature Reserve, a protected nature reserve, known as Mit Island in the Dhurga language of the Murramamrang people of the Yuin nation see (http://press-files.anu.edu.au/d ...
near
Bawley Point
Bawley Point is a small coastal hamlet in New South Wales, Australia, in the Shoalhaven with a population of 698 people at the . It is located 30 minutes south of Ulladulla, New South Wales, and 30 minutes north of Batemans Bay on the South Coas ...
. On 29 April, Cook and crew made their first landfall on the mainland of the continent at a place now known as the
Kurnell Peninsula
Kurnell is a suburb in Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is south of the Sydney central business district, in the local government area of the Sutherland Shire along the east coast. Cronulla and Woolooware are the onl ...
. It is here that James Cook made first contact with an aboriginal tribe known as the Gweagal. His expedition became the first recorded Europeans to have encountered its eastern coastline of Australia.
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against F ...
and settling on
Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four isl ...
, which later became a British colony. Britain also established colonies in Australia in 1788, New Zealand in 1840 and
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
in 1872, with much of Oceania becoming part of the
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
. The
Gilbert Islands
The Gilbert Islands ( gil, Tungaru;Reilly Ridgell. ''Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia.'' 3rd. Ed. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1995. p. 95. formerly Kingsmill or King's-Mill IslandsVery often, this n ...
(now known as
Kiribati
Kiribati (), officially the Republic of Kiribati ( gil, ibaberikiKiribati),Kiribati ''The Wor ...
) and the Ellice Islands (now known as
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
) came under Britain's sphere of influence in the late 19th century.
French Catholic missionaries arrived on Tahiti in 1834; their expulsion in 1836 caused France to send a gunboat in 1838. In 1842, Tahiti and Tahuata were declared a French protectorate, to allow Catholic missionaries to work undisturbed. The capital of Papeetē was founded in 1843. On 24 September 1853, under orders from
Napoleon III
Napoleon III (Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was the first President of France (as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte) from 1848 to 1852 and the last monarch of France as Emperor of the French from 1852 to 1870. A nephew ...
, Admiral Febvrier Despointes took formal possession of New Caledonia and Port-de-France (Nouméa) was founded 25 June 1854.
The Spanish explorer
Alonso de Salazar
Toribio Alonso de Salazar, (died 5 September 1526) born in Biscay, was a Spanish navigator of Basque origin, who was the first Westerner to arrive on the Marshall Islands on August 21, 1526.
De Salazar was part of the Fray García Jofre de Loaí ...
landed in the Marshall Islands in 1529. They were named by Krusenstern, after English explorer
John Marshall
John Marshall (September 24, 1755July 6, 1835) was an American politician and lawyer who served as the fourth Chief Justice of the United States from 1801 until his death in 1835. He remains the longest-serving chief justice and fourth-longes ...
, who visited them together with Thomas Gilbert in 1788, en route from
Botany Bay
Botany Bay (Dharawal: ''Kamay''), an open oceanic embayment, is located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, south of the Sydney central business district. Its source is the confluence of the Georges River at Taren Point and the Cook ...
to
Canton
Canton may refer to:
Administrative division terminology
* Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries, notably Switzerland
* Township (Canada), known as ''canton'' in Canadian French
Arts and ent ...
(two ships of the
First Fleet
The First Fleet was a fleet of 11 ships that brought the first European and African settlers to Australia. It was made up of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six convict transports. On 13 May 1787 the fleet under the command ...
). In 1905 the British government transferred some administrative responsibility over south-east New Guinea to Australia (which renamed the area "
Territory of Papua
The Territory of Papua comprised the southeastern quarter of the island of New Guinea from 1883 to 1975. In 1883, the Government of Queensland annexed this territory for the British Empire. The United Kingdom Government refused to ratify the a ...
"); and in 1906, transferred all remaining responsibility to Australia. The Marshall Islands were claimed by Spain in 1874. Germany established colonies in New Guinea in 1884, and
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
in 1900. The United States also expanded into the Pacific, beginning with Baker Island and Howland Island in 1857, and with Hawaii becoming a
U.S. territory
In the United States, a territory is any extent of region under the sovereign jurisdiction of the federal government of the United States, including all waters (around islands or continental tracts). The United States asserts sovereign rights for ...
One of the first land offensives in Oceania was the
Occupation of German Samoa
The Occupation of Samoa was the takeover – and subsequent administration – of the Pacific colony of German Samoa by New Zealand during World War I. It started in late August 1914 with landings by the Samoa Expeditionary Force from New Zeala ...
in August 1914 by New Zealand forces. The campaign to take Samoa ended without bloodshed after over 1,000 New Zealanders landed on the German colony. Australian forces attacked German New Guinea in September 1914. A company of Australians and a British warship besieged the Germans and their colonial subjects, ending with a German surrender.
The
attack on Pearl Harbor
The attack on Pearl HarborAlso known as the Battle of Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service upon the United States against the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii, j ...
by the Japanese
Imperial General Headquarters
The was part of the Supreme War Council and was established in 1893 to coordinate efforts between the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy during wartime. In terms of function, it was approximately equivalent to the United States ...
Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender ...
Pearl Harbor
Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the Re ...
,
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
, on the morning of 7 December 1941. The attack led to the
United States' entry into World War II
Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor took place on December 7, 1941. The U.S. military suffered 18 ships damaged or sunk, and 2,400 people were killed. Its most significant consequence was the entrance of the United States into World War II. The US had ...
. The Japanese subsequently invaded New Guinea, Solomon Islands and other Pacific islands. The Japanese were turned back at the
Battle of the Coral Sea
The Battle of the Coral Sea, from 4 to 8 May 1942, was a major naval battle between the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) and naval and air forces of the United States and Australia. Taking place in the Pacific Theatre of World War II, the batt ...
and the Kokoda Track campaign before they were finally defeated in 1945. Some of the most prominent Oceanic battlegrounds were the
Battle of Bita Paka
The Battle of Bita Paka (11 September 1914) was fought south of Kabakaul, on the island of New Britain, and was a part of the invasion and subsequent occupation of German New Guinea by the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force (AN& ...
Japanese military
The Japan Self-Defense Forces ( ja, 自衛隊, Jieitai; abbreviated JSDF), also informally known as the Japanese Armed Forces, are the unified ''de facto''Since Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution outlaws the formation of armed forces, th ...
occupation.
Australia and New Zealand became
dominions
The term ''Dominion'' is used to refer to one of several self-governing nations of the British Empire.
"Dominion status" was first accorded to Canada, Australia, Dominion of New Zealand, New Zealand, Dominion of Newfoundland, Newfoundland, Un ...
in the 20th century, adopting the Statute of Westminster Act in 1942 and 1947 respectively. In 1946, Polynesians were granted French citizenship and the islands' status was changed to an overseas territory; the islands' name was changed in 1957 to ''Polynésie Française'' (
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
and
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
became independent in 1970. On 1 May 1979, in recognition of the evolving political status of the
Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Internati ...
, the United States recognized the constitution of the Marshall Islands and the establishment of the Government of the
Republic of the Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Internati ...
. The South Pacific Forum was founded in 1971, which became the
Pacific Islands Forum
The Pacific Islands Forum (PIF) is an inter-governmental organization that aims to enhance cooperation between countries and territories of Oceania, including formation of a trade bloc and regional peacekeeping operations. It was founded in 197 ...
in 2000.
Geography
Under a four subregion model, the islands of Oceania extend to New Guinea in the west, the
Bonin Islands
The Bonin Islands, also known as the , are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands, some directly south of Tokyo, Japan and northwest of Guam. The name "Bonin Islands" comes from the Japanese word ''bunin'' (an archaic readi ...
in the northwest, the
Hawaiian Islands
The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost Kur ...
in the northeast,
Easter Island
Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
and Sala y Gómez Island in the east, and Macquarie Island in the south. Excluded under most definitions of Oceania are the Pacific landmasses of
Taiwan
Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia, at the junction of the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the nort ...
, the
Ryukyu Islands
The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yonaguni ...
, and the Japanese archipelago, which are all on the margins of Asia, as well as the
Aleutian Islands
The Aleutian Islands (; ; ale, Unangam Tanangin,”Land of the Aleuts", possibly from Chukchi language, Chukchi ''aliat'', "island"), also called the Aleut Islands or Aleutic Islands and known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, are a cha ...
and other Alaskan or Canadian islands. In its periphery, Oceania's islands would sprawl 28 degrees north to the Bonin Islands in the
northern hemisphere
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the Equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the same celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the solar system as Earth's Nort ...
high island
Geologically, a high island or volcanic island is an island of volcanic origin. The term can be used to distinguish such islands from low islands, which are formed from sedimentation or the uplifting of coral reefs (which have often formed ...
s,
coral reef
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.
Co ...
s and uplifted coral platforms. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these are Bougainville, Hawaii, and Solomon Islands.
Oceania is one of eight terrestrial
biogeographic realm
A biogeographic realm or ecozone is the broadest biogeographic division of Earth's land surface, based on distributional patterns of terrestrial organisms. They are subdivided into bioregions, which are further subdivided into ecoregions.
De ...
s, which constitute the major ecological regions of the planet. Related to these concepts are
Near Oceania
Near Oceania is the part of Oceania settled 35,000 years ago, comprising Australia, New Guinea, and north-western Island Melanesia: the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands.
Prehistory
The great nineteenth-century naturalist Alfred Rus ...
, that part of western Island Melanesia which has been inhabited for tens of millennia, and
Remote Oceania
Remote Oceania is the part of Oceania settled within the last 3,000 to 3,500 years, comprising south-eastern Island Melanesia and islands in the open Pacific east of the Solomon Islands: Fiji, Micronesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Polynesia, t ...
which is more recently settled. Although the majority of the Oceanian islands lie in the South Pacific, a few of them are not restricted to the Pacific Ocean – Kangaroo Island and Ashmore and Cartier Islands, for instance, are situated in the
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is regarded as the second-small ...
and
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or ~19.8% of the water on Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia to the east. To the south it is bounded by th ...
, respectively, and Tasmania's west coast faces the Southern Ocean.
The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the
Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over over an area of approximately . The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, ...
off northeastern Australia with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include
Banaba
BanabaThe correct spelling and etymology in Gilbertese should be ''Bwanaba'' but the Constitution of Kiribati writes Banaba. Because of the spelling in English or French, the name was very often written Paanapa or Paanopa, as it was in 1901 Ac ...
(formerly Ocean Island) and Makatea in the Tuamotu group of
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
.
Regions
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
, which lies north of the equator and west of the
International Date Line
The International Date Line (IDL) is an internationally accepted demarcation on the surface of Earth, running between the South and North Poles and serving as the boundary between one calendar day and the next. It passes through the Pacific O ...
, includes the
Mariana Islands
The Mariana Islands (; also the Marianas; in Chamorro: ''Manislan Mariånas'') are a crescent-shaped archipelago comprising the summits of fifteen longitudinally oriented, mostly dormant volcanic mountains in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, betw ...
Marshall Islands
The Marshall Islands ( mh, Ṃajeḷ), officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands ( mh, Aolepān Aorōkin Ṃajeḷ),'' () is an independent island country and microstate near the Equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the Internati ...
to the west and the islands of
Kiribati
Kiribati (), officially the Republic of Kiribati ( gil, ibaberikiKiribati),Kiribati ''The Wor ...
in the southeast.
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
, to the southwest, includes
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
, the world's second largest island after
Greenland
Greenland ( kl, Kalaallit Nunaat, ; da, Grønland, ) is an island country in North America that is part of the Kingdom of Denmark. It is located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Greenland is t ...
and by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the Maluku Islands Archipelago, the
Bismarck Archipelago
The Bismarck Archipelago (, ) is a group of islands off the northeastern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and is part of the Islands Region of Papua New Guinea. Its area is about 50,000 square km.
History
The first inhabitants o ...
, the
Solomon Islands archipelago
The Solomon Islands (archipelago) is an island group in the western South Pacific Ocean, north-east of Australia. The archipelago is in the Melanesian subregion and bioregion of Oceania and forms the eastern boundary of the Solomon Sea. The ...
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
,
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
and
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
.
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also encompasses
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
,
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
Cook Islands
)
, image_map = Cook Islands on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, capital = Avarua
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Avarua
, official_languages =
, lan ...
,
Society Islands
The Society Islands (french: Îles de la Société, officially ''Archipel de la Société;'' ty, Tōtaiete mā) are an archipelago located in the South Pacific Ocean. Politically, they are part of French Polynesia, an overseas country of the F ...
and
Austral Islands
The Austral Islands (french: Îles Australes, officially ''Archipel des Australes;'' ty, Tuha'a Pae) are the southernmost group of islands in French Polynesia, an overseas country of the French Republic in the South Pacific. Geographically, ...
in the center, and the
Marquesas Islands
The Marquesas Islands (; french: Îles Marquises or ' or '; Marquesan: ' ( North Marquesan) and ' ( South Marquesan), both meaning "the land of men") are a group of volcanic islands in French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in th ...
Mangareva Islands
The Gambier Islands ( or ) are an archipelago in French Polynesia, located at the southeast terminus of the Tuamotu archipelago. They cover an area of , and are made up of the Mangareva Islands, a group of high islands remnants of a caldera al ...
, and
Easter Island
Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
to the east.
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
comprises Australia, New Zealand, the island of
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
, and neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. Along with India most of Australasia lies on the
Indo-Australian Plate
The Indo-Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate that includes the continent of Australia and the surrounding ocean and extends northwest to include the Indian subcontinent and the adjacent waters. It was formed by the fusion of the Indian an ...
with the latter occupying the Southern area. It is flanked by the Indian Ocean to the west and the
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica. With a size of , it is regarded as the second-small ...
to the south.
Geology
The
Pacific Plate
The Pacific Plate is an oceanic tectonic plate that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate.
The plate first came into existence 190 million years ago, at the triple junction between the Farallon, Phoenix, and Iza ...
, which makes up most of Oceania, is an oceanic
tectonic plate
Plate tectonics (from the la, label=Late Latin, tectonicus, from the grc, τεκτονικός, lit=pertaining to building) is the generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth's lithosphere to comprise a number of large te ...
that lies beneath the Pacific Ocean. At , it is the largest tectonic plate. The plate contains an interior
hot spot
Hotspot, Hot Spot or Hot spot may refer to:
Places
* Hot Spot, Kentucky, a community in the United States
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities
* Hot Spot (comics), a name for the DC Comics character Isaiah Crockett
* Hot Spot (Tra ...
forming the
Hawaiian Islands
The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost Kur ...
. It is almost entirely
oceanic crust
Oceanic crust is the uppermost layer of the oceanic portion of the tectonic plates. It is composed of the upper oceanic crust, with pillow lavas and a dike complex, and the lower oceanic crust, composed of troctolite, gabbro and ultramafic cumu ...
. The oldest member disappearing by way of the
plate tectonics
Plate tectonics (from the la, label=Late Latin, tectonicus, from the grc, τεκτονικός, lit=pertaining to building) is the generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth's lithosphere to comprise a number of large ...
cycle is early-
Cretaceous
The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of th ...
(145 to 137 million years ago).
Australia, being part of the
Indo-Australian plate
The Indo-Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate that includes the continent of Australia and the surrounding ocean and extends northwest to include the Indian subcontinent and the adjacent waters. It was formed by the fusion of the Indian an ...
, is the lowest, flattest, and oldest landmass on Earth and it has had a relatively stable geological history. Geological forces such as tectonic uplift of mountain ranges or clashes between tectonic plates occurred mainly in Australia's early history, when it was still a part of
Gondwana
Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
. Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore currently has no active volcanism.
The
geology
Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Ear ...
of New Zealand is noted for its
volcanic
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates a ...
activity,
earthquake
An earthquake (also known as a quake, tremor or temblor) is the shaking of the surface of the Earth resulting from a sudden release of energy in the Earth's lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from ...
areas
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a region on the plane or on a curved surface. The area of a plane region or ''plane area'' refers to the area of a shape or planar lamina, while ''surface area'' refers to the area of an open su ...
because of its position on the boundary of the
Australian Plate
The Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate in the eastern and, largely, southern hemispheres. Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana, Australia remained connected to India and Antarctica until approximately when India broke ...
and Pacific Plates. Much of the basement rock of New Zealand was once part of the super-continent of Gondwana, along with South America, Africa,
Madagascar
Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...
, India, Antarctica and Australia. The rocks that now form the continent of Zealandia were nestled between Eastern Australia and
Western Antarctica
West Antarctica, or Lesser Antarctica, one of the two major regions of Antarctica, is the part of that continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere, and includes the Antarctic Peninsula. It is separated from East Antarctica by the Transant ...
.
The Australia-New Zealand continental fragment of Gondwana split from the rest of Gondwana in the
late Cretaceous
The Late Cretaceous (100.5–66 Ma) is the younger of two epochs into which the Cretaceous Period is divided in the geologic time scale. Rock strata from this epoch form the Upper Cretaceous Series. The Cretaceous is named after ''creta'', the ...
time (95–90 Ma). By 75 Ma, Zealandia was essentially separate from Australia and Antarctica, although only shallow seas might have separated Zealandia and Australia in the north. The
Tasman Sea
The Tasman Sea (Māori: ''Te Tai-o-Rēhua'', ) is a marginal sea of the South Pacific Ocean, situated between Australia and New Zealand. It measures about across and about from north to south. The sea was named after the Dutch explorer Abe ...
, and part of Zealandia then locked together with Australia to form the
Australian Plate
The Australian Plate is a major tectonic plate in the eastern and, largely, southern hemispheres. Originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana, Australia remained connected to India and Antarctica until approximately when India broke ...
(40 Ma), and a new plate boundary was created between the Australian Plate and Pacific Plate.
Most islands in the Pacific are
high islands
Geologically, a high island or volcanic island is an island of volcanic origin. The term can be used to distinguish such islands from low islands, which are formed from sedimentation or the uplifting of coral reefs (which have often formed ...
(
volcanic
A volcano is a rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, that allows hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the surface.
On Earth, volcanoes are most often found where tectonic plates a ...
islands), such as,
Easter Island
Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
,
American Samoa
American Samoa ( sm, Amerika Sāmoa, ; also ' or ') is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the island country of Samoa. Its location is centered on . It is east of the International ...
and
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
, among others, having peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore. The
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands or Leeward Hawaiian Islands are a series of islands and atolls in the Hawaiian island chain located northwest (in some cases, far to the northwest) of the islands of Kauai and Niihau. Politically, they are all p ...
were formed 7 to 30 million years ago, as
shield volcano
A shield volcano is a type of volcano named for its low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground. It is formed by the eruption of highly fluid (low viscosity) lava, which travels farther and forms thinner flows than the more v ...
es over the same volcanic
hotspot
Hotspot, Hot Spot or Hot spot may refer to:
Places
* Hot Spot, Kentucky, a community in the United States
Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities
* Hot Spot (comics), a name for the DC Comics character Isaiah Crockett
* Hot Spot (Tra ...
that formed the Emperor Seamounts to the north and the Main Hawaiian Islands to the south. Hawaii's tallest mountain
Mauna Kea
Mauna Kea ( or ; ; abbreviation for ''Mauna a Wākea''); is a dormant volcano on the island of Hawaii. Its peak is above sea level, making it the highest point in the state of Hawaii and second-highest peak of an island on Earth. The peak is ...
is above mean sea level.
Flora
The most diverse country of Oceania when it comes to the environment is Australia, with tropical
rainforest
Rainforests are characterized by a closed and continuous tree canopy, moisture-dependent vegetation, the presence of epiphytes and lianas and the absence of wildfire. Rainforest can be classified as tropical rainforest or temperate rainfores ...
s in the north-east, mountain ranges in the south-east, south-west and east, and dry desert in the centre.
Desert
A desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life. The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to denudation. About on ...
or semi-arid land commonly known as the
outback
The Outback is a remote, vast, sparsely populated area of Australia. The Outback is more remote than the bush. While often envisaged as being arid, the Outback regions extend from the northern to southern Australian coastlines and encompass a n ...
makes up by far the largest portion of land. The coastal uplands and a belt of Brigalow grasslands lie between the coast and the mountains, while inland of the dividing range are large areas of grassland. The northernmost point of the east coast is the tropical-rainforested
Cape York Peninsula
Cape York Peninsula is a large peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest unspoiled wilderness in northern Australia.Mittermeier, R.E. et al. (2002). Wilderness: Earth’s last wild places. Mexico City: Agrupación ...
.
Prominent features of the Australian flora are adaptations to
aridity
A region is arid when it severely lacks available water, to the extent of hindering or preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life. Regions with arid climates tend to lack vegetation and are called xeric or desertic. Most ar ...
and fire which include scleromorphy and serotiny. These adaptations are common in species from the large and well-known families
Proteaceae
The Proteaceae form a family of flowering plants predominantly distributed in the Southern Hemisphere. The family comprises 83 genera with about 1,660 known species. Together with the Platanaceae and Nelumbonaceae, they make up the order Pro ...
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae, the myrtle family, is a family of dicotyledonous plants placed within the order Myrtales. Myrtle, pōhutukawa, bay rum tree, clove, guava, acca (feijoa), allspice, and eucalyptus are some notable members of this group. All speci ...
(''
Eucalyptus
''Eucalyptus'' () is a genus of over seven hundred species of flowering trees, shrubs or mallees in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. Along with several other genera in the tribe Eucalypteae, including '' Corymbia'', they are commonly known as euca ...
Acacia
''Acacia'', commonly known as the wattles or acacias, is a large genus of shrubs and trees in the subfamily Mimosoideae of the pea family Fabaceae. Initially, it comprised a group of plant species native to Africa and Australasia. The genus na ...
'' – wattle). The flora of Fiji,
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and north-west of Vanuatu. It has a land area of , and a population of approx. 700,000. Its capita ...
,
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
, and
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
is
tropical dry forest
The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest is a habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature and is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive ...
palm trees
Palm most commonly refers to:
* Palm of the hand, the central region of the front of the hand
* Palm plants, of family Arecaceae
**List of Arecaceae genera
* Several other plants known as "palm"
Palm or Palms may also refer to:
Music
* Palm (ba ...
gyrocarpus americanus
''Gyrocarpus americanus'' is a flowering plant in the ''Hernandiaceae'' family, with a wide pantropical distribution. Its common names include the helicopter tree, propeller tree, whirly whirly tree, stinkwood or shitwood.
Description
''Gyrocar ...
, and
derris trifoliata
''Derris trifoliata'' is a plant species in the genus ''Derris'', Family - Leguminosae
It is known as "Karanjvel" in Marathi - local language of Maharashtra, India.
It is a large climber found commonly in coastal swamps of Konkan (India). It is ...
.
New Zealand's landscape ranges from the
fjord
In physical geography, a fjord or fiord () is a long, narrow inlet with steep sides or cliffs, created by a glacier. Fjords exist on the coasts of Alaska, Antarctica, British Columbia, Chile, Denmark, Germany, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, Ice ...
-like sounds of the southwest to the tropical beaches of the far north. South Island is dominated by the Southern Alps. There are 18 peaks of more than 3000 metres (9800 ft) in the South Island. All summits over 2,900 m are within the Southern Alps, a chain that forms the backbone of the South Island; the highest peak of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook, at . Earthquakes are common, though usually not severe, averaging 3,000 per year. There is a wide variety of native trees, adapted to all the various micro-climates in New Zealand.
In Hawaii, one endemic plant, ''
Brighamia
The Hawaiian lobelioids are a group of flowering plants in the bellflower family, Campanulaceae, subfamily Lobelioideae, all of which are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. This is the largest plant radiation in the Hawaiian Islands, and indeed the ...
'', now requires hand-pollination because its natural pollinator is presumed to be extinct. The two species of ''Brighamia'' – ''B. rockii'' and ''B. insignis'' – are represented in the wild by around 120 individual plants. To ensure these plants set seed, biologists rappel down cliffs to brush pollen onto their stigmas.
Polynesian starling
The Polynesian starling (''Aplonis tabuensis'') is a species of starling of the family Sturnidae. It is found in the Samoan Islands, Fiji, Niue, Tonga, the Santa Cruz Islands and Wallis and Futuna. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropica ...
Pacific Swallow
The Pacific swallow (''Hirundo tahitica'') is a small passerine bird in the swallow family. It breeds in tropical southern Asia and the islands of the south Pacific. It is resident apart from some local seasonal movements. This bird is associate ...
and the
Cardinal myzomela
The cardinal myzomela (''Myzomela cardinalis'') is a species of bird in the honeyeater family Meliphagidae. It is named for the scarlet color of the male. It is found in American Samoa, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu, as well ...
, among others. Birds breeding on
Pitcairn
The Pitcairn Islands (; Pitkern: '), officially the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, is a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean that form the sole British Overseas Territory in the Pacific Ocean. The four isl ...
red-tailed tropicbird
The red-tailed tropicbird (''Phaethon rubricauda'') is a seabird native to tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. One of three closely related species of tropicbird (Phaethontidae), it was described by Pieter Boddaert in 1783. Superfic ...
. The
Pitcairn reed warbler
The Pitcairn reed warbler (''Acrocephalus vaughani'') is a songbird in the genus '' Acrocephalus''. Formerly placed in the "Old World warbler" assemblage (Sylviidae), it is now in the newly recognized marsh-warbler family Acrocephalidae.
It is ...
, endemic to Pitcairn Island, was added to the
endangered species
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and inv ...
list in 2008.
Native to Hawaii is the Hawaiian crow, which has been
extinct in the wild
A species that is extinct in the wild (EW) is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as known only by living members kept in captivity or as a naturalized population outside its historic range due ...
since 2002. The brown tree snake is native to northern and eastern coasts of Australia, Papua New Guinea, Guam and Solomon Islands. Native to Australia, New Guinea and proximate islands are birds of paradise,
honeyeater
The honeyeaters are a large and diverse family (biology), family, Meliphagidae, of small to medium-sized birds. The family includes the Epthianura, Australian chats, myzomelas, friarbirds, wattlebirds, Manorina, miners and melidectes. They are ...
s,
Australasian treecreeper
There are seven species of Australasian treecreeper in the passerine bird family Climacteridae. They are medium-small, mostly brown birds with patterning on their underparts, and all are endemic to Australia-New Guinea. They resemble, but are no ...
butcherbird
Butcherbirds are songbirds closely related to the Australian magpie. Most are found in the genus '' Cracticus'', but the black butcherbird is placed in the monotypic genus '' Melloria''. They are native to Australasia.
Taxonomy
Together with th ...
s, and
bowerbird
Bowerbirds () make up the bird family Ptilonorhynchidae. They are renowned for their unique courtship behaviour, where males build a structure and decorate it with sticks and brightly coloured objects in an attempt to attract a mate.
The family ...
s.
A unique feature of Australia's fauna is the relative scarcity of native placental mammals, and dominance of the
marsupial
Marsupials are any members of the mammalian infraclass Marsupialia. All extant marsupials are endemic to Australasia, Wallacea and the Americas. A distinctive characteristic common to most of these species is that the young are carried in a po ...
s – a group of mammals that raise their young in a pouch, including the macropods,
possums
Possum may refer to:
Animals
* Phalangeriformes, or possums, any of a number of arboreal marsupial species native to Australia, New Guinea, and Sulawesi
** Common brushtail possum (''Trichosurus vulpecula''), a common possum in Australian urban a ...
passerine
A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by t ...
s of Australia, also known as songbirds or perching birds, include
wren
Wrens are a family of brown passerine birds in the predominantly New World family Troglodytidae. The family includes 88 species divided into 19 genera. Only the Eurasian wren occurs in the Old World, where, in Anglophone regions, it is commonly ...
pardalote
Pardalotes or peep-wrens are a family, Pardalotidae, of very small, brightly coloured birds native to Australia, with short tails, strong legs, and stubby blunt beaks. This family is composed of four species in one genus, ''Pardalotus'', and seve ...
pied currawong
The pied currawong (''Strepera graculina'') is a black passerine bird native to eastern Australia and Lord Howe Island. One of three currawong species in the genus ''Strepera'', it is closely related to the butcherbirds and Australian magpie of ...
,
crested pigeon
The crested pigeon (''Ocyphaps lophotes'') is a bird found widely throughout mainland Australia except for the far northern tropical areas. Only two Australian pigeon species possess an erect crest, the crested pigeon and the spinifex pigeon. The ...
koala
The koala or, inaccurately, koala bear (''Phascolarctos cinereus''), is an arboreal herbivorous marsupial native to Australia. It is the only extant representative of the family Phascolarctidae and its closest living relatives are the womb ...
,
emu
The emu () (''Dromaius novaehollandiae'') is the second-tallest living bird after its ratite relative the ostrich. It is endemic to Australia where it is the largest native bird and the only extant member of the genus ''Dromaius''. The emu' ...
,
platypus
The platypus (''Ornithorhynchus anatinus''), sometimes referred to as the duck-billed platypus, is a semiaquatic, egg-laying mammal Endemic (ecology), endemic to Eastern states of Australia, eastern Australia, including Tasmania. The platypu ...
and
kangaroo
Kangaroos are four marsupials from the family Macropodidae (macropods, meaning "large foot"). In common use the term is used to describe the largest species from this family, the red kangaroo, as well as the antilopine kangaroo, eastern gre ...
are
national animals
This is a list of countries that have officially designated one or more animals as their national animals.
National animal
{, class="wikitable sortable"
! Country
! Name of animal
! Scientific name (Latin name)
! class="unsortable", Picture
...
of Australia, and the
Tasmanian devil
The Tasmanian devil (''Sarcophilus harrisii'') (palawa kani: purinina) is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae. Until recently, it was only found on the island state of Tasmania, but it has been reintroduced to New South Wales in ...
is also one of the well-known animals in the country. The goanna is a
predatory
Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...
lizard native to the Australian mainland.
The birds of New Zealand evolved into an avifauna that included a large number of
endemic
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsew ...
species. As an island archipelago New Zealand accumulated bird diversity and when Captain James Cook arrived in the 1770s he noted that the
bird song
Bird vocalization includes both bird calls and bird songs. In non-technical use, bird songs are the bird sounds that are melodious to the human ear. In ornithology and birding, songs (relatively complex vocalizations) are distinguished by func ...
was deafening. The mix includes species with unusual biology such as the kākāpō which is the world's only flightless, nocturnal, lek-breeding parrot, but also many species that are similar to neighboring land areas. Some of the more well known and distinctive bird species in New Zealand are the
kiwi
Kiwi most commonly refers to:
* Kiwi (bird), a flightless bird native to New Zealand
* Kiwi (nickname), a nickname for New Zealanders
* Kiwifruit, an edible berry
* Kiwi dollar or New Zealand dollar, a unit of currency
Kiwi or KIWI may also refe ...
,
kea
The kea (; ; ''Nestor notabilis'') is a species of large parrot in the family Nestoridae found in the forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand. About long, it is mostly olive-green with a brilliant orange under its wings ...
,
takahē
The South Island takahē (''Porphyrio hochstetteri'') is a flightless swamphen indigenous to New Zealand and the largest living member of the rail family. It is often known by the abbreviated name takahē, which it shares with the recently ...
, kakapo,
mohua Mohua may refer to:
*Golden Bay / Mohua, a bay at the northwest end of New Zealand's South Island
*Yellowhead (bird) or mohua, a small bird endemic to the South Island of New Zealand
*The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs
The Ministry of Hou ...
tuatara
Tuatara (''Sphenodon punctatus'') are reptiles endemic to New Zealand. Despite their close resemblance to lizards, they are part of a distinct lineage, the order Rhynchocephalia. The name ''tuatara'' is derived from the Māori language and m ...
is a notable
reptile
Reptiles, as most commonly defined are the animals in the class Reptilia ( ), a paraphyletic grouping comprising all sauropsids except birds. Living reptiles comprise turtles, crocodilians, squamates (lizards and snakes) and rhynchocephalians ( ...
endemic to New Zealand.
Climate
The Pacific Islands are ruled by a
tropical rainforest
Tropical rainforests are rainforests that occur in areas of tropical rainforest climate in which there is no dry season – all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm – and may also be referred to as ''lowland equatori ...
and
tropical savanna climate
Tropical savanna climate or tropical wet and dry climate is a tropical climate sub-type that corresponds to the Köppen climate classification categories ''Aw'' (for a dry winter) and ''As'' (for a dry summer). The driest month has less than of p ...
. In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the
El Niño Southern Oscillation
EL, El or el may refer to:
Religion
* El (deity), a Semitic word for "God"
People
* EL (rapper) (born 1983), stage name of Elorm Adablah, a Ghanaian rapper and sound engineer
* El DeBarge, music artist
* El Franco Lee (1949–2016), American po ...
(ENSO) affects weather conditions. In the tropical western Pacific, the
monsoon
A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscil ...
and the related
wet season
The wet season (sometimes called the Rainy season) is the time of year when most of a region's average annual rainfall occurs. It is the time of year where the majority of a country's or region's annual precipitation occurs. Generally, the sea ...
during the summer months contrast with dry winds in the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian landmass. November is the only month in which all the
tropical cyclone basins
Traditionally, areas of tropical cyclone formation are divided into seven basins. These include the north Atlantic Ocean, the eastern and western parts of the northern Pacific Ocean, the southwestern Pacific, the southwestern and southeastern Ind ...
are active.
To the southwest of the region, in the Australian landmass, the climate is mostly desert or semi-arid, with the southern coastal corners having a
temperate
In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (23.5° to 66.5° N/S of Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout t ...
climate, such as
oceanic
Oceanic may refer to:
*Of or relating to the ocean
*Of or relating to Oceania
**Oceanic climate
**Oceanic languages
**Oceanic person or people, also called "Pacific Islander(s)"
Places
* Oceanic, British Columbia, a settlement on Smith Island, ...
Mediterranean climate
A Mediterranean climate (also called a dry summer temperate climate ''Cs'') is a temperate climate sub-type, generally characterized by warm, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters; these weather conditions are typically experienced in the ...
in the west. The northern parts of the country have a tropical climate. Snow falls frequently on the highlands near the east coast, in the states of Victoria,
New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
,
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
and in the
Australian Capital Territory
The Australian Capital Territory (commonly abbreviated as ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a landlocked federal territory of Australia containing the national capital Canberra and some surrounding townships. ...
.
Most regions of New Zealand belong to the temperate zone with a maritime climate (
Köppen climate classification
The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notabl ...
: Cfb) characterised by four distinct seasons. Conditions vary from extremely wet on the
West Coast West Coast or west coast may refer to:
Geography Australia
* Western Australia
*Regions of South Australia#Weather forecasting, West Coast of South Australia
* West Coast, Tasmania
**West Coast Range, mountain range in the region
Canada
* Britis ...
of the
South Island
The South Island, also officially named , is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman ...
Central Otago
Central Otago is located in the inland part of the Otago region in the South Island of New Zealand. The motto for the area is "A World of Difference".
The area is dominated by mountain ranges and the upper reaches of the Clutha River and tributa ...
and
subtropical
The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical zone, geographical and Köppen climate classification, climate zones to the Northern Hemisphere, north and Southern Hemisphere, south of the tropics. Geographically part of the Geographical z ...
South Island
The South Island, also officially named , is the larger of the two major islands of New Zealand in surface area, the other being the smaller but more populous North Island. It is bordered to the north by Cook Strait, to the west by the Tasman ...
and at higher altitudes in the
North Island
The North Island, also officially named Te Ika-a-Māui, is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but much less populous South Island by the Cook Strait. The island's area is , making it the world's 14th-largest ...
. It is extremely rare at sea level in the North Island.
Hawaii, although being in the
tropic
The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in
the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
s, experiences many different climates, depending on latitude and its geography. The island of Hawaii for example hosts 4 (out of 5 in total) climate groups on a surface as small as according to the Köppen climate types: tropical, arid, temperate and polar. The Hawaiian Islands receive most of their precipitation during the winter months (October to April). A few islands in the northwest, such as
Guam
Guam (; ch, Guåhan ) is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States in the Micronesia subregion of the western Pacific Ocean. It is the westernmost point and territory of the United States (reckoned from the geographic cent ...
, are susceptible to
typhoon
A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops between 180° and 100°E in the Northern Hemisphere. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin, and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, accounting for a ...
s in the wet season.
The highest recorded temperature in Oceania occurred in Oodnadatta, South Australia (2 January 1960), where the temperature reached . The lowest temperature ever recorded in Oceania was , at Ranfurly in Otago in 1903, with a more recent temperature of recorded in 1995 in nearby Ophir.
Pohnpei
Pohnpei "upon (''pohn'') a stone altar (''pei'')" (formerly known as Ponape or Ascension, Proto-Chuukic-Pohnpeic: ''*Fawo ni pei)'' is an island of the Senyavin Islands which are part of the larger Caroline Islands group. It belongs to Pohnpei ...
of the
Senyavin Islands
The Senyavin Islands belong to the Federated States of Micronesia. They consist of a larger volcanic Pohnpei Island (about 334 km2) and two small atolls Ant and Pakin.
History
On Pohnpei, pre-colonial history is divided into three eras: ...
in
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
is the wettest settlement in Oceania, and one of the wettest places on earth, with annual recorded rainfall exceeding each year in certain mountainous locations.The Big Bog on the island of Maui is the wettest place, receiving an average each year.
Demographics
The linked map below shows the exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of the islands of Oceania and neighbouring areas, as a guide to the following table (there are few land boundaries that can be drawn on a map of the Pacific at this scale).
The demographic table below shows the subregions and countries of geopolitical Oceania. The countries and territories in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations. The information shown follows sources in cross-referenced articles; where sources differ, provisos have been clearly indicated. These territories and regions are subject to various additional categorisations, depending on the source and purpose of each description.
! style="text-align:right;" , 16.6
Largest city for regions
*
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
(metro, urban or proper largest city:
Sydney
Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
)
*
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
(metro, urban or proper largest city:
Port Moresby
(; Tok Pisin: ''Pot Mosbi''), also referred to as Pom City or simply Moresby, is the capital and largest city of Papua New Guinea. It is one of the largest cities in the southwestern Pacific (along with Jayapura) outside of Australia and New Z ...
)
*
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
(metro, urban or proper largest city:
Tarawa
Tarawa is an atoll and the capital of the Republic of Kiribati,Kiribati ''
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
(metro, urban or proper largest city:
Auckland
Auckland (pronounced ) ( mi, Tāmaki Makaurau) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. The List of New Zealand urban areas by population, most populous urban area in the country and the List of cities in Oceania by po ...
)
Cities by metropolitan area
Religion
The predominant religion in Oceania is
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
(73%). A 2011 survey found that 92% in
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
, 93% in
Micronesia
Micronesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of about 2,000 small islands in the western Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: the Philippines to the west, Polynesia to the east, and ...
and 96% in
Polynesia
Polynesia () "many" and νῆσος () "island"), to, Polinisia; mi, Porinihia; haw, Polenekia; fj, Polinisia; sm, Polenisia; rar, Porinetia; ty, Pōrīnetia; tvl, Polenisia; tkl, Polenihia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of ...
described themselves as
Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
. Traditional religions are often
animist
Animism (from Latin: ' meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Potentially, animism perceives all things—Animal, animals, Plant, plants, Ro ...
, and prevalent among traditional tribes is the belief in spirits (''masalai'' in
Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin (,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh ; Tok Pisin ), often referred to by English speakers as "New Guinea Pidgin" or simply Pidgin, is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an ...
) representing natural forces. In the 2018 census, 37% of New Zealanders affiliated themselves with Christianity and 48% declared no religion. In the 2016 Census, 52% of the Australian population declared some variety of Christianity and 30% stated "no religion".
In recent Australian and New Zealand censuses, large proportions of the population say they belong to " no religion" (which includes
atheism
Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no d ...
,
agnosticism
Agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of God, of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable. (page 56 in 1967 edition) Another definition provided is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient ...
,
deism
Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin ''deus'', meaning "god") is the Philosophy, philosophical position and Rationalism, rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that Empirical evi ...
,
secular humanism
Secular humanism is a philosophy, belief system or life stance that embraces human reason, secular ethics, and philosophical naturalism while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism, and superstition as the basis of morality an ...
). In
Tonga
Tonga (, ; ), officially the Kingdom of Tonga ( to, Puleʻanga Fakatuʻi ʻo Tonga), is a Polynesian country and archipelago. The country has 171 islands – of which 45 are inhabited. Its total surface area is about , scattered over in ...
, everyday life is heavily influenced by Polynesian traditions and especially by the Christian faith. The Ahmadiyya mosque in Marshall Islands is the only mosque in Micronesia. Another one in
Tuvalu
Tuvalu ( or ; formerly known as the Ellice Islands) is an island country and microstate in the Polynesian subregion of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. Its islands are situated about midway between Hawaii and Australia. They lie east-northeast ...
belongs to the same sect. The
Baháʼí House of Worship
A Baháʼí House of Worship or Baháʼí temple is a place of worship of the Baháʼí Faith. It is also referred to by the name ''Mashriqu'l-Adhkár'', which is Arabic for "Dawning-place of the remembrance of God". Baháʼí Houses of Worship ...
in Tiapapata,
Samoa
Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa; sm, Sāmoa, and until 1997 known as Western Samoa, is a Polynesian island country consisting of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu); two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono Island, Manono an ...
, is one of seven designations administered in the
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, essential worth of all religions and Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, the unity of all people. Established by ...
.
Other religions in the region include
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
,
Buddhism
Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and gra ...
and
Hinduism
Hinduism () is an Indian religion or '' dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global p ...
, which are prominent
minority religion
A minority religion is a religion held by a minority of the population of a country, state, or region. Minority religions may be subject to stigma or discrimination. An example of a stigma is using the term cult with its extremely negative conn ...
s in Australia and New Zealand.
Judaism
Judaism ( he, ''Yahăḏūṯ'') is an Abrahamic, monotheistic, and ethnic religion comprising the collective religious, cultural, and legal tradition and civilization of the Jewish people. It has its roots as an organized religion in the ...
,
Sikhism
Sikhism (), also known as Sikhi ( pa, ਸਿੱਖੀ ', , from pa, ਸਿੱਖ, lit=disciple', 'seeker', or 'learner, translit=Sikh, label=none),''Sikhism'' (commonly known as ''Sikhī'') originated from the word ''Sikh'', which comes fro ...
and
Jainism
Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current ...
British Empire
The British Empire was composed of the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts esta ...
Yaohnanen
Yaohnanen, also spelled Ionhanen,Brian J. Bresniha and Keith Woodward, ed. ''Tufala Gavman - Reminiscences from the Anglo-French Condominium of the New Hebrides'', Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, 2002, p. 498 ...
Vanuatu
Vanuatu ( or ; ), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (french: link=no, République de Vanuatu; bi, Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is east of no ...
.
Languages
Native languages of Oceania fall into three major geographic groups:
* The large Austronesian
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in hist ...
, with such languages as
Malay
Malay may refer to:
Languages
* Malay language or Bahasa Melayu, a major Austronesian language spoken in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore
** History of the Malay language, the Malay language from the 4th to the 14th century
** Indonesi ...
(Indonesian), and
Oceanic languages
The approximately 450 Oceanic languages are a branch of the Austronesian languages. The area occupied by speakers of these languages includes Polynesia, as well as much of Melanesia and Micronesia. Though covering a vast area, Oceanic languages ...
such as
Gilbertese
Gilbertese or taetae ni Kiribati, also Kiribati (sometimes ''Kiribatese''), is an Austronesian language spoken mainly in Kiribati. It belongs to the Micronesian branch of the Oceanic languages.
The word ''Kiribati'', the current name of the i ...
Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
and neighbouring islands, including the large Trans–New Guinea family
Colonial languages include
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
in Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, and many other territories;
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
in
New Caledonia
)
, anthem = ""
, image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of New Caledonia
, map_caption = Location of New Caledonia
, mapsize = 290px
, subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...
,
French Polynesia
)Territorial motto: ( en, "Great Tahiti of the Golden Haze")
, anthem =
, song_type = Regional anthem
, song = " Ia Ora 'O Tahiti Nui"
, image_map = French Polynesia on the globe (French Polynesia centered).svg
, map_alt = Location of Frenc ...
,
Wallis and Futuna
Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (; french: Wallis-et-Futuna or ', Fakauvea and Fakafutuna: '), is a French island collectivity in the South Pacific, situated between Tuvalu to the northwest, Fiji ...
; Japanese in the
Bonin Islands
The Bonin Islands, also known as the , are an archipelago of over 30 subtropical and tropical islands, some directly south of Tokyo, Japan and northwest of Guam. The name "Bonin Islands" comes from the Japanese word ''bunin'' (an archaic readi ...
Easter Island
Easter Island ( rap, Rapa Nui; es, Isla de Pascua) is an island and special territory of Chile in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, at the southeasternmost point of the Polynesian Triangle in Oceania. The island is most famous for its nearl ...
and the
Galápagos Islands
The Galápagos Islands (Spanish: , , ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands. They are distributed on each side of the equator in the Pacific Ocean, surrounding the centre of the Western Hemisphere, and are part of the Republic of Ecuador ...
. There are also Creoles formed from the interaction of Malay or the colonial languages with indigenous languages, such as
Tok Pisin
Tok Pisin (,Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh ; Tok Pisin ), often referred to by English speakers as "New Guinea Pidgin" or simply Pidgin, is a creole language spoken throughout Papua New Guinea. It is an ...
,
Bislama
Bislama (; ; also known by its earlier French name, ) is an English-based creole language and one of the official languages of Vanuatu. It is the first language of many of the "Urban ni-Vanuatu" (citizens who live in Port Vila and Luganville) ...
,
Chavacano
Chavacano or Chabacano is a group of Spanish-based creole language varieties spoken in the Philippines. The variety spoken in Zamboanga City, located in the southern Philippine island group of Mindanao, has the highest concentration of speakers. ...
, various
Malay trade and creole languages
In addition to its classical and literary form, Malay had various regional dialects established after the rise of the Srivijaya empire in Sumatra, Indonesia. Also, Malay spread through interethnic contact and trade across the Malay Archipela ...
, Hawaiian Pidgin, Norfuk, and Pitkern. Contact between Austronesian and Papuan resulted in several instances in mixed languages such as Maisin.
Immigrants brought their own languages to the region, such as
Mandarin
Mandarin or The Mandarin may refer to:
Language
* Mandarin Chinese, branch of Chinese originally spoken in northern parts of the country
** Standard Chinese or Modern Standard Mandarin, the official language of China
** Taiwanese Mandarin, Stand ...
Cantonese
Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding are ...
and Greek, among many others, namely in Australia and New Zealand, or
Fiji Hindi
Fiji Hindi (Devanagari: ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Indo-Fijians. It is an Eastern Hindi language, considered to be a dialect of Awadhi that has also been subject to considerable influence by Bhojpuri, other Bihari dialects, and H ...
in
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
.
Immigration
The most multicultural areas in Oceania, which have a high degree of
immigration
Immigration is the international movement of people to a destination country of which they are not natives or where they do not possess citizenship in order to settle as permanent residents or naturalized citizens. Commuters, tourists, and ...
, are Australia, New Zealand, and Hawaii. Since 1945, more than 7 million people have settled in Australia. From the late 1970s, there was a significant increase in immigration from Asian and other non-European countries, making Australia a multicultural country.
Sydney is the most multicultural city in Oceania, having more than 250 different languages spoken with about 40% of residents speaking a language other than English at home. Furthermore, 36 percent of the population reported having been born overseas, with top countries being Italy, Lebanon, Vietnam and Iraq, among others.
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
is also fairly multicultural, having the largest Greek-speaking population outside of Europe, and the second largest
Asian
Asian may refer to:
* Items from or related to the continent of Asia:
** Asian people, people in or descending from Asia
** Asian culture, the culture of the people from Asia
** Asian cuisine, food based on the style of food of the people from Asi ...
population in Australia after Sydney.
European migration to New Zealand provided a major influx following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840. Subsequent immigration has been chiefly from the British Isles, but also from continental Europe, the Pacific, The Americas and Asia.
Auckland
Auckland (pronounced ) ( mi, Tāmaki Makaurau) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. The List of New Zealand urban areas by population, most populous urban area in the country and the List of cities in Oceania by po ...
is home to over half (51.6 percent) of New Zealand's overseas born population, including 72 percent of the country's Pacific Island-born population, 64 percent of its
Asian
Asian may refer to:
* Items from or related to the continent of Asia:
** Asian people, people in or descending from Asia
** Asian culture, the culture of the people from Asia
** Asian cuisine, food based on the style of food of the people from Asi ...
-born population, and 56 percent of its
Middle Eastern
The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (European ...
and African born population.
Hawaii is a
majority-minority state
A majority-minority or minority-majority area is a term used to refer to a subdivision in which one or more racial, ethnic, and/or religious minorities (relative to the whole country's population) make up a majority of the local population.
Term ...
.
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of va ...
workers on Western trading ships settled in Hawaii starting in 1789. In 1820, the first American missionaries arrived to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians Western ways. , a large proportion of Hawaii's population have Asian ancestry – especially
Filipino
Filipino may refer to:
* Something from or related to the Philippines
** Filipino language, standardized variety of 'Tagalog', the national language and one of the official languages of the Philippines.
** Filipinos, people who are citizens of th ...
, Japanese, Korean and Chinese. Many are descendants of immigrants brought to work on the sugarcane plantations in the mid-to-late 19th century. Almost 13,000 Portuguese immigrants had arrived by 1899; they also worked on the
sugarcane
Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...
plantations.
Puerto Rican immigration to Hawaii
Puerto Rican migration to Hawaii began when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes in 1899. The devastation caused a worldwide shortage in sugar and a huge demand for the product from Hawaii. Consequently, Hawaiian sugarcane ...
began in 1899 when Puerto Rico's sugar industry was devastated by two hurricanes, causing a worldwide shortage of sugar and a huge demand for sugar from Hawaii.
Between 2001 and 2007 Australia's
Pacific Solution
Pacific Solution is the name given to the Government of Australia policy of transporting asylum seekers to detention centres on island nations in the Pacific Ocean, rather than allowing them to land on the Australian mainland. Initially imple ...
policy transferred
asylum seekers
An asylum seeker is a person who leaves their country of residence, enters another country and applies for asylum (i.e., international protection) in that other country. An asylum seeker is an immigrant who has been forcibly displaced and mi ...
to several Pacific nations, including the
Nauru detention centre
The Nauru Regional Processing Centre is an offshore Australian immigration detention facility in use from 2001 to 2008, from 2012 to 2019, and from September 2021. It is located on the South Pacific island nation of Nauru and run by the Gover ...
Archaeology
Archaeology or archeology is the scientific study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, sites, and cultural landscap ...
,
linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Linguis ...
, and existing genetic studies indicate that Oceania was settled by two major waves of migration. The first migration of
Australo-Melanesians
Australo-Melanesians (also known as Australasians or the Australomelanesoid, Australoid or Australioid race) is an outdated historical grouping of various people indigenous to Melanesia and Australia. Controversially, groups from Southeast Asia an ...
took place 40 to 80 thousand years ago, and these migrants, Papuans, colonised much of
Near Oceania
Near Oceania is the part of Oceania settled 35,000 years ago, comprising Australia, New Guinea, and north-western Island Melanesia: the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands.
Prehistory
The great nineteenth-century naturalist Alfred Rus ...
. Approximately 3.5 thousand years ago, a second expansion of Austronesian speakers arrived in Near Oceania, and the descendants of these people spread to the far corners of the Pacific, colonising
Remote Oceania
Remote Oceania is the part of Oceania settled within the last 3,000 to 3,500 years, comprising south-eastern Island Melanesia and islands in the open Pacific east of the Solomon Islands: Fiji, Micronesia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Polynesia, t ...
.
Mitochondrial DNA
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA or mDNA) is the DNA located in mitochondria, cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Mitochondrial D ...
(mtDNA) studies quantify the magnitude of the
Austronesian expansion
The Austronesian peoples, sometimes referred to as Austronesian-speaking peoples, are a large group of peoples in Taiwan, Maritime Southeast Asia, Micronesia, coastal New Guinea, Island Melanesia, Polynesia, and Madagascar that speak Austron ...
and demonstrate the homogenising effect of this expansion. With regards to Papuan influence, autochthonous haplogroups support the hypothesis of a long history in Near Oceania, with some lineages suggesting a time depth of 60 thousand years. Santa Cruz, a population located in Remote Oceania, is an anomaly with extreme frequencies of autochthonous haplogroups of Near Oceanian origin.
Large areas of
New Guinea
New Guinea (; Hiri Motu
Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New Guinea, which is spoken in surrounding areas of Port Moresby (Capital of Papua New Guinea).
It is a simplified version of ...
are unexplored by scientists and
anthropologist
An anthropologist is a person engaged in the practice of anthropology. Anthropology is the study of aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology, cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology study the norms and ...
s due to extensive forestation and mountainous terrain. Known indigenous tribes in
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
have very little contact with local authorities aside from the authorities knowing who they are. Many remain preliterate and, at the national or international level, the names of tribes and information about them is extremely hard to obtain. The
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
n provinces of Papua (province), Papua and West Papua (province), West Papua on the island of New Guinea are home to an estimated 44 uncontacted peoples, uncontacted tribal groups.
Economy
Australia
Australia and New Zealand are the only highly Developed country, developed independent nations in the region, although the economy of Australia is by far the largest and most dominant economy in the region and one of the largest in the world. New Caledonia, Hawaii, and French Polynesia are highly developed too but are not sovereignty, sovereign states. Australia's per-capita GDP is List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita, higher than that of the UK, Canada, Germany, and France in terms of purchasing power parity. New Zealand is also one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade.
The Australian Securities Exchange in
Sydney
Sydney ( ) is the capital city of the state of New South Wales, and the most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Located on Australia's east coast, the metropolis surrounds Sydney Harbour and extends about towards the Blue Mountain ...
is the largest List of stock exchanges in Oceania, stock exchange in Australia and in the South Pacific. In 2012, Australia was the 12th largest national economy by nominal GDP and the 19th-largest measured by Purchasing power parity, PPP-adjusted GDP.
Mercer Quality of Living Survey ranks Sydney tenth in the world in terms of quality of living, making it one of the world's most livable cities, most livable cities. It is classified as an Alpha+ World City by Globalization and World Cities Research Network, GaWC.
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
also ranked highly in the World's Most Livable Cities, world's most liveable city list, and is a leading financial centre in the
Asia-Pacific
Asia-Pacific (APAC) is the part of the world near the western Pacific Ocean. The Asia-Pacific region varies in area depending on context, but it generally includes East Asia, Russian Far East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia and Pacific Isla ...
region.
The majority of people living in Australia work in health care, retail and education sectors. Australia boasts the largest amount of manufacturing in the region, Automotive industry in Australia, producing cars, electrical equipment, machinery and clothing industry, clothes.
New Zealand
New Zealand's Economy of New Zealand, economy is the List of countries by GDP (nominal), 53rd-largest in the world measured by nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and List of countries by GDP (PPP), 68th-largest in the world measured by purchasing power parity (PPP). A major economic and cultural powerhouse of the Southern Hemisphere, Auckland is ranked as a Beta+ world city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Auckland and Wellington are frequently ranked among the world's most liveable cities, with Auckland being ranked Global Liveability Ranking, first in the world according to the Global Liveability Ranking.
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
has a large GDP for its population of 5.2 million, and sources of revenue are spread throughout the large island nation. The country has one of the most globalised economies and depends greatly on international trade – mainly with
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
,
Canada
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...
,
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
, the European Union,
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, Singapore, South Korea and the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
. New Zealand's 1983 Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia means that the economy aligns closely with Economy of Australia, that of Australia. In 2005, the World Bank praised New Zealand as the most business-friendly country in the world. The economy diversified and by 2008, tourism had become the single biggest generator of foreign exchange. The New Zealand dollar is the 10th-most traded currency in the world. [pg.10 of PDF]
Pacific Islands
The overwhelming majority of people living in the Pacific islands work in the service industry which includes tourism, education and financial services. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States and South Korea. The smallest Pacific nations rely on trade with Australia, New Zealand and the United States for exporting goods and for accessing other products. Australia and New Zealand's trading arrangements are known as Closer Economic Relations. Australia and New Zealand, along with other countries, are members of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and the East Asia Summit (EAS), which may become trade blocs in the future particularly EAS.
The main produce from the Pacific is copra or coconut, but timber, beef, palm oil, Cocoa bean, cocoa, sugar, and ginger are also commonly grown across the tropics of the Pacific. Fishing provides a major Industry (economics), industry for many of the smaller nations in the Pacific, although many fishing areas are exploited by other larger countries, namely Japan. Natural Resources, such as lead, zinc, nickel, and gold, are mined in Australia and
Solomon Islands
Solomon Islands is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 900 smaller islands in Oceania, to the east of Papua New Guinea and north-west of Vanuatu. It has a land area of , and a population of approx. 700,000. Its capita ...
. Oceania's largest export markets include Japan, China, the United States, India, South Korea and the European Union.
Endowed with forest, mineral, and fish resources,
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economics, economies, though it remains a developing nation, developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for 18% of gross domestic product, although it employed some 70% of the workforce as of 2001. Sugar exports and the growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Coconuts, ginger, and copra are also significant.
The history of Hawaii's economy can be traced through a succession of dominant industries; sandalwood, whaling, sugarcane, pineapple, the military, tourism and education. Hawaiian exports include food and clothing. These industries play a small role in the Hawaiian economy, due to the shipping distance to viable markets, such as the West Coast of the contiguous U.S. The state's food exports include coffee, macadamia nuts, pineapple, livestock, sugarcane and honey. , Honolulu was ranked high on world livability rankings, and was also ranked as the 2nd safest city in the U.S.
Tourism
Tourists mostly come from Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States. Economy of Fiji#Tourism, Fiji currently attracts almost half a million tourists each year, more than a quarter of whom come from Australia. This has contributed $1 billion or more to Fiji's economy since 1995, but the Government of Fiji likely underestimates these figures due to the invisible economy inside the tourism industry.
Vanuatu is widely recognised as one of the premier vacation destinations for scuba divers wishing to explore
coral reef
A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.
Co ...
s of the South Pacific region. Tourism has been promoted, in part, by Vanuatu being the site of several reality-TV shows. The ninth season of the reality TV series ''Survivor (US TV series), Survivor'' was filmed on Vanuatu, entitled ''Survivor: Vanuatu – Islands of Fire''. Two years later, Australia's ''Celebrity Survivor'' was filmed at the same location used by the US version.
Tourism in Australia is an important component of the Australian economy. In the financial year 2014/15,
tourism
Tourism is travel for pleasure or business; also the theory and practice of touring (disambiguation), touring, the business of attracting, accommodating, and entertaining tourists, and the business of operating tour (disambiguation), tours. Th ...
represented 3% of
Australia
Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
's Gross domestic product, GDP contributing A$47.5 billion to the national economy. In 2015, there were 7.4 million visitor arrivals. Popular Australian destinations include the Sydney Harbour (Sydney Opera House, Sydney Harbour Bridge, Royal Botanic Garden, Sydney, Royal Botanic Garden, etc.), Gold Coast, Queensland, Gold Coast (theme parks such as Warner Bros. Movie World, Dreamworld (Australian theme park), Dreamworld and Sea World (Australia), Sea World), Walls of Jerusalem National Park and Mount Field National Park in
Tasmania
)
, nickname =
, image_map = Tasmania in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Tasmania in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdi ...
, Royal Exhibition Building in
Melbourne
Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a met ...
, the
Great Barrier Reef
The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over over an area of approximately . The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, ...
in
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
, The Twelve Apostles (Victoria), The Twelve Apostles in Victoria, Uluru (Ayers Rock) and the Australian outback.
Tourism in New Zealand contributes New Zealand dollar, NZ$7.3 billion (or 4%) of the country's gross domestic product, GDP in 2013, as well as directly supporting 110,800 full-time equivalent jobs (nearly 6% of New Zealand's workforce). International tourist spending accounted for 16% of New Zealand's export earnings (nearly NZ$10 billion). International and domestic tourism contributes, in total, NZ$24 billion to New Zealand's economy every year. Tourism New Zealand, the country's official tourism agency, is actively promoting the country as a destination worldwide. Milford Sound in South Island is acclaimed as New Zealand's most famous tourist destination.
In 2003 alone, according to state government data, there were over 6.4 million tourism in Hawaii, visitors to the Hawaiian Islands with expenditures of over $10.6 billion. Due to the mild year-round weather, tourist travel is popular throughout the year. In 2011, Hawaii saw increasing arrivals and share of foreign tourists from Canada, Australia, and China increasing 13%, 24% and 21% respectively from 2010.
Politics
Australia
Australia is a federalism, federal parliamentary system, parliamentary constitutional monarchy with Charles III at its apex as the Monarchy of Australia, King of Australia, a role that is distinct from his position as monarch of the other Commonwealth realms. The King is represented in Australia by the Governor-General of Australia, Governor-General at the federal level and by the Governors of the Australian states, Governors at the state level, who by convention act on the advice of his ministers. There are two major political groups that usually form government, federally and in the states: the Australian Labor Party and the Coalition (Australia), Coalition which is a formal grouping of the Liberal Party of Australia, Liberal Party and its minor partner, the National Party of Australia, National Party. Within Australian political culture, the Coalition is considered centre-right and the Labor Party is considered centre-left. The Australian Defence Force is by far the largest military force in Oceania.
New Zealand
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy, although Constitution of New Zealand, its constitution is Uncodified constitution, not codified. Charles III is the Monarchy of New Zealand, King of New Zealand and the head of state. The King is represented by the Governor-General of New Zealand, Governor-General, whom he appoints on the Advice (constitutional), advice of the Prime Minister of New Zealand, Prime Minister. The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the King and the New Zealand House of Representatives, House of Representatives. A Elections in New Zealand, parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election. New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states, with high government transparency and among the lowest perceived levels of corruption.
Pacific Islands
In Politics of Samoa, Samoan politics, the Prime Minister of Samoa is the head of government. The Constitution of Samoa, 1960 constitution, which formally came into force with independence from New Zealand in 1962, builds on the British pattern of parliamentary democracy, modified to take account of Samoan customs. The national government (''malo'') generally controls the Legislative Assembly of Samoa, legislative assembly. Politics of Tonga takes place in a framework of a constitutional monarchy, whereby the King of Tonga is the Head of State.
Politics of Fiji, Fiji has a multiparty system with the Prime Minister of Fiji as head of government. The Executive (government), executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Fiji.
Fiji
Fiji ( , ,; fj, Viti, ; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी, ''Fijī''), officially the Republic of Fiji, is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists ...
's Head of State of Fiji, Head of State is the President of Fiji, President. He is elected by Parliament of Fiji after nomination by the Prime Minister of Fiji, Prime Minister or the Leader of the Opposition (Fiji), Leader of the Opposition, for a three-year term.
In the politics of Papua New Guinea the List of Prime Ministers of the Papua New Guinea, Prime Minister is the head of government, and the head of state is Monarchy of the United Kingdom, the monarch of the United Kingdom, represented by a Governor-General of Papua New Guinea, Governor-General. In Politics of Kiribati, Kiribati, a Parliamentary system, Parliamentary regime, the President of Kiribati is the head of state and government, and of a multi-party system.
Politics of New Caledonia, New Caledonia remains an integral part of the French Republic. Inhabitants of New Caledonia are French citizens and carry French passports. They take part in the legislative and presidential French elections. New Caledonia sends two representatives to the French National Assembly and two senators to the French Senate.
Politics of Hawaii, Hawaii is dominated by the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party. As codified in the Constitution of Hawaii, Hawaiian Constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The governor is elected statewide. The lieutenant governor acts as the Secretary of State of Hawaii, Secretary of State. The governor and lieutenant governor oversee twenty agencies and departments from offices in the Hawaii State Capitol, State Capitol.
Culture
Australia
Since 1788, the primary influence behind Australian culture has been Anglo-Celtic Western culture, with some Indigenous Australians, Indigenous influences. The divergence and evolution that has occurred in the ensuing centuries has resulted in a distinctive Australian culture. Since the mid-20th century, Culture of the United States, American popular culture has strongly influenced Australia, particularly through television and cinema. Other cultural influences come from neighbouring Asian countries, and through large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking nations. ''The Story of the Kelly Gang'' (1906), the world's first feature length film, spurred a boom in cinema of Australia, Australian cinema during the silent film era. The Australian Museum in Sydney and the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne are the oldest and List of largest art museums, largest museums in Oceania. The city's Sydney New Year's Eve, New Year's Eve celebrations are the largest in Oceania.
Australia is also known for its Coffeehouse, cafe and coffee culture in Urban area, urban centres. Australia and
New Zealand
New Zealand ( mi, Aotearoa ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and over 700 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island count ...
were responsible for the flat white coffee. Most Indigenous Australian tribal groups subsisted on a simple hunter-gatherer diet of native fauna and flora, otherwise called bush tucker. The first settlers introduced British cuisine, British food to the continent, much of which is now considered typical Australian food, such as the Sunday roast. Multicultural immigration transformed Australian cuisine; post-World War II European migrants, particularly from the Mediterranean, helped to build a thriving Australian coffee culture, and the influence of Culture of Asia, Asian cultures has led to Australian variants of their staple foods, such as the Chinese cuisine, Chinese-inspired dim sim and Chiko Roll.
Hawaii
The music of Hawaii includes traditional and popular styles, ranging from native Hawaiian folk music to modern rock music, rock and hip hop music, hip hop. Hawaii's musical contributions to the music of the United States are out of proportion to the state's small size. Styles such as slack-key guitar are well known worldwide, while Hawaiian-tinged music is a frequent part of Cinema of the United States, Hollywood soundtracks. Hawaii also made a major contribution to country music with the introduction of the steel guitar. The Hawaiian religion is polytheistic and animistic, with a belief in many deities and spirits, including the belief that spirits are found in non-human beings and objects such as animals, the waves, and the sky.
The cuisine of Hawaii, cuisine of Hawaii is a fusion of many foods brought by immigrants to the Hawaiian Islands, including the earliest Polynesians and Native Hawaiian cuisine, native Hawaiians, and Cuisine of the United States, American, Chinese cuisine, Chinese, Filipino cuisine, Filipino, Japanese cuisine, Japanese, Korean cuisine, Korean, Polynesian cuisine, Polynesian, and Portuguese cuisine, Portuguese origins. Native Hawaiian musician and Hawaiian sovereignty activist Israel Kamakawiwoole, famous for his medley of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World", was named "The Voice of Hawaii" by NPR in 2010 in its 50 great voices series.
New Zealand
New Zealand as a culture is a Western culture, which is influenced by the cultural input of the indigenous
Māori
Māori or Maori can refer to:
Relating to the Māori people
* Māori people of New Zealand, or members of that group
* Māori language, the language of the Māori people of New Zealand
* Māori culture
* Cook Islanders, the Māori people of the C ...
and the various waves of multi-ethnic migration which followed the History of New Zealand, British colonisation of New Zealand. The Māori people constitute one of the major cultures of Polynesia. The country has been broadened by globalisation and immigration specifically from Oceania, Europe, and Asia. New Zealand marks two national days of remembrance, Waitangi Day and ANZAC Day, and also celebrates many holidays such as the Queen's Birthday, Labour Day, and Christmas Day, as well as public anniversaries of the founding dates of most regions. The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States. Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of ''kapa haka'' (song and dance) has made a resurgence. The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives, have encouraged some Film producer, producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand, including ''Avatar (2009 film), Avatar'', ''The Lord of the Rings (film series), The Lord of the Rings'', ''The Hobbit (film series), The Hobbit'', ''The Chronicles of Narnia (film series), The Chronicles of Narnia'', ''King Kong (2005 film), King Kong'' and ''The Last Samurai''.
The national cuisine has been described as
Pacific Rim
The Pacific Rim comprises the lands around the rim of the Pacific Ocean. The ''Pacific Basin'' includes the Pacific Rim and the islands in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Rim roughly overlaps with the geologic Pacific Ring of Fire.
List of co ...
, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia. New Zealand yields produce from land and sea – most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers. Distinctive ingredients or dishes include Lamb and mutton, lamb; salmon; Paranephrops, koura (crayfish); whitebait; shellfish including dredge oysters, paua, mussels, scallops, Paphies australis, pipi and tuatua; Sweet potato, kumara (sweet potato); kiwifruit; tamarillo; and Pavlova (food), pavlova (considered a national dish).
Samoa
The fa'a Samoa, or traditional Samoan way, remains a strong force in Samoan life and politics. Despite centuries of European influence, Samoa maintains its historical customs, social and political systems, and Samoan language, language. Cultural customs such as the Samoa 'ava ceremony are significant and solemn rituals at important occasions including the bestowal of ''fa'amatai, matai'' chiefly titles. Items of great cultural value include the finely woven '''ie toga''.
The Samoan word for dance is ''siva Samoa, siva'', which consists of unique gentle movements of the body in time to music and which tell a story. Samoan male dances can be more snappy. The ''sasa (dance), sasa'' is also a traditional dance where rows of dancers perform rapid synchronization, synchronised movements in time to the rhythm of wooden drums ''(pate (musical instrument), pate)'' or rolled mats. Another dance performed by males is called the ''fa'ataupati'' or the slap dance, creating rhythmic sounds by slapping different parts of the body. As with other Polynesian cultures (Hawaiian culture, Hawaiian, Tahitians, Tahitian and Māori culture, Māori) with significant and unique tattoos, Samoans have two gender specific and culturally significant tattoos.
Arts
The artistic creations of native Oceanians varies greatly throughout the cultures and regions. The subject matter typically carries themes of fertility or the supernatural.
Petroglyphs, tattooing, painting, wood carving, stone carving, and textile work are other common art forms. Art of Oceania properly encompasses the artistic traditions of the people indigenous to Australia and the Pacific Islands. These early peoples lacked a writing system, and made works on perishable materials, so few records of them exist from this time.
Indigenous Australian
rock art
In archaeology, rock art is human-made markings placed on natural surfaces, typically vertical stone surfaces. A high proportion of surviving historic and prehistoric rock art is found in caves or partly enclosed rock shelters; this type also ...
is the oldest and richest unbroken tradition of art in the world, dating as far back as 60,000 years and spread across hundreds of thousands of sites. These rock paintings served several functions. Some were used in magic, others to increase animal populations for hunting, while some were simply for amusement. Sculpture in Oceania first appears on New Guinea as a series of stone figures found throughout the island, but mostly in mountainous highlands. Establishing a chronological timeframe for these pieces in most cases is difficult, but one has been dated to 1500 BCE.
By 1500 BCE the
Lapita
The Lapita culture is the name given to a Neolithic Austronesian people and their material culture, who settled Island Melanesia via a seaborne migration at around 1600 to 500 BCE. They are believed to have originated from the northern Philipp ...
culture, descendants of the second wave, would begin to expand and spread into the more remote islands. At around the same time, art began to appear in New Guinea, including the earliest examples of sculpture in Oceania. Beginning 1100 CE, the people of Easter Island would begin construction of nearly 900 moai (large stone statues). At 1200 CE, the people of Pohnpei, a Micronesian island, would embark on another megalithic construction, building Nan Madol, a city of artificial islands and a system of canals. Hawaiian art includes wood carvings, feather work, petroglyphs, bark cloth (called kapa in Hawaiian and Tapa cloth, tapa elsewhere in the Pacific), and tattoos. Native Hawaiians had neither metal nor woven cloth.
Sport
Rugby union is one of the region's most prominent sports, and is the national sport of New Zealand, Samoa, Fiji and Tonga. The most popular overall sport in Australia is cricket, with their Australia national cricket team, national team having won the Cricket World Cup a record five times. The most popular sport among Australian women is netball, while Australian rules football garners the highest spectatorship numbers and television ratings. Rugby union is the most popular sport among New Zealanders, and they are tied with South Africa for the most Rugby World Cup titles, having won the tournament three times. Australia's team Australia national rugby union team, the Wallabies have also managed to win the World Cup twice, despite Rugby union being less popular among Australians. In Papua New Guinea, the most popular sport is Rugby league. Fiji national rugby sevens team, Fiji's sevens team is one of the most successful in the world, as is New Zealand national rugby sevens team, New Zealand's.
Australian rules football is the national sport in Australian rules football in Nauru, Nauru. It has a large following in Papua New Guinea, where it is the second most popular sport after Rugby League. Additionally, it attracts significant attention across New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. The highest level of the sport is the Australian Football League (AFL), which was the fourth best attended sporting league in the world during the 2010s.
Football in Vanuatu, Vanuatu is the only country in Oceania to call association football its national sport. However, it is also the most popular sport in Football in Kiribati, Kiribati, Football in Solomon Islands, Solomon Islands and Football in Tuvalu, Tuvalu, and has a significant (and growing) popularity in Soccer in Australia, Australia. In 2006 Australia left the
Oceania Football Confederation
The Oceania Football Confederation (OFC) is one of the six continental confederations of international association football. The OFC has 13 members, 11 of which are full members and two which are associate members not affiliated with FIFA. It ...
(OFC) for the
Asian Football Confederation
The Asian Football Confederation is the governing body of association football, beach soccer, and futsal in some countries/territories in Asia and Oceania. It has 47 member countries most of which are located in Asia. Australia, formerly in ...
(AFC), and their men's team Australia men's national soccer team, the Socceroos have qualified for every subsequent FIFA World Cup as an Asian entrant. The sole Micronesian country with membership in the OFC is Kiribati, although they are not recognized by FIFA like the other OFC members. Federated States of Micronesia national football team, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, Nauru and Palau national football team, Palau all have no presence, primarily due to lack of infrastructure and logistical difficulties related to Micronesia's remoteness. Like Australia, the Micronesian dependent territories of Guam national football team, Guam and Northern Mariana Islands national football team, Northern Mariana Islands currently compete in the AFC instead of the OFC. The OFC was dominated by Australia for many years, and became known for one-sided results. These included a Australia 31–0 American Samoa, 31–0 defeat of American Samoa national football team, American Samoa by Australia in 2001, which remains the biggest international victory in the history of the sport. It broke the previous record set two days earlier when Australia Tonga 0–22 Australia, defeated Tonga 22–0.
Australians view sport as an important part of their cultural identity, and the country performs well on the international stage, despite having a relatively small population. They have hosted two Summer Olympics: 1956 Summer Olympics, Melbourne 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, Sydney 2000, and the city of Brisbane is also set to host the 2032 Summer Olympics, 2032 edition. Australia (and New Zealand) were among the small handful of non-communism, communist countries who decided to participate at 1980 Summer Olympics, Moscow 1980. Additionally, Australia has hosted five editions of the Commonwealth Games (1938 British Empire Games, Sydney 1938, 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games, Perth 1962, 1982 Commonwealth Games, Brisbane 1982, 2006 Commonwealth Games, Melbourne 2006, 2018 Commonwealth Games, Gold Coast 2018). Meanwhile, New Zealand has hosted the Commonwealth Games three times: 1950 British Empire Games, Auckland 1950, 1974 British Commonwealth Games, Christchurch 1974 and 1990 Commonwealth Games, Auckland 1990. The Pacific Games (formerly known as the South Pacific Games) is a multi-sport event, much like the Olympics on a much smaller scale, with participation exclusively from countries around the Pacific. It is held every four years and began in 1963.
Australia and New Zealand competed in the games for the first time in 2015.
Melbourne hosts the Australian Open every year, considered one of the four major Grand Slam (tennis), Grand Slam tournaments in tennis. It was held for the first time in 1905.
See also
*
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
* Europeans in Oceania
* Festival of Pacific Arts
* Flags of Oceania
* Indigenous peoples of Oceania
*
Insular Chile
Insular Chile, also called ''Las islas Esporádicas'', or "the Sporadic Islands", is a scattered group of oceanic islands of volcanic origin located in the South Pacific, at some distance from mainland Chile, and which are under the sovereig ...
* List of cities in Oceania
* Oceania (journal)
* Oceanic cuisine
* Pacific Islander
* Pacific Union
* The Pacific Community
* United Nations geoscheme for Oceania
References
{{Reflist, refs=
{{cite web , title=United Nations Statistics Division – National Accounts , url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/resQuery.asp , website=unstats.un.org , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2018-09-09 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909073924/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/resQuery.asp , url-status=live {{Citation , last=Wells , first=John C. , title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary , year=2008 , edition=3rd , publisher=Longman , isbn=9781405881180{{cite web , title=Australia: World Audit Democracy Profile , url=http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213032213/http://www.worldaudit.org/countries/australia.htm , archive-date=13 December 2007 , access-date=5 January 2008 , website=WorldAudit.org{{cite web , date=2016 , title=Rankings on Economic Freedom , url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking , access-date=30 November 2016 , publisher=The Heritage Foundation , archive-date=16 September 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170916153902/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking , url-status=live {{cite web , date=24 May 2011 , title=Kiribati: 2011 Article IV Consultation-Staff Report, Informational Annexes, Debt Sustainability Analysis, Public Information Notice on the Executive Board Discussion, and Statement by the Executive Director for Kiribati , url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 , access-date=10 September 2011 , publisher=International Monetary Fund Country Report No. 11/113 , archive-date=24 December 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224064230/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=24871.0 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=2011 Human Development Report: Pacific Islands' progress jeopardized by inequalities and environmental threats , url=http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2011/11/03/2011-human-development-report-pacific-islands-progress-jeopardized-by-inequalities-and-environmental-threats.html./ , access-date=27 March 2018 , website=UNDP , archive-date=21 December 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221025948/http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/pressreleases/2011/11/03/2011-human-development-report-pacific-islands-progress-jeopardized-by-inequalities-and-environmental-threats.html./ , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Fast facts about Australia , url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030820155859/http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/island_continent.html , archive-date=20 August 2003 , access-date=30 August 2010{{cite web , title=Secret Instructions to Captain Cook, 30 June 1768 , url=http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf , access-date=3 September 2011 , publisher=National Archives of Australia , archive-date=15 August 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815042109/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/resources/transcripts/nsw1_doc_1768.pdf , url-status=live "Oceanic art", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2006.MacKay (1864, 1885) ''Elements of Modern Geography'', p. 283{{Cite book , last=Drage , first=Jean , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC , title=New Politics in the South pacific , publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific , year=1994 , isbn=978-982-02-0115-6 , page=162 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2020-07-28 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032044/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUpmpeJz-8gC , url-status=live {{OED, Oceania{{Cite book , last=Lyons , first=Paul , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-2V_AgAAQBAJ , title=American Pacificism: Oceania in the U.S. Imagination , date=2006 , isbn=9781134264155 , page=30 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2020-07-28 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032053/https://books.google.com/books?id=-2V_AgAAQBAJ , url-status=live {{Cite book , last1=Lewis , first1=Martin W. , url=https://archive.org/details/mythcontinentscr00lewi , title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography , last2=Kären E. Wigen , publisher=University of California Press , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-520-20742-4 , location=Berkeley , pag 32 , quote=Interestingly enough, the answer [from a scholar who sought to calculate the number of continents] conformed almost precisely to the conventional list: North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Oceania (Australia plus New Zealand), Africa, and Antarctica. , url-access=limited{{Cite journal , last1=Rasmussen , first1=Morten , last2=Guo , first2=Xiaosen , last3=Wang , first3=Yong , last4=Lohmueller , first4=Kirk E. , last5=Rasmussen , first5=Simon , last6=Albrechtsen , first6=Anders , last7=Skotte , first7=Line , last8=Lindgreen , first8=Stinus , last9=Metspalu , first9=Mait , last10=Jombart , first10=Thibaut , last11=Kivisild , first11=Toomas , date=7 October 2011 , title=An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia , journal=Science , volume=334 , issue=6052 , pages=94–98 , bibcode=2011Sci...334...94R , doi=10.1126/science.1211177 , pmc=3991479 , pmid=21940856 , first12=Weiwei , last12=Zhai , first13=Anders , last13=Eriksson , first14=Andrea , last14=Manica , first15=Ludovic , last15=Orlando , first16=Francisco M. De La , last16=Vega , first17=Silvana , last17=Tridico , first18=Ene , last18=Metspalu , first19=Kasper , last19=Nielsen , first20=María C. , last20=Ávila-Arcos , first21=J. Víctor , last21=Moreno-Mayar , first22=Craig , last22=Muller , first23=Joe , last23=Dortch , first24=M. Thomas P. , last24=Gilbert , first25=Ole , last25=Lund , first26=Agata , last26=Wesolowska , first27=Monika , last27=Karmin , first28=Lucy A. , last28=Weinert , first29=Bo , last29=Wang , first30=Jun , last30=Li , first31=Shuaishuai , last31=Tai , first32=Fei , last32=Xiao , first33=Tsunehiko , last33=Hanihara , first34=George van , last34=Driem , first35=Aashish R. , last35=Jha , first36=François-Xavier , last36=Ricaut , first37=Peter de , last37=Knijff , first38=Andrea B. , last38=Migliano , first39=Irene Gallego , last39=Romero , first40=Karsten , last40=Kristiansen , first41=David M. , last41=Lambert , first42=Søren , last42=Brunak , first43=Peter , last43=Forster , first44=Bernd , last44=Brinkmann , first45=Olaf , last45=Nehlich , first46=Michael , last46=Bunce , first47=Michael , last47=Richards , first48=Ramneek , last48=Gupta , first49=Carlos D. , last49=Bustamante , first50=Anders , last50=Krogh , first51=Robert A. , last51=Foley , first52=Marta M. , last52=Lahr , author-link53=Francois Balloux , first53=Francois , last53=Balloux , first54=Thomas , last54=Sicheritz-Pontén , first55=Richard , last55=Villems , first56=Rasmus , last56=Nielsen , first57=Jun , last57=Wang , first58=Eske , last58=Willerslev{{cite web , title=Sequencing Uncovers a 9,000 Mile Walkabout , url=https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf , website=illumina.com , quote=A lock of hair and the HiSeq 2000 system identify a human migration wave that took more than 3,000 generations and 10,000 years to complete. , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2020-04-30 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430044039/https://www.illumina.com/documents/icommunity/article_2012_04_Aboriginal_Genome.pdf , url-status=live "Aboriginal Australians descend from the first humans to leave Africa, DNA sequence reveals" {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006103055/http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/newsandeventspggrp/imperialcollege/newssummary/news_23-9-2011-10-41-8 , date=2014-10-06 , ''Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC)''.{{cite web , title=About Australia: Our Country , url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country , publisher=Australian Government , quote=Australia's first inhabitants, the Aboriginal people, are believed to have migrated from some unknown point in Asia to Australia between 50,000 and 60,000 years ago. , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2012-02-27 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227080043/http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country , url-status=live Jared Diamond. (1997). ''Guns, Germs, and Steel''. Random House. London. pp. 314–316Mulvaney, J. and Kamminga, J., (1999), ''Prehistory of Australia''. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.{{cite book , last1=Lourandos , first1=Harry , title=Continent of Hunter-Gatherers: New Perspectives in Australian Prehistory , date=1997 , publisher=Cambridge University Press , isbn=978-0-521-35946-7 , page=81 , url={{Google books, tTy-I8no1MwC, page=81, plainurl=yes "When did Australia's earliest inhabitants arrive?" {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329145442/http://media.uow.edu.au/news/2004/0917a/index.html , date=2012-03-29 , ''University of Wollongong'', 2004. Retrieved 6 June 2008.{{Cite journal , vauthors=Barbetti M, Allen H , year=1972 , title=Prehistoric man at Lake Mungo, Australia, by 32,000 years BP , journal=Nature , volume=240 , issue=5375 , pages=46–48 , bibcode=1972Natur.240...46B , doi=10.1038/240046a0 , pmid=4570638 , s2cid=4298103{{Cite journal , last1=Dunn , first1=Michael , last2=Terrill , first2=Angela , last3=Reesink , first3=Ger , last4=Foley , first4=Robert A. , last5=Levinson , first5=Stephen C. , date=23 September 2005 , title=Structural phylogenetics and the reconstruction of ancient language history , journal=Science , volume=309 , issue=5743 , pages=2072–2075 , bibcode=2005Sci...309.2072D , doi=10.1126/science.1114615 , pmid=16179483 , hdl-access=free , hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1B84-E , s2cid=2963726{{Cite book , last=Spriggs, Matthew , title=The Island Melanesians , publisher=Blackwell , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-631-16727-3{{Cite journal , last1=Hage , first1=P. , last2=Marck , first2=J. , year=2003 , title=Matrilineality and Melanesian Origin of Polynesian Y Chromosomes , journal=Current Anthropology , volume=44 , issue=S5 , pages=S121 , doi=10.1086/379272, s2cid=224791767 {{Cite journal , last1=Kayser , first1=M. , last2=Brauer , first2=S. , last3=Cordaux , first3=R. , last4=Casto , first4=A. , last5=Lao , first5=O. , last6=Zhivotovsky , first6=L.A. , last7=Moyse-Faurie , first7=C. , last8=Rutledge , first8=R.B. , last9=Schiefenhoevel , first9=W. , last10=Gil , first10=D , last11=Lin , first11=A.A. , display-authors=8 , year=2006 , title=Melanesian and Asian origins of Polynesians: mtDNA and Y chromosome gradients across the Pacific , journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution , volume=23 , issue=11 , pages=2234–2244 , doi=10.1093/molbev/msl093 , pmid=16923821 , doi-access=free , last12=Underhill , first12=P.A. , last13=Oefner , first13=P.J. , last14=Trent , first14=R.J. , last15=Stoneking , first15=M{{Cite journal , last1=Su , first1=B. , last2=Underhill , first2=P. , last3=Martinson , first3=J. , last4=Saha , first4=N. , last5=McGarvey , first5=S.T. , last6=Shriver , first6=M.D. , last7=Chu , first7=J. , last8=Oefner , first8=P. , last9=Chakraborty , first9=R. , last10=Chakraborty , first10=R. , last11=Deka , first11=R. , year=2000 , title=Polynesian origins: Insights from the Y chromosome , journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, PNAS , volume=97 , issue=15 , pages=8225–8228 , bibcode=2000PNAS...97.8225S , doi=10.1073/pnas.97.15.8225 , pmc=26928 , pmid=10899994 , doi-access=free{{Cite book , last=Kirch , first=P.V. , title=On the road of the wings: an archaeological history of the Pacific Islands before European contact , publisher=University of California Press , year=2000 , isbn=978-0-520-23461-1 , location=London Quoted in Kayser, M.; ''et al.'' (2006).{{cite journal , last1=Leach , first1=Helen M. , last2=Green , first2=Roger C. , title=New information for the Ferry Berth site, Mulifanua, western Samoa , journal=The Journal of the Polynesian Society , date=1989 , volume=98 , issue=3 , pages=319–329 , jstor=20706295 {{Cite journal , last1=Burley , first1=David V. , last2=Barton , first2=Andrew , last3=Dickinson , first3=William R. , last4=Connaughton , first4=Sean P. , last5=Taché , first5=Karine , year=2010 , title=Nukuleka as a Founder Colony for West Polynesian Settlement: New Insights from Recent Excavations , journal=Journal of Pacific Archaeology , volume=1 , issue=2 , pages=128–144Resemblance of the name to an early Mangarevan founder god ''Atu Motua'' ("Father Lord") has made some historians suspect that Hotu Matua was added to Easter Island mythology only in the 1860s, along with adopting the Mangarevan language. The "real" founder would have been ''Tu'u ko Iho'', who became just a supporting character in Hotu Matu{{okinaa centric legends. See Steven Fischer (1994). ''Rapanui's Tu'u ko Iho Versus Mangareva's 'Atu Motua. Evidence for Multiple Reanalysis and Replacement in Rapanui Settlement Traditions, Easter Island''. The Journal of Pacific History, 29(1), 3–18. See also ''Rapa Nui / Geography, History and Religion''. Peter H. Buck, Vikings of the Pacific, University of Chicago Press, 1938. pp. 228–236 Online version {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050523092130/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/rapa1.html , date=2005-05-23 {{cite web, url=https://archive.hokulea.com/rapanui/hotu.html, archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928070714/http://pvs.kcc.hawaii.edu/rapanui/hotu.html, url-status=dead, title=The Hotu Matua, archivedate=28 September 2004, website=archive.hokulea.comJared Diamond, Diamond, Jared. ''Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed''. Penguin Books: 2005. {{ISBN, 0-14-303655-6. Chapter 2: Twilight at Easter pp. 79–119. p. 89.{{cite journal , last1=Hunt , first1=Terry L. , last2=Lipo , first2=Carl P. , title=Late Colonization of Easter Island , journal=Science , date=17 March 2006 , volume=311 , issue=5767 , pages=1603–1606 , doi=10.1126/science.1121879 , pmid=16527931 {{cite book , last1=Kirch , first1=Patrick Vinton , title=The Lapita Peoples: Ancestors of the Oceanic World , date=1997 , publisher=Wiley , isbn=978-1-57718-036-4 {{pn, date=November 2022{{cite web , title=Background Note: Micronesia , url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm , access-date=6 January 2012 , publisher=United States Department of State , archive-date=4 June 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604190535/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm , url-status=live {{Cite book , last=Morgan , first=William N. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC , title=Prehistoric Architecture in Micronesia , publisher=University of Texas Press , year=1988 , isbn=978-0-292-78621-9 , page=30 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2013-06-16 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616140015/http://books.google.com/books?id=B3Z-aH7govUC , url-status=live The History of Mankind {{webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927110432/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/orientation.htm , date=27 September 2013 by Professor Friedrich Ratzel, Book II, Section A, The Races of Oceania p. 165, picture of a stick chart from the Marshall Islands. MacMillan and Co., published 1896.{{Cite book , last=Fernandez-Armesto , first=Felipe , url=https://archive.org/details/pathfindersgloba00fern/page/305 , title=Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration , date=2006 , publisher=W.W. Norton & Company , isbn=978-0-393-06259-5 , page 305–307 }J.P. Sigmond and L.H. Zuiderbaan (1979) ''Dutch Discoveries of Australia''. Rigby Ltd, Australia. pp. 19–30 {{ISBN, 0-7270-0800-5{{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 , title=Primary Australian History: Book F [B6] Ages 10–11 , date=2008 , publisher=R.I.C. Publications , isbn=978-1-74126-688-7 , page=6 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-20 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420234832/https://books.google.com/books?id=_i98Pu5dDhkC&pg=PA6 , url-status=live {{cite web , date=4 March 2009 , title=European discovery of New Zealand , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101110165647/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/european-discovery-of-new-zealand/2 , archive-date=10 November 2010 , access-date=9 December 2010 , publisher=Encyclopedia of New Zealand{{cite web , title=Cook's Journal: Daily Entries, 22 April 1770 , url=http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html , access-date=21 September 2011 , archive-date=27 September 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927080037/http://southseas.nla.gov.au/journals/cook/17700422.html , url-status=live {{cite news , title=Once were warriors , url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/once-were-warriors-20021111-gdft6f.html , work=The Sydney Morning Herald , date=11 November 2002 {{Cite book , last=Simati Faaniu , title=Tuvalu: a history , date=1983 , publisher=Institute of Pacific Studies and Extension Services, University of the South Pacific , editor-last=Hugh Laracy , pages=127–139 , chapter=Chapter 17, Colonial Rule , oclc=20637433Macdonald, Barrie (2001) ''Cinderellas of the Empire: towards a history of Kiribati and Tuvalu'', Institute of Pacific Studies, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji, {{ISBN, 982-02-0335-X, p. 1{{cite web , last=Ganse , first=Alexander , title=History of French Polynesia, 1797 to 1889 , url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071230062212/http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/pacific/frpolyn17971889.html , archive-date=30 December 2007 , access-date=20 October 2007{{cite web , title=Rapport annuel 2010 , url=http://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf , access-date=30 January 2013 , publisher=IEOM Nouvelle-Calédonie , archive-date=10 March 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310075134/https://www.ieom.fr/IMG/pdf/ra2010_nouvelle-caledonie.pdf , url-status=live Gray, J.A.C. Amerika Samoa, ''A History of American Samoa and its United States Naval Administration. Annapolis: United States Naval Institute''. 1960.{{Cite book , last=Jose , first=Arthur Wilberforce , title=Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918: Volume IX – The Royal Australian Navy: 1914–1918 , publisher=Angus and Robertson , year=1941 , editor-last=Bean , editor-first=Charles Edwin Woodrow , editor-link=Charles Bean , edition=9th , series=Official Histories, Australian War Memorial , location=Sydney, Australia , chapter=Chapter V – Affairs in the Western Pacific , chapter-url=http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203074454/http://static.awm.gov.au/images/collection/pdf/RCDIG1070027--1-.PDF , archive-date=3 February 2014 , orig-date=1928Prange, Gordon W., Goldstein, Donald, & Dillon, Katherine. ''The Pearl Harbor Papers'' (Brassey's, 2000), pp. 17ff Google Books entry {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032058/https://books.google.com/books?id=q2pFnALHfykC&pg=PA1 , date=2020-07-28 on Prange ''et al''.Fukudome, Shigeru, "Hawaii Operation". United States Naval Institute, ''Proceedings'', 81 (December 1955), pp. 1315–1331For the Japanese designator of Oahu. Wilford, Timothy. "Decoding Pearl Harbor", in ''The Northern Mariner'', XII, #1 (January 2002), p. 32 fn 81.{{Cite book , last1=Braithwaite , first1=John , title=Reconciliation and Architectures of Commitment: Sequencing peace in Bougainville , last2=Charlesworth , first2=Hilary , last3=Reddy , first3=Peter , last4=Dunn , first4=Leah , publisher=ANU E Press , year=2010 , isbn=978-1-921666-68-1 , chapter=Chapter 7: The cost of the conflict , chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml , name-list-style=amp , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2013-10-04 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004221445/http://epress.anu.edu.au/apps/bookworm/view/Reconciliation+and+Architectures+of+Commitment%3A+Sequencing+peace+in+Bougainville/5301/ch07.xhtml , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=Kristof , first=Nicholas D. , date=26 September 1997 , title=Shoichi Yokoi, 82, Is Dead; Japan Soldier Hid 27 Years , work=The New York Times , url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=1 February 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201172619/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE7D81F3BF935A1575AC0A961958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 , url-status=live {{cite book , last1=Douglas , first1=Bronwen , last2=Ballard , first2=Chris , title=Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the Science of Race 1750–1940 , date=2008 , publisher=ANU E Press , isbn=978-1-921536-00-7 {{pn, date=November 2022{{Cite book , last1=Gillespie , first1=Rosemary G. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 , title=Encyclopedia of Islands , last2=Clague , first2=David A. , date=2009 , publisher=University of California Press , isbn=978-0-520-25649-1 , page=706 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-20 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420214345/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PA706 , url-status=live Ben Finney, The Other One-Third of the Globe, Journal of World History, Vol. 5, No. 2, Fall, 1994."Coral island" {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427013344/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137072/coral-island , date=2015-04-27 , ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. Retrieved 22 June 2013. {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518100704/http://www.abc.net.au/ra/pacific/places/country/nauru.htm , date=2013-05-18 , Charting the Pacific. Retrieved 22 June 2013.{{Cite book , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ , title=Academic American encyclopedia , date=1997 , publisher=Grolier Incorporated , isbn=978-0-7172-2068-7 , page=8 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-21 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421165702/https://books.google.com/books?id=cF8NAQAAMAAJ , url-status=live {{Cite book , last1=Lal , first1=Brij Vilash , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 , title=The Pacific Islands: An Encyclopedia , last2=Fortune , first2=Kate , date=2000 , publisher=University of Hawai{{okinai Press , isbn=978-0-8248-2265-1 , page=63 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-21 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421164832/https://books.google.com/books?id=T5pPpJl8E5wC&pg=PA63 , url-status=live {{Cite book , last=West , first=Barbara A. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 , title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania , date=2009 , publisher=Infobase Publishing , isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 , page=521 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-21 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421021635/https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA521 , url-status=live {{Cite book , last1=Dunford , first1=Betty , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC , title=Pacific Neighbors: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia, and Polynesia , last2=Ridgell , first2=Reilly , date=1996 , publisher=Bess Press , isbn=978-1-57306-022-6 , page=125 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2016-04-20 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160420224420/https://books.google.com/books?id=3n2z7E1zH3MC , url-status=live {{Cite book , last=Douglas , first=Bronwen , title=Science, Voyages, and Encounters in Oceania, 1511–1850 , date=2014 , publisher=Palgrave Macmillan , page=6{{Cite book , last=de Brosses , first=Charles , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC , title=Histoire des navigations aux terres Australes. Contenant ce que l'on sçait [sic] des moeurs & des productions des contrées découvertes jusqu'à ce jour; & où il est traité de l'utilité d'y faire de plus amples découvertes, & des moyens d'y former un établissement , publisher=Durand , year=1756 , location=Paris , publication-date=1756 , language=fr , trans-title=History of voyages to the Southern Lands. Containing what is known concerning the customes and products of the countries so far discovered; and treating of the usefulness of making broader discoveries there, and of the means of setting up an establishment there , author-link=Charles de Brosses , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2020-07-26 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726130911/https://books.google.com/books?id=o3x_MaYZVJQC , url-status=live {{cite web , title=SFT and the Earth's Tectonic Plates , url=http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130217002443/http://www.ees1.lanl.gov/Wohletz/SFT-Tectonics.htm , archive-date=17 February 2013 , access-date=27 February 2013 , publisher=Los Alamos National Laboratory{{Citation , last1=Frisch , first1=Wolfgang , title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vx1oiTMOTRcC&pg=PA11 , pages=11–12 , year=2010 , publisher=Springer Science & Business Media , isbn=978-3-540-76504-2 , last2=Meschede , first2=Martin , last3=Blakey , first3=Ronald C.{{cite web, url=http://wserver.crc.losrios.edu/~jacksoh/Images/crustageposter.gif, title=Age of the Ocean Floor, website=Wserver.crc.losrios.edu, access-date=19 July 2022, archive-date=6 August 2016, archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160806131959/http://wserver.crc.losrios.edu/~jacksoh/Images/crustageposter.gif, url-status=livePain, C.F., Villans, B.J., Roach, I.C., Worrall, L. & Wilford, J.R. (2012): Old, flat and red – Australia's distinctive landscape. In: ''Shaping a Nation: A Geology of Australia''. Blewitt, R.S. (Ed.) Geoscience Australia and ANU E Press, Canberra. pp. 227–275 {{ISBN, 978-1-922103-43-7{{cite web , last=Kevin Mccue , date=26 February 2010 , title=Land of earthquakes and volcanoes? , url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306150520/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/land-of-earthquakes-and-volcanoes.htm , archive-date=6 March 2010 , access-date=25 April 2010 , publisher=Australian Geographic New Zealand within Gondwana {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715071623/http://www.teara.govt.nz/EarthSeaAndSky/Geology/GeologyOverview/3/ENZ-Resources/Standard/1/en#breadcrumbtop , date=2009-07-15 from Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand{{cite web , title=Fiji , url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ , access-date=28 December 2014 , website=CIA World Factbook , archive-date=27 August 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827055140/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ , url-status=live Clague, D.A. and Dalrymple, G.B. (1989) ''Tectonics, geochronology, and origin of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain'' in Winterer, E.L. et al. (editors) (1989) ''The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii'', Boulder, Geological Society of America.{{cite web , title=Mauna Kea Volcano, Hawaii , url=http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ , access-date=5 November 2011 , publisher=Hvo.wr.usgs.gov , archive-date=21 October 2006 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061021204300/http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov/volcanoes/maunakea/ , url-status=live {{cite web , date=23 November 2011 , title=Parks and Reserves – Australia's National Landscapes , url=http://www.environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104114011/http://environment.gov.au/parks/national-landscapes/index.html , archive-date=4 January 2012 , access-date=4 January 2012 , publisher=Environment.gov.au{{Cite book , last1=Loffler , first1=Ernst , title=Australia: Portrait of a continent , last2=Anneliese Loffler , last3=A.J. Rose , last4=Denis Warner , publisher=Hutchinson Group (Australia) , year=1983 , isbn=978-0-09-130460-7 , location=Richmond, Victoria , pages=37–39{{Cite journal , last1=Seabrooka , first1=Leonie , last2=McAlpinea , first2=Clive , last3=Fenshamb , first3=Rod , year=2006 , title=Cattle, crops and clearing: Regional drivers of landscape change in the Brigalow Belt, Queensland, Australia, 1840–2004 , journal=Landscape and Urban Planning , volume=78 , issue=4 , pages=375–376 , doi=10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.11.007{{WWF ecoregion, name = Einasleigh upland savanna, id=aa0705 , access-date =16 June 2010{{WWF ecoregion , name=Mitchell grass downs , id=aa0707 , access-date =16 June 2010{{WWF ecoregion , name = Eastern Australia mulga shrublands, id=aa0802 , access-date =16 June 2010{{WWF ecoregion, name = Southeast Australia temperate savanna , id=aa0803 , access-date =16 June 2010{{WWF ecoregion , name=Arnhem Land tropical savanna , id=aa0701, access-date=16 June 2010{{Cite book , last=Newman , first=Arnold , url=https://archive.org/details/tropicalrainfore00newm_0 , title=Tropical Rainforest: Our Most Valuable and Endangered Habitat With a Blueprint for Its Survival Into the Third Millennium , publisher=Checkmark , year=2002 , isbn=978-0816039739 , edition=2{{Cite book , last=McKenzie , first=D.W. , title=Heinemann New Zealand atlas , publisher=Heinemann (publisher), Heinemann Publishers , year=1987 , isbn=978-0-7900-0187-6NZPCN (2006). ''New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist''. {{ISBN, 0-473-11306-6. Written by Peter de Lange, John W.D. Sawyer and J.R. Rolfe.{{cite web , title=Hawaiian Native Plant Propagation Database , url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/bri-insi.htm , access-date=15 December 2013 , archive-date=28 November 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128012940/http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/hawnprop/plants/bri-insi.htm , url-status=live {{Cite book , last1=Stephen Buchmann , url={{google books, plainurl=y, id=YWTZs5fSqb8C, page=133 , title=The Forgotten Pollinators , last2=Gary Paul Nabhan , date=22 June 2012 , isbn=9781597269087 , access-date=17 December 2013{{cite iucn , author=BirdLife International , date=2017 , title=''Petroica pusilla'' , volume=2017 , page=e.T103734840A157467789 , doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T103734840A157467789.en , access-date=12 November 2021{{Cite book , url=http://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/302_Sacred%20Kingfisher_0.pdf , title=Handbook of Australian Birds , date=1999 , publisher=OUP , editor-last=Higgins, P.J , location=Melbourne , page=1178 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2022-04-18 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418051319/https://nzbirdsonline.org.nz/sites/all/files/302_Sacred%20Kingfisher_0.pdf , url-status=live {{Cite iucn , author = BirdLife International , title = Pycnonotus cafer , volume = 2016 , date = 2016 , doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22712695A94343459.en {{Cite book , last=Pratt , first=H. Douglas , title=The Birds of Hawaii and the Tropical Pacific , publisher=Princeton University Press , year=1987 , isbn=978-0-691-02399-1 , display-authors=etal{{cite web , title=Brown Goshawk {{! Birds in Backyards , url=http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Accipiter-fasciatus , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817202637/http://www.birdsinbackyards.net/species/Accipiter-fasciatus , archive-date=17 August 2016 , access-date=18 August 2016 , website=Birdsinbackyards.net , publisher=Birdlife Australia{{Cite book , last1=Turner , first1=Angela K , url=https://archive.org/details/swallowsmartinsi00turn , title=Swallows & Martins: An Identification Guide and Handbook , last2=Rose , first2=Chris , publisher=Houghton Mifflin , year=1989 , isbn=978-0-395-51174-9{{cite iucn , author=BirdLife International , date=2017 , title=''Myzomela cardinalis'' , volume=2017 , page=e.T22703868A118657750 , doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22703868A118657750.en , access-date=12 November 2021{{Cite iucn, url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/22714832/94429444, title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, access-date=23 October 2018{{cite web , last=Howard Youth , title=Hawaii's Forest Birds Sing the Blues , url=http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1995/1/hawaiisforestbirds.cfm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318100849/http://nationalzoo.si.edu/publications/zoogoer/1995/1/hawaiisforestbirds.cfm , archive-date=18 March 2007 , access-date=31 October 2008Invasive Species: Animals – Brown Tree Snake {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824120114/https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/brown-tree-snake , date=2019-08-24 , National Agricultural Library, United States Department of Agriculture, Retrieved 31 August 2010Christidis, L., Boles, W., 2008. Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian birds, Collingwood, Victoria, Australia. CSIRO Publishing.Steadman. 2006. ''Extinction & biogeography of tropical Pacific birds''{{cite web , year=2016 , editor-last=Gill , editor-first=Frank , editor-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) , editor2-last=Donsker , editor2-first=David , title=Rollers, ground rollers & kingfishers , url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/ , access-date=10 October 2016 , website=World Bird List Version 6.3 , publisher=International Ornithologists' Union , archive-date=4 October 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181004213031/http://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/rollers/ , url-status=live Egerton, L. ed. 2005. ''Encyclopedia of Australian wildlife''. Reader's Digest{{cite web , title=Australia's National Symbols , url=http://dfat.gov.au/about-australia/land-its-people/Pages/australias-national-symbols.aspx , access-date=15 July 2015 , publisher=Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade , archive-date=19 July 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150719062442/http://dfat.gov.au/about-australia/land-its-people/Pages/australias-national-symbols.aspx , url-status=live {{Cite news , date=June 2008 , title=Welcome , page=1 , work=Save the Tasmanian Devil , url=http://www.tassiedevil.com.au/tasdevil.nsf/downloads/D595436FECB69A66CA2576ED0083D3F6/$file/DevilNews_June_2008.pdf , access-date=6 October 2010 , archive-date=17 February 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217185140/http://www.tassiedevil.com.au/tasdevil.nsf/downloads/D595436FECB69A66CA2576ED0083D3F6/$file/DevilNews_June_2008.pdf , url-status=live Underhill D (1993) ''Australia's Dangerous Creatures'', Reader's Digest, Sydney, New South Wales, {{ISBN, 0-86438-018-6{{cite journal , last1=Trewick , first1=Steven A. , last2=Gibb , first2=Gillian C. , title=Vicars, tramps and assembly of the New Zealand avifauna: a review of molecular phylogenetic evidence , journal=Ibis , date=April 2010 , volume=152 , issue=2 , pages=226–253 , doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2010.01018.x {{cite journal , last1=Trewick , first1=Steve , title=Vicars & Vagrants , journal=Australasian Science , date=September 2011 , volume=32 , issue=7 , pages=24–27 , url=https://www.australasianscience.com.au/article/issue-september-2011/vicars-vagrants.html {{cite web , last=Climate Prediction Center , author-link=Climate Prediction Center , date=30 June 2014 , title=ENSO: Recent Evolution, Current Status and Predictions , url=http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf , access-date=30 June 2014 , publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , pages=5, 19–20 , archive-date=5 March 2005 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305231546/http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/lanina/enso_evolution-status-fcsts-web.pdf , url-status=live Glossary of Meteorology (2009) Monsoon. {{webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322122025/http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon&submit=Search , date=22 March 2008 American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on 16 January 2009.{{cite web , last=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory – Hurricane Research Division , author-link=Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory , title=Frequently Asked Questions: When is hurricane season? , url=http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html , access-date=25 July 2006 , publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , archive-date=3 March 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174608/http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G1.html , url-status=live {{cite web , last=National Climate Centre , title=BOM – Climate of Australia , url=http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html , archive-url=https://webarchive.nla.gov.au/awa/20090317054300/http://pandora.nla.gov.au/pan/96122/20090317-1643/www.bom.gov.au/lam/climate/levelthree/ausclim/ausclim.html , archive-date=17 March 2009 , website=webarchive.nla.gov.au{{cbignore, bot=medic{{Cite book , last1=Edward Linacre , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwQ7FulHCCsC&pg=PA376 , title=Precipitation in Australia , last2=Bart Geerts , work=Climates and Weather of Australia , publisher=Routledge , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-415-12519-2 , page=376 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2022-04-24 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424122343/https://books.google.com/books?id=uwQ7FulHCCsC&pg=PA376 , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Natural environment – Climate , encyclopedia=Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 , access-date=13 November 2016 , last=Walrond , first=Carl , date=March 2009 , archive-date=20 January 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120165411/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/natural-environment/3 , url-status=live Mean monthly rainfall {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806140624/https://www.niwa.co.nz/education-and-training/schools/resources/climate/meanrain , date=6 August 2017 , NIWA.{{Cite news , last=Chapman , first=Paul , date=15 August 2011 , title='Once in a lifetime' snow storm hits New Zealand , work=Telegraph.co.uk , location=Wellington , url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/8701481/Once-in-a-lifetime-snow-storm-hits-New-Zealand.html , url-status=live , url-access=subscription , access-date=14 November 2016 , archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/australiaandthepacific/newzealand/8701481/Once-in-a-lifetime-snow-storm-hits-New-Zealand.html , archive-date=10 January 2022{{cbignore{{cite web , date=23 July 2012 , title=Island of Hawaii: climate zones , url=https://www.lovebigisland.com/hawaii-blog/climate-zones-big-island/ , access-date=2 January 2017 , publisher=lovebigisland.com , archive-date=3 January 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103094244/https://www.lovebigisland.com/hawaii-blog/climate-zones-big-island/ , url-status=live {{cite web , date=27 April 2000 , title=National Weather Service Dedicated Forecast Office in Typhoon Alley , url=http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2000/apr00/noaa00r235.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130107012415/http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/releases2000/apr00/noaa00r235.html , archive-date=7 January 2013 , access-date=19 August 2012 , publisher=US NOAA NWS{{cite web , date=31 July 2013 , title=Official records for Australia in January , url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/daily_extremes.cgi?period=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fclimate%2Fextremes%2Fdaily_extremes.cgi&climtab=tmax_high&area=aus&year=2013&mon=1&day=11 , access-date=12 March 2013 , website=Daily Extremes , publisher=Bureau of Meteorology , archive-date=23 September 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923215953/http://www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/extremes/daily_extremes.cgi?period=%2Fcgi-bin%2Fclimate%2Fextremes%2Fdaily_extremes.cgi&climtab=tmax_high&area=aus&year=2013&mon=1&day=11 , url-status=live {{Cite news , date=12 July 2011 , title=NZ's temperature record hits new low – minus 25.6degC , work=The New Zealand Herald , url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10737901 , access-date=12 July 2011 , archive-date=11 July 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711224734/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10737901 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Rainfall Climatology for Pohnpei Islands, Federated States of Micronesia , url=http://www.weriguam.org/docs/reports/100.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035749/http://www.weriguam.org/docs/reports/100.pdf , archive-date=4 March 2016 , access-date=21 July 2017{{cite report , last1=Longman , first1=Ryan J. , last2=Giambelluca , first2=Thomas W. , last3=Nullet , first3=Michael A. , last4=Loope , first4=Lloyd L. , title=Climatology of Haleakalā , date=July 2015 , hdl=10125/36675 , pages=105–106 Regions and constituents as per :File:United Nations geographical subregions.png, UN categorisations/map except #endnote CCAU, notes 2–3, 6. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 3, 5–7, 9) may be in List of countries spanning more than one continent, one or both of Oceania and Asia or North America. The use and scope of this term varies. The UN designation for this subregion is "Australia and New Zealand".New Zealand is often considered part of Polynesia rather than
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
. Excludes parts of Indonesia, island territories in
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
(UN region) frequently reckoned in this region. {{cite web , date=12 July 2017 , title=UNDANG-UNDANG REPUBLIK INDONESIA NOMOR 21 TAHUN 2001 TENTANG OTONOMI KHUSUS BAGI PROVINSI PAPUA , url=http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712195402/http://www.kinerja.or.id/pdf/8bbcd469-bc2c-4d89-bf63-c2d81804ae27.pdf , archive-date=12 July 2017 , access-date=16 March 2019{{cite web , date=7 February 2007 , title=Papuan province changes name from West Irian Jaya to West Papua , url=http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 , access-date=27 December 2008 , publisher=Radio New Zealand International , archive-date=17 December 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217013012/http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=29965 , url-status=live
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...
is often considered part of
Australasia
Australasia is a region that comprises Australia, New Zealand and some neighbouring islands in the Pacific Ocean. The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologica ...
and
Melanesia
Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from Indonesia's New Guinea in the west to Fiji in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea.
The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Va ...
. It is sometimes included in the
Malay Archipelago
The Malay Archipelago (Indonesian/Malay: , tgl, Kapuluang Malay) is the archipelago between mainland Indochina and Australia. It has also been called the " Malay world," "Nusantara", "East Indies", Indo-Australian Archipelago, Spices Archipe ...
of
Southeast Asia
Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, south-eastern region of Asia, consistin ...
. On 7 October 2006, government officials moved their offices in the former capital of Koror to Ngerulmud in the state of Melekeok, located {{convert, 20, km, 0, abbr=on northeast of Koror on Babeldaob, Babelthuap Island. Fagatogo is the seat of government of
American Samoa
American Samoa ( sm, Amerika Sāmoa, ; also ' or ') is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast of the island country of Samoa. Its location is centered on . It is east of the International ...
. Christianity in its Global Context, 1970–2020 Society, Religion, and Mission Center for the Study of Global Christianity{{cite web , last=US Dept of State , date=1 May 2012 , title=Background Notes Australia, Fiji, Kiribati, Malaysia, Micronesia, New Zealand, Samoa , url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn , access-date=14 July 2012 , publisher=State.gov , archive-date=21 January 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121012610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ , url-status=live {{Cite book , last=Cowan , first=James G. , url=https://archive.org/details/messengersofgods00cowa , title=Messengers of the Gods , publisher=Bell Tower , year=1993 , isbn=978-0-517-88078-4 , location=New York{{cite web , date=21 June 2012 , title=Cultural diversity in Australia , url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/2071.0Main%20Features902012%E2%80%932013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160425232111/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/2071.0Main%20Features902012%E2%80%932013 , archive-date=25 April 2016 , access-date=27 June 2012 , website=2071.0 – Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013 , publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics{{cite web , date=28 November 2011 , title=Mosque soon to open in Uliga , url=http://www.marshallislandsjournal.com/Archive%2010-28-11-page.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130813171435/http://www.marshallislandsjournal.com/Archive%2010-28-11-page.html , archive-date=13 August 2013 , access-date=2 May 2014{{cite web , date=11 June 2009 , title=Population of Jews in Australia , url=http://judaism.about.com/od/jewishhumor/f/jewry_australia.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515034358/http://judaism.about.com/od/jewishhumor/f/jewry_australia.htm , archive-date=15 May 2013 , access-date=10 July 2013 , website=Judaism.about.com{{cite web , last=Statistics , first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of , date=21 June 2012 , title=Main Features – Cultural Diversity in Australia , url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013 , website=Abs.gov.au , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=22 May 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522180357/https://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/2071.0main+features902012-2013 , url-status=live {{cite web , last=Statistics , first=c=AU; o=Commonwealth of Australia; ou=Australian Bureau of , title=Main Features – Net Overseas Migration , url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main+Features52015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2015-16&num=&view= , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010010130/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Latestproducts/3412.0Main+Features52015-16?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=3412.0&issue=2015-16&num=&view= , archive-date=10 October 2017 , access-date=26 November 2018 , website=Abs.gov.au{{Cite news , date=2014 , title=Sydney's melting pot of language , work=The Sydney Morning Herald , url=https://www.smh.com.au/data-point/sydney-languages , access-date=13 September 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923055934/http://www.smh.com.au/data-point/sydney-languages , archive-date=23 September 2014 {{cite web , date=15 July 2017 , title=Census 2016: Migrants make a cosmopolitan country , url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/inquirer/census-2016-migrants-make-a-cosmopolitan-country/news-story/da01bec138fc8600ea7bb84d1844ea80 , access-date=16 July 2017 , website=The Australian , archive-date=28 July 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032107/https://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCode=TAWEB_WRE170_a&dest=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fnews%2Finquirer%2Fcensus-2016-migrants-make-a-cosmopolitan-country%2Fnews-story%2Fda01bec138fc8600ea7bb84d1844ea80&memtype=anonymous&mode=premium&nk=c0a83136ea65eea638b9f7a8869c8fde-1595906467 , url-status=live {{cite web , date=2014 , title=Population, dwellings, and ethnicity , url=http://profile.id.com.au/sydney/population , access-date=27 July 2014 , publisher=.id , archive-date=24 August 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824072945/http://profile.id.com.au/sydney/population , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Map of greek Islands , url=http://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/50242959.pdf , access-date=16 March 2019 , website=Oecd.org , archive-date=24 September 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924135215/http://www.oecd.org/gov/regional-policy/50242959.pdf , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Vicnet Directory Indian Community , url=http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/indian/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928011559/http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/indian/ , archive-date=28 September 2008 , access-date=2 October 2008 , publisher=Vicnet{{cite web , title=Vicnet Directory Sri Lankan Community , url=http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/srilankan/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016054206/http://www.vicnet.net.au/community/ethnic/srilankan/ , archive-date=16 October 2008 , access-date=2 October 2008 , publisher=Vicnet{{cite web , title=Vietnamese Community Directory , url=http://www.yarranet.net.au/~acacia/vietcom.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724113628/http://www.yarranet.net.au/~acacia/vietcom.htm , archive-date=24 July 2008 , access-date=2 October 2008 , publisher=yarranet.net.au{{cite web , title=Immigration chronology: selected events 1840–2008 , url=http://www.parliament.nz/en-nz/parl-support/research-papers/00PLSocRP08011/immigration-chronology-selected-events-1840-2008 , access-date=17 May 2016 , archive-date=24 December 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224053101/http://www.parliament.nz/en-nz/parl-support/research-papers/00PLSocRP08011/immigration-chronology-selected-events-1840-2008 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Immigration regulation , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/immigration-regulation/page-1 , access-date=17 May 2016 , page=1 , archive-date=4 June 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604170659/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/immigration-regulation/page-1 , url-status=live {{cite web , date=15 April 2014 , title=2013 Census QuickStats about culture and identity – data tables , url=http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140524102811/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls , archive-date=24 May 2014 , access-date=29 January 2016 , publisher=Statistics New Zealand {{Cite news , date=31 January 2013 , title=California's Hispanic population projected to outnumber white in 2014 , work=Reuters , url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-population-california-idUSBRE91006920130201 , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=17 October 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017075415/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/01/us-usa-population-california-idUSBRE91006920130201 , url-status=live {{Cite book , last=Williams , first=Charles , url={{google books, plainurl=y, id=V6YNAAAAQAAJ, page=42 , title=The missionary gazetteer: comprising a geographical and statistical account ... , publisher=W. Hyde & Co , others=B B Edwards , year=1832 , isbn=978-0-665-35042-9 , edition=America , series=CIHM/ICMH microfiche series, no. 35042 (also ATLA monograph preservation program; ATLA fiche 1988–3226) , location=Boston, MA , page=424 , id={{OCLC, 657191416, 718098082, 719990067, 680518873 , access-date=3 May 2012 , orig-date=1828{{Cite journal , last=Hoffman , first=Frederic L. , date=September 1899 , title=The Portuguese Population in the United States , journal=Publications of the American Statistical Association , volume=6 , issue=47 , pages=327–336 , doi=10.2307/2276463 , jstor=2276463 , oclc=11137237 ''The Puerto Rican Diaspora'', by Carmen Teresa Whalen; p. 47; Publisher: Temple University Press (30 August 2005); {{ISBN, 1-59213-413-0; {{ISBN, 978-1-59213-413-7{{Cite book , last=Mares , first=Peter , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XiPAMuTaQFEC , title=Borderline: Australia's Treatment of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in the Wake of the Tampa , publisher=UNSW Press , year=2002 , isbn=978-0868407890 , pages=132–133 , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2019-12-11 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211231325/https://books.google.com/books?id=XiPAMuTaQFEC , url-status=live {{Cite journal , last1=Duggan , first1=A.T. , last2=Evans , first2=B. , last3=Friedlaender , first3=F.O.R. , last4=Friedlaender , first4=J.S. , last5=Koki , first5=G. , last6=Merriwether , first6=D.A. , last7=Kayser , first7=M. , last8=Stoneking , first8=M. , year=2014 , title=Maternal History of Oceania from Complete mtDNA Genomes: Contrasting Ancient Diversity with Recent Homogenization Due to the Austronesian Expansion , journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics , volume=94 , issue=5 , pages=721–33 , doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.03.014 , pmc=4067553 , pmid=24726474{{cite web , title=BBC: First contact with isolated tribes? , url=http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191 , access-date=24 July 2015 , publisher=Survival International , archive-date=30 July 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730073348/http://www.survivalinternational.org/news/2191 , url-status=live Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate) {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607212419/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/snaama/Index , date=2020-06-07 , CIA World Factbook{{cite web , title=Sovereigns rating list , url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 , access-date=26 May 2011 , publisher=Standard & Poor's , archive-date=28 September 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928234500/http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39 , url-status=live {{Cite news , last1=Rogers , first1=Simon , last2=Sedghi , first2=Ami , date=15 April 2011 , title=How Fitch, Moody's and S&P rate each country's credit rating , work=The Guardian , location=London , url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard , access-date=31 May 2011 , archive-date=1 August 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801105234/http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2010/apr/30/credit-ratings-country-fitch-moodys-standard , url-status=live {{cite web , title=2012 Report (PDF) , url=http://wfe.if5.com/ReportGen.aspx?year=2012&month=10¤cy=usd&type=pdf&idTable=0 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904073736/http://wfe.if5.com/ReportGen.aspx?year=2012&month=10¤cy=usd&type=pdf&idTable=0 , archive-date=4 September 2015 , access-date=20 May 2014 , website=Wfe.if5.com{{cite web , title=Statement on Monetary Policy (November 2013) , url=http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2013/nov/html/index.html , access-date=20 May 2014 , website=Rba.gov.au , archive-date=28 March 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328135626/http://www.rba.gov.au/publications/smp/2013/nov/html/index.html , url-status=live {{cite web , date=19 February 2014 , title=2014 Quality of Living Worldwide City Rankings – Mercer Survey , url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings , access-date=24 October 2016 , website=Mercer.com , archive-date=22 June 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141236/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings , url-status=live {{cite web , date=2014 , title=2014 Quality of Living Index , url=http://www.mercer.com.au/newsroom/mercer-2014-quality-of-living-index.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821050133/http://www.mercer.com.au/newsroom/mercer-2014-quality-of-living-index.html , archive-date=21 August 2014 , access-date=20 July 2014 , publisher=Mercer{{cite web , title=The World According to GaWC 2010 , url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html , access-date=22 April 2012 , website=Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network , publisher=Loughborough University , archive-date=1 February 2013 , archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6E77rjeqe?url=http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2010t.html , url-status=live {{cite web , date=October 2010 , title=Global Power City Index 2010 , url=http://www.mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/research/project/6/pdf/GPCI2010_English.pdf , access-date=10 August 2011 , publisher=Institute for Urban Strategies at The Mori Memorial Foundation , location=Tokyo, Japan , archive-date=9 October 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009091337/http://www.mori-m-foundation.or.jp/english/research/project/6/pdf/GPCI2010_English.pdf , url-status=live {{cite web , last1=Padovese , first1=Virginia , last2=Gianfagna , first2=Ilaria , title=Happy birthday Melbourne: 181 and still kicking! , url=http://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/italian/en/article/2016/08/30/happy-birthday-melbourne-181-and-still-kicking , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911220215/http://www.sbs.com.au/yourlanguage/italian/en/article/2016/08/30/happy-birthday-melbourne-181-and-still-kicking , archive-date=11 September 2016The Global Financial Centres Index 14 (September 2013) {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904001601/http://www.longfinance.net/images/GFCI14_30Sept2013.pdf , date=4 September 2015 . Y/Zen Group. p 15. Retrieved 4 December 2013.2012 Global Cities Index and Emerging Cities Outlook {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235649/http://www.atkearney.com.au/documents/10192/dfedfc4c-8a62-4162-90e5-2a3f14f0da3a , date=30 December 2013 . A.T. Kearney. p. 2. Retrieved 29 December 2013.{{Cite news , last=Brinded , first=Lianna , date=23 February 2016 , title=The 23 cities with the best quality of life in the world , language=en , work=Business Insider , url=http://uk.businessinsider.com/mercer-2016-quality-of-living-worldwide-city-rankings-2016-2 , access-date=10 February 2017 , archive-date=7 March 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307013422/http://uk.businessinsider.com/mercer-2016-quality-of-living-worldwide-city-rankings-2016-2 , url-status=live {{cite web , date=14 March 2017 , title=Vienna tops Mercer's 19th Quality of Living ranking , url=http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings , access-date=28 June 2019 , website=Mercer.com , archive-date=22 June 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622141236/http://www.mercer.com/qualityoflivingpr#city-rankings , url-status=live {{cite web , title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency , url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ , access-date=27 March 2018 , website=Cia.gov , archive-date=27 August 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827055140/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/fiji/ , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Hawaii sandalwood trade , url=http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=274 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005214518/http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=274 , archive-date=5 October 2011 , access-date=5 November 2011 , publisher=Hawaiihistory.org {{cite web , date=16 June 1999 , title=Whaling in Hawaii , url=http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=287 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111005214600/http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=ig.page&PageID=287 , archive-date=5 October 2011 , access-date=5 November 2011 , publisher=Hawaiihistory.org{{cite web , title=Per capita GDF by year , url=https://data.hawaii.gov/Economic-Development/Per-capita-GDP-by-Year/qnar-gix3/data , access-date=25 August 2016 , publisher=State of Hawaii , archive-date=11 September 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911221546/https://data.hawaii.gov/Economic-Development/Per-capita-GDP-by-Year/qnar-gix3/data , url-status=live {{cite web , title=A History of Honey Bees in the Hawaiian Islands , url=http://www.hawaiibeekeepers.org/history.php , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100908102027/http://www.hawaiibeekeepers.org/history.php , archive-date=8 September 2010 , access-date=15 December 2011{{cite web , date=4 March 2015 , title=2015 quality of living survey , url=http://www.uk.mercer.com/newsroom/2015-quality-of-living-survey.html , website=Mercer , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=9 December 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151209025212/http://www.uk.mercer.com/newsroom/2015-quality-of-living-survey.html , url-status=live {{cite web , last=Kyte , first=Theresa , date=18 November 2015 , title=Honolulu ranked 2nd safest city in America , url=http://www.kitv.com/story/30544485/honolulu-ranked-2nd-safest-city-in-america , access-date=15 December 2015 , website=KITV , archive-date=19 November 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151119145940/http://www.kitv.com/story/30544485/honolulu-ranked-2nd-safest-city-in-america , url-status=live {{cite web , year=2001 , title=Tourism and Migration Statistics – Visitor Arrivals by Usual Country of Residence (1995–2001) , url=http://www.vanuatustatistics.gov.vu/About%20VNSO/Data/Social/Tour&Mig.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429004619/http://www.vanuatustatistics.gov.vu/About%20VNSO/Data/Social/Tour%26Mig.htm , archive-date=29 April 2009 , access-date=26 July 2009 , publisher=Vanuatu Statistics Office{{cite web , last=Australian Bureau of Statistics , date=14 December 2017 , title=Tourism Satellite Account 2014–15:Key Figures , url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=15 June 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135014/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument , url-status=live {{cite web , date=29 October 2018 , title=Visitor Arrivals Data , url=http://www.tourism.australia.com/statistics/arrivals.aspx , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905135526/http://www.tourism.australia.com/statistics/arrivals.aspx , archive-date=5 September 2015 , publisher=Tourism Australia{{cite web , date=14 December 2017 , title=5249.0 – Australian National Accounts: Tourism Satellite Account, 2010–11 , url=http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument , publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=15 June 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615135014/http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/mf/5249.0?OpenDocument , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Key Tourism Statistics , url=http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/tourism/pdf-docs-library/key-tourism-statistics/key-tourism-statistics.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813023935/http://www.med.govt.nz/sectors-industries/tourism/pdf-docs-library/key-tourism-statistics/key-tourism-statistics.pdf , archive-date=13 August 2014 , website=Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment"Real Journeys rapt with Kiwi Must-Do's" {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210424140251/https://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/BU0702/S00157.htm , date=2021-04-24 , ''Scoop'', 13 February 2007.{{Cite journal , last=Hawaii State DBEDT , year=2003 , title=Overview of All Visitors , url=http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/visitor-stats/visitor-research/2003-annual-visitor.pdf , journal=Summary of 2004 Visitors to Hawaii , page=2 , access-date=23 February 2012 , archive-date=9 December 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101209224525/http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/visitor-stats/visitor-research/2003-annual-visitor.pdf , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=O'Neill , first=Sandler , date=9 September 2011 , title=Bank of Hawaii Offers a Safe Port , work=Barrons Online , url=http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052702304133804576560534020892142.html?mod=BOL_twm_da , access-date=23 February 2012 , archive-date=17 November 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117210144/http://online.barrons.com/article/SB50001424052702304133804576560534020892142.html?mod=BOL_twm_da , url-status=live {{cite web , date=11 August 2010 , title=How Australia's Parliament works , url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/features/2010/08/how-australias-parliament-works , access-date=16 June 2014 , publisher=Australian Geographic , archive-date=28 July 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728032100/https://www.australiangeographic.com.au/topics/history-culture/2010/08/how-australias-parliament-works/ , url-status=live {{Harvnb, Davison, Hirst, Macintyre, 1998, pages=287–8{{cite web , title=Governor-General's Role , url=http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080804130529/http://www.gg.gov.au/governorgeneral/category.php?id=2 , archive-date=4 August 2008 , access-date=23 April 2010 , publisher=Governor-General of Australia{{cite web , title=Glossary of Election Terms , url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition , access-date=23 April 2010 , publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation , archive-date=6 March 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306034515/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/guide/glossary.htm#coalition , url-status=live {{cite web , title=State of the Parties , url=http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100418163914/http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2007/results/sop.htm , archive-date=18 April 2010 , access-date=23 April 2010 , publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation{{Cite book , last1=Fenna , first1=Alan , title=Government Politics in Australia , last2=Robbins , first2=Jane , last3=Summers , first3=John , publisher=Pearson Higher Education AU , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-4860-0138-5 , location=London , page=139''Defence Annual Report 2005-06'' {{webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118052958/http://www.defence.gov.au/budget/05-06/dar/index.htm , date=18 November 2006 . pp. 219–220.{{cite web , title=New Zealand's Constitution , url=http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm , access-date=13 January 2010 , publisher=The Governor-General of New Zealand , archive-date=6 April 2003 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030406104325/http://www.gg.govt.nz/role/constofnz.htm , url-status=live {{Cite news , date=15 February 2005 , title=Factsheet – New Zealand – Political Forces , newspaper=The Economist , url=http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces , access-date=4 August 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060514204533/http://economist.com/countries/NewZealand/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Political%20Forces , archive-date=14 May 2006{{cite web , date=February 1974 , title=New Zealand Legislation: Royal Titles Act 1974 , url=http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html , access-date=8 January 2011 , publisher=New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office , archive-date=20 October 2008 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020151758/http://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1974/0001/latest/DLM411814.html , url-status=live {{cite web , title=The Role of the Governor-General , url=https://gg.govt.nz/role , access-date=6 July 2017 , publisher=The Governor-General of New Zealand , archive-date=29 June 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629234409/https://gg.govt.nz/role , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Parliament Brief: What is Parliament? , url=https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ , access-date=30 November 2016 , publisher=New Zealand Parliament , archive-date=29 October 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029145006/https://www.parliament.nz/en/visit-and-learn/how-parliament-works/fact-sheets/pbrief7/ , url-status=live {{cite web , date=2008 , title=The electoral cycle , url=https://cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 , access-date=30 April 2017 , website=Cabinet Manual , publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet , archive-date=27 January 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127135132/https://www.cabinetmanual.cabinetoffice.govt.nz/6.2 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=The Fragile States Index 2016 , url=http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170204213240/http://fsi.fundforpeace.org/rankings-2016 , archive-date=4 February 2017 , access-date=30 November 2016 , publisher=The Fund for Peace{{cite web , title=Democracy Index 2015 , url=http://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2015 , access-date=30 November 2016 , publisher=The Economist Intelligence Unit , archive-date=2 March 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302130621/http://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignid=DemocracyIndex2015 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2015 , url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 , access-date=30 November 2016 , publisher=Transparency International , archive-date=13 November 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191113052359/http://www.transparency.org/cpi2015 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Background Note: Samoa , url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm , access-date=26 November 2007 , publisher=U.S. State Department , archive-date=22 January 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194546/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1842.htm , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=Braithwaite , first=David , date=28 June 2007 , title=Opera House wins top status , work=The Sydney Morning Herald , url=https://www.smh.com.au/news/travel/opera-house-wins-top-status/2007/06/28/1182624058781.html , access-date=28 June 2007 , archive-date=1 July 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701043939/http://www.smh.com.au/news/travel/opera-house-wins-top-status/2007/06/28/1182624058781.html , url-status=live {{Harvnb, Jupp, , pages=796–802.{{Harvnb, Teo, White, 2003, pages=118–120.{{Harvnb, Davison, Hirst, Macintyre, 1998, pages=98–99{{Harvnb, Teo, White, 2003, pages=125–127.{{Harvnb, Teo, White, 2003, pages=121–123.{{Harvnb, Jupp, , pages=74–77, 808–812.{{cite web , last=Chichester, Jo , year=2007 , title=Return of the Kelly Gang , url=http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=37899&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100204220758/http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D37899%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html , archive-date=4 February 2010 , access-date=1 February 2009 , website=UNESCO Courier , publisher=UNESCO{{cite web , title=The first wave of Australian feature film production , url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:a0bny9r0rpkJ:www.afc.gov.au/downloads/policies/early%2520history_final1.pdf+australian+film+production+%2B+hollywood+%2B+1920s&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgSRefiOTOyLQEmeKt6CgCdo2vNSCscav9DLNNt0yc9iUfLnuc0S02qForlyo3T0wLCj_8Hnw2kRlN8jZxyZer_9QXlngel05Rr8NDnAsZWP-8UqmzB0kWW9T4yVDlWQYmhsm7-&sig=AHIEtbRziGrWdip9B8rYLyNLrH02b8IYuQ , access-date=23 April 2010 , archive-date=11 May 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511185347/http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache%3Aa0bny9r0rpkJ%3Awww.afc.gov.au%2Fdownloads%2Fpolicies%2Fearly%2520history_final1.pdf+australian+film+production+%2B+hollywood+%2B+1920s&hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESgSRefiOTOyLQEmeKt6CgCdo2vNSCscav9DLNNt0yc9iUfLnuc0S02qForlyo3T0wLCj_8Hnw2kRlN8jZxyZer_9QXlngel05Rr8NDnAsZWP-8UqmzB0kWW9T4yVDlWQYmhsm7-&sig=AHIEtbRziGrWdip9B8rYLyNLrH02b8IYuQ , url-status=live {{cite web, url=https://australian.museum/about/history/, title=History, website=Australian.museum, access-date=19 July 2022National Gallery of Victoria – Victorian Heritage Register{{cite web , last=Kaur , first=Jaskiran , date=2013 , title=Where to party in Australia on New Year's Eve , url=http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/531947/20131227/party-new-year-s-eve-australia-sydney.htm , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708231528/http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/531947/20131227/party-new-year-s-eve-australia-sydney.htm , archive-date=8 July 2014 , access-date=27 July 2014 , website=International Business Times{{Cite news , date=11 May 2016 , title=Avo smash and flat whites bringing the Aussie vibe to New York , language=en-AU , work=ABC News , url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-11/australian-cafes-boom-new-york/7404352 , access-date=3 January 2017 , archive-date=3 January 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103171749/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-05-11/australian-cafes-boom-new-york/7404352 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Bush Tucker Plants, or Bush Food , url=http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/ , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511094258/http://www.teachers.ash.org.au/bushtucker/ , archive-date=11 May 2011 , access-date=26 April 2011 , publisher=Teachers.ash.org.au{{cite web , date=23 September 2008 , title=Australian food and drink , url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326134155/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/foodanddrink/ , archive-date=26 March 2010 , publisher=Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts{{cite web , title=Modern Australian recipes and Modern Australian cuisine , url=http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 , url-status=live , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100503111747/http://www.sbs.com.au/food/cuisineindex/RecipeByCuisineMain/383 , archive-date=3 May 2010 , access-date=23 April 2010 , publisher=Special Broadcasting Service{{Cite book , last=Jonsen , first=Helen , title=Kangaroo's Comments and Wallaby's Words: The Aussie Word Book , publisher=Hippocrene Books , year=1999 , isbn=978-0-7818-0737-1 , page=23Unterberger, pp. 465–473Chai, Makana Risser. "Huna, Max Freedom Long, and the Idealization of William Brigham", ''The Hawaiian Journal of History'', Vol. 45 (2011) pp. 101–121{{cite web , last=Kamakawiwo , first=Israel , date=6 December 2010 , title=Israel Kamakawiwo'ole: The Voice Of Hawaii , url=https://www.npr.org/2010/12/06/131812500/israel-kamakawiwo-ole-the-voice-of-hawaii , access-date=16 April 2017 , publisher=NPR , archive-date=16 April 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416062754/http://www.npr.org/2010/12/06/131812500/israel-kamakawiwo-ole-the-voice-of-hawaii , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=Downes , first=Siobhan , date=1 January 2017 , title=World famous in New Zealand: Hobbiton Movie Set , publisher=Stuff Travel , url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/nz/87903487/world-famous-in-new-zealand-hobbiton-movie-set , access-date=6 July 2017 , archive-date=22 September 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922194433/http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/destinations/nz/87903487/world-famous-in-new-zealand-hobbiton-movie-set , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=Tapaleao , first=Vaimoana , date=8 March 2008 , title=Thousands attend Pasifika , work=The New Zealand Herald , url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/multiculturalism/news/article.cfm?c_id=58&objectid=10496916 , access-date=3 February 2017 , archive-date=3 April 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403040349/http://www.nzherald.co.nz/multiculturalism/news/article.cfm?c_id=58&objectid=10496916 , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Government and nation – National holidays , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/government-and-nation/9 , access-date=16 February 2010 , date=3 March 2009 , archive-date=26 December 2018 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226002909/https://teara.govt.nz/en/nation-and-government/page-9 , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Creative life – Music , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 , access-date=21 January 2011 , last=Swarbrick , first=Nancy , date=June 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514223830/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/7 , archive-date=14 May 2011 {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Creative life – Performing arts , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 , access-date=21 January 2011 , last=Swarbrick , first=Nancy , date=June 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515153908/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/creative-life/8 , archive-date=15 May 2011 {{Cite news , last1=Cieply , first1=Michael , last2=Rose , first2=Jeremy , date=October 2010 , title=New Zealand Bends and "Hobbit" Stays , work=The New York Times , url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/business/media/28hobbit.html , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2017-07-01 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170701025024/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/28/business/media/28hobbit.html , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Production Guide: Locations , url=http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107112931/http://www.filmnz.com/production-guide/locations.html , archive-date=7 November 2010 , access-date=21 January 2011 , publisher=Film New Zealand{{cite web , date=January 2016 , title=New Zealand Cuisine , url=http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/nz/cuisine-and-dining , access-date=4 January 2016 , publisher=New Zealand Tourism Guide , archive-date=15 January 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115172320/http://www.tourism.net.nz/new-zealand/nz/cuisine-and-dining , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Kai Pākehā – introduced foods , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/kai-pakeha-introduced-foods , access-date=27 June 2017 , date=November 2008 , last1=Petrie , first1=Hazel , archive-date=27 May 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527070948/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/kai-pakeha-introduced-foods , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Mātaitai – shellfish gathering , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 , access-date=27 June 2017 , date=June 2006 , last1=Whaanga , first1=Mere , archive-date=11 June 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611193911/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/mataitai-shellfish-gathering/page-6 , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Story: Shellfish , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish , access-date=29 August 2016 , archive-date=8 September 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160908224002/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/shellfish , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Cooking – Cooking methods , encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 , access-date=11 December 2016 , date=September 2013 , language=en , last1=Burton , first1=David , archive-date=20 December 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220093052/http://www.teara.govt.nz/en/cooking/page-2 , url-status=live {{Cite news , title=Dance: Siva , work=Samoa.co.uk , url=http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2018-09-25 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925092515/http://www.samoa.co.uk/dance.html , url-status=live {{Cite news , title=Worn With Pride – Tatau (Tatoo) , work=Oceanside Museum of Art , url=http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html , access-date=26 November 2007 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330024149/http://www.oma-online.org/worn_with_pride_04.html , archive-date=30 March 2009{{Cite book , last=Brunt , first=Peter , url=https://archive.org/details/artinoceanianewh0000unse/page/410 , title=Art in Oceania: A New History , date=2012 , publisher=Yale University Press , isbn=978-0-300-19028-1 , location=New Haven and London , page 410–497 }Hutchinson Encyclopedia Oceanic art {{webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515024646/http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0039821.html , date=15 May 2006 . Retrieved on 23 June 2006.Met Timeline of Art History {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614002850/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/02/oc/ht02oc.htm , date=2021-06-14 . Retrieved on 22 June 2006.Taçon, Paul S.C. (2001). "Australia". In Whitely, David S.. ''Handbook of Rock Art Research''. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 531–575. {{ISBN, 978-0-7425-0256-7{{Cite news , last=Henly , first=Susan Gough , date=6 November 2005 , title=Powerful growth of Aboriginal art , work=The New York Times , url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html , access-date=30 July 2022 , archive-date=25 June 2022 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625060911/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/arts/06iht-aborigine.html?_r=1 , url-status=live Met Timeline of Art Histor Ubirr ({{circa 40,000 BCE–present) {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019185309/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ubir/hd_ubir.htm , date=2021-10-19 . Retrieved on 22 June 2006.Met Timeline of Art History {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220328181919/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/lapi/hd_lapi.htm , date=2022-03-28 . Retrieved on 22 June 2006.Met Timeline of Art History {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614003752/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/07/oc/ht07oc.htm , date=2021-06-14 . Retrieved on 22 June 2006.Met Timeline of Art History {{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613230433/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/08/oc/ht08oc.htm , date=2021-06-13 . Retrieved on 22 June 2006.{{cite web , title=Oceania Rugby Vacations , url=http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101028080851/http://realtravel.com/tag-z3461145-314.html , archive-date=28 October 2010 , access-date=17 April 2009 , publisher=Real TravelAustralia – p. 54, Tracey Boraas – 2002Planet Sport – p. 85, Kath Woodward – 2012Australia – p. 101, Sundran Rajendra – 2002New Zealand – p. 76, Rebecca Hirsch – 2013{{Cite news , date=15 October 2008 , title=PNG vow to upset World Cup odds , work=Rugby League , publisher=BBC , url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm , access-date=3 July 2009 , quote=But it would still be one of the biggest shocks in Rugby League World Cup Records, World Cup history if Papua New Guinea – ''the only country to have Rugby League as its national Sport'' – were to qualify for the last 4. , archive-date=15 May 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515044325/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/rugby_league/7671217.stm , url-status=live {{cite web , date=16 April 2008 , title=Nauru AFL team to play in International Cup , url=http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 , access-date=17 April 2009 , website=Solomonstarnews.com , archive-date=16 November 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116034134/http://solomonstarnews.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1023&change=100&changeown=101&Itemid=42 , url-status=live {{Cite encyclopedia , title=Australian rules football (sport) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia , encyclopedia=Britannica.com , url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football , access-date=17 April 2009 , archive-date=26 July 2008 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726103553/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/44079/Australian-rules-football , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Papua New Guinea , url=http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html , website=Miningfm.com.au , access-date=2022-07-30 , archive-date=2013-08-02 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130802055323/http://www.miningfm.com.au/mining-towns/overseas/papua-new-guinea.html , url-status=live {{cite web , date=23 October 2008 , title=MSN Groups Closure Notice , url=http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417041646/http://groups.msn.com/PNGKumuls/history.msnw?pgmarket=en-us , archive-date=17 April 2008 , access-date=17 April 2009 , publisher=Groups.msn.com{{cite web , date=28 March 2008 , title=Football in Australia – Australia's Culture Portal , url=http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090515034759/http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/football/ , archive-date=15 May 2009 , access-date=17 April 2009 , publisher=Cultureandrecreation.gov.au{{cite web , date=13 June 1908 , title=Rugby League Football – 1966 Encyclopaedia of New Zealand , url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en , access-date=17 April 2009 , publisher=Teara.govt.nz , archive-date=23 May 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523192431/http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/R/RugbyLeagueFootball/RugbyLeagueFootball/en , url-status=live {{Cite news , last=Wilson , first=Andy , date=5 November 2009 , title=southern hemisphere sides are a class apart , work=guardian.co.uk , location=London , url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand , access-date=17 June 2010 , archive-date=27 December 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131227085649/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/blog/2009/nov/05/england-rugby-league-australia-new-zealand , url-status=live {{cite web , date=3 April 2009 , title=''FIFA world cup 2010 – qualifying rounds and places available by confederation'' , url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090228220920/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/tournament/index.html , archive-date=28 February 2009 , access-date=17 April 2009 , publisher=Fifa.comAccording to the Act of Papua Autonomy (Undang-Undang Otonomi Khusus bagi Provinsi Papua) section 2 verse 2, the province itself has its own flag and arms, similar to other provinces. However, the flag and arms are not representations of sovereignty over the Republic of Indonesia.West Papua was split from Papua province in 2003 but still retain autonomous status{{Cite news , date=3 July 2014 , title=Australia and New Zealand to compete in Pacific Games , publisher=ABC News , url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 , access-date=9 July 2015 , archive-date=23 April 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423003643/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-03/australia-and-new-zealand-to-compete-in-pacific-games/5568956 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=2018 Census totals by topic national highlights , url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx , access-date=29 May 2020 , publisher=Statistics New Zealand , at=Table 26 , archive-date=13 April 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200413185957/https://www.stats.govt.nz/assets/Uploads/2018-Census-totals-by-topic/Download-data/2018-census-totals-by-topic-national-highlights.xlsx , url-status=live
Further reading
* {{Cite book , last1=Davison , first1=Graeme , title=The Oxford Companion to Australian History , last2=Hirst , first2=John , last3=Macintyre , first3=Stuart , publisher=Oxford University Press , year=1998 , isbn=0-19-553597-9 , location=Melbourne , author-link2=John Hirst (historian) , author-link3=Stuart Macintyre
* Frank Harary & Per Hage (1991) ''Exchange in Oceania: A Graph Theoretic Analysis'', Oxford Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Oxford University Press.
* Frank Harary & Per Hage (2007) ''Island Networks: Communication, Kinship, and Classification Structures in Oceania'', Structural Analysis in the Social Sciences, Cambridge University Press.
* {{Cite book , last=Jupp , first=James , title=The Australian people: an encyclopedia of the nation, its people, and their origins , publisher=Cambridge University Press , year=2001 , isbn=978-0-521-80789-0 , ref=CITEREFJupp
* {{Cite book , last1=Lewis , first1=Martin W. , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2as0sWxFBAC , title=The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography , last2=Wigen , first2=Kären E. , publisher=University of California Press , year=1997 , isbn=978-0-520-20743-1 , location=Berkeley , ref={{sfnref, Lewis & Wigen, The Myth of Continents, 1997 , author-link2=Kären Wigen
* {{Cite book , last1=Teo, first1=Hsu-Ming , title=Cultural history in Australia , last2=White , first2=Richard , publisher=University of New South Wales Press , year=2003 , isbn=978-0-86840-589-6
External links
{{sisterlinks, voy=Oceania
* {{curlie, Regional/Oceania, Oceania
"Australia and Oceania" fro National Geographic
{{Oceania topics
{{Navboxes
, title = Articles related to Oceania
, list =
{{Countries and territories of Oceania
{{List of Oceanian capitals by region
{{Regions of the world
{{Continents of the world
{{Authority control
Oceania,
Continents
Asia-Pacific
Pacific Ocean
Southern Ocean
Indian Ocean