North Africa

North Africa or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the

Africa

n continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of

Mauritania

in the west, to

Egypt

's Suez Canal and the

Red Sea

in the east.

Varying sources limit it to the countries of

Algeria

,

Libya

,

Morocco

, and

Tunisia

, a region that was known by the French during colonial times as "Afrique du Nord" and is known by Arabs as the

Maghreb

("West", ''The western part of Arab World'').

The

United Nations

definition includes

Morocco

,

Algeria

,

Tunisia

,

Libya

,

Egypt

,

Sudan

, and the

Western Sahara

, the territory disputed between

Morocco

and the Sahrawi Republic.

The

African Union

definition includes the

Western Sahara

and

Mauritania

but not

Sudan

. When used in the term Middle East and North Africa (

MENA

), it often refers only to the countries of the Maghreb.

North Africa includes the Spanish possessions of

Ceuta

,

Melilla

and plazas de soberanía and can also be considered to include other Spanish, Portuguese and Italian possessions such as Canary Islands,

Madeira

,

Lampedusa

and

Lampione

.

The countries of North Africa share a common ethnic, cultural and linguistic identity with the Middle East or West Asia that is unique to this region as compared to

Sub-Saharan Africa

.

Northwest Africa has been inhabited by

Berbers

since the beginning of recorded history, while the eastern part of North Africa has been home to the Egyptians. Between the A.D. 600s and 1000s, Arabs from the

Middle East

swept across the region in a wave of Muslim conquest. These peoples formed a single population in many areas, as Berbers and Egyptians merged into

Arabic

and Muslim culture. This process of Arabization and Islamization has defined the cultural landscape of North Africa ever since.

The distinction between North Africa, the

Sahel

and the rest of the

continent

is as follows:

The

Sahel

or "African Transition Zone" has been affected by many formative epochs in North African history ranging from the Ancient Roman colonization, the subsequent

Arab

expansion, to the Ottoman occupation. As a result, many modern African nation-states that are included in the Sahel evidence cultural similarities and historical overlap with their North African neighbours. In the present day, North Africa is associated with

West Asia

in the realm of geopolitics to form a

Middle East-North Africa

region. The Islamic influence in the area is also significant, and North Africa is a major part of the

Muslim world

.

Geography

North Africa has three main geographic features: the

Sahara

desert in the south, the

Atlas Mountains

in the west, and the

Nile River

and delta in the east. The

Atlas Mountains

extend across much of northern

Algeria

,

Morocco

and

Tunisia

. These mountains are part of the fold mountain system that also runs through much of

Southern Europe

. They recede to the south and east, becoming a

steppe

landscape before meeting the

Sahara

desert, which covers more than 75 percent of the region. The tallest peaks are in the High Atlas range in south-central Morocco, which has many snow-capped peaks.

South of the Atlas Mountains is the dry and barren expanse of the

Sahara

desert, which is the largest sand desert in the world. In places the desert is cut by irregular watercourses called wadis—streams that flow only after rainfalls but are usually dry. The Sahara's major landforms include ergs, large seas of sand that sometimes form into huge dunes; the hammada, a level rocky plateau without soil or sand; and the reg, a level plain of gravel or small stones. The Sahara covers the southern part of Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, and most of Libya. Only two regions of Libya are outside the desert:

Tripolitania

in the northwest and

Cyrenaica

in the northeast. Most of Egypt is also desert, with the exception of the Nile River and the irrigated land along its banks. The Nile Valley forms a narrow fertile thread that runs along the length of the country.

Sheltered valleys in the

Atlas Mountains

, the Nile Valley and Delta, and the Mediterranean coast are the main sources of fertile farming land. A wide variety of valuable crops including cereals, rice and cotton, and woods such as cedar and cork, are grown. Typical Mediterranean crops, such as olives, figs, dates and citrus fruits, also thrive in these areas. The Nile Valley is particularly fertile and most of the population in

Egypt

live close to the river. Elsewhere, irrigation is essential to improve crop yields on the desert margins.

Key information

People

The inhabitants of North Africa are roughly divided in a manner corresponding to the principal geographic regions of North Africa: the Maghreb, the

Nile

valley, and the

Sahel

. The Maghreb or western North Africa on the whole is believed to have been inhabited by

Berbers

since at least 10,000 B.C., while the eastern part of North Africa or the

Nile Valley

has mainly been home to the Egyptians. Ancient Egyptians record extensive contact in their Western desert with people that appear to have been Berber or proto-Berber. As the Tassili n'Ajjer and other rock art findings in the Sahara have shown, the

Sahara

also hosted various populations before its rapid desertification in 3500 B.C and even today continues to host small populations of nomadic trans-Saharan peoples.

The migration of the Banu Hilal and the Banu Sulaym westward into the Maghreb in the eleventh century introduced Arabic culture and language to the countryside. Historians mark their movement as a critical moment in the Arabization of North Africa.

The official languages in the countries making up the Maghreb are Arabic,

Tamazight

as a second official language in Algeria and Morocco, and Spanish in Ceuta and Melilla. French is also used as an administrative language in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. The most spoken language is Maghrebi Arabic, which is a form of ancient Arabic dating back from the 8th century AD that follows a Berber grammatical and syntactical structure. For the remaining North African countries, the official language is Arabic. The largest ethnic groups in North Africa are

Arabs

,

Berbers

are considered the second largest ethnicity in north africa and

West Africa

ns are the largest ethnicity in the west and the

Arabs

are a majority also in the east approaching the Middle East. The region is predominantly

Muslim

with a

Jewish

minority in

Morocco

,

Algeria

and

Tunisia

, and significant Christian minority—the

Copts

—in

Egypt

,

Algeria

, Morocco and Tunisia.

The inhabitants of the Spanish Canary Islands are of mixed Spanish and North African Berber ancestry, and the people of

Malta

are of primarily Southern Italian/Sicilian, as well as, to a lesser extent, North African and Middle Eastern ancestry and speak a derivative of Arabic. However, these areas are not generally considered part of North Africa, but rather Southern Europe, due to their proximity to mainland Europe and their European-based cultures and religion.

Culture

The people of the Maghreb and the Sahara regions speak

Berber languages

and several varieties of Arabic and almost exclusively follow Islam. The Arabic and Berber languages are distantly related, both being members of the

Afroasiatic language family

. The Tuareg Berber languages are notably more conservative than those of the coastal cities.

Over the years, Berbers have been influenced by contact with other cultures: Egyptians,

Greeks

, Punic people, Romans, Vandals,

Arabs

, Europeans and

Africa

ns. The cultures of the Maghreb and the Sahara therefore combine indigenous Berber, Arab and elements from neighboring parts of Africa and beyond. In the Sahara, the distinction between sedentary

oasis

inhabitants and nomadic

Bedouin

s and Tuaregs is particularly marked.

The diverse peoples of North Africa are usually categorized along ethno-linguistic lines. In the Maghreb, where Arab and Berber identities are often integrated, these lines can be blurred. Some Berber-speaking North Africans may identify as "Arab" depending on the social and political circumstances, although substantial numbers of Berbers (or ''Imazighen'') have retained a distinct cultural identity which in the 20th century has been expressed as a clear ethnic identification with Berber history and language. Arabic-speaking Northwest Africans, regardless of ethnic background, often identify with Arab history and culture and may share a common vision with other Arabs. This, however, may or may not exclude pride in and identification with Berber and/or other parts of their heritage. Berber political and cultural activists for their part, often referred to as Berberists, may view all Northwest Africans as principally Berber, whether they are primarily Berber- or Arabic-speaking.

Egyptians over the centuries have shifted their language from Egyptian (in its late form, varieties of Coptic) to modern Egyptian Arabic while retaining a sense of national identity that has historically set them apart from other people in the region. Most Egyptians are Sunni Muslim, although there is a significant minority of Coptic Christians.

The Maghreb formerly had a significant Jewish population, almost all of whom emigrated to France or

Israel

when the North African nations gained independence. Prior to the modern establishment of Israel, there were about 600,000–700,000 Jews in Northern Africa, including both Sephardi Jews (refugees from France, Spain and Portugal from the Renaissance era) as well as indigenous Mizrahi Jews. Today, less than fifteen thousand remain in the region, almost all in Morocco and Tunisia, and are mostly part of a French-speaking urban elite. (See Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries.)

History

Prehistory

Due to the recent African origin of modern humans, the history of Prehistoric North Africa is important to the understanding of pre-hominid and early modern human history in Africa.
Some researchers have postulated that North Africa rather than East Africa served as the exit point for the modern humans who first trekked out of the continent in the Out of Africa migration. The earliest inhabitants of central North Africa have left behind significant remains: early remnants of hominid occupation in North Africa, for example, were found in Ain el Hanech, near Saïda (c. 200,000 BCE); in fact, more recent investigations have found signs of

Oldowan

technology there, and indicate a date of up to 1.8 million BCE.
Recent finds in Jebel Irhoud in Morocco have been found to contain some of the oldest ''Homo sapiens'' remains; This suggests that, rather than arising only in East Africa around 200,000 years ago, early ''Homo sapiens'' may already have been present across the length of Africa 100,000 years earlier. According to study author Jean-Jacques Hublin, "The idea is that early ''Homo sapiens'' dispersed around the continent and elements of human modernity appeared in different places, and so different parts of Africa contributed to the emergence of what we call modern humans today." Early humans may have comprised a large, interbreeding population dispersed across Africa whose spread was facilitated by a wetter climate that created a "green Sahara", around 330,000 to 300,000 years ago. The rise of modern humans may thus have taken place on a continental scale rather than being confined to a particular corner of Africa.
In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260

CT scan

s, of a virtual

skull shape

of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/''H. sapiens'', representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and Southern Africa.

The cave paintings found at Tassili n'Ajjer, north of Tamanrasset, Algeria, and at other locations depict vibrant and vivid scenes of everyday life in central North Africa during the Neolithic Subpluvial period (about 8000 to 4000 BCE). Some parts of North Africa began to participate in the Neolithic revolution in the 6th millennium BCE, just before the rapid desertification of the Sahara around 3500 B.C. largely due to a tilt in the Earth's orbit. It was during this period that domesticated plants and animals were introduced in the region, spreading from the north and east to the southwest. There has been an inferred connection between areas of rapid drying and the introduction of livestock in which the natural (orbital) aridification was amplified by the spread of shrubs and open land due to grazing. Nevertheless, changes in northern Africa's ecology after 3500 BCE provided the backdrop for the formation of dynastic civilizations and the construction of monumental architecture such as the

Pyramids of Giza

.

When Egypt entered the Bronze Age, the Maghreb remained focused on small-scale subsistence in small, highly mobile groups. Some Phoenician and Greek colonies were established along the Mediterranean coast during the 7th century BCE.

Antiquity and ancient Rome

The most notable nations of antiquity in western North Africa are

Carthage

,

Numidia

and

Mauretania

. The Phoenicians colonized much of North Africa including Carthage and parts of present-day Morocco (including

Chellah

,

Essaouira

and

Volubilis

). The Carthaginians were of Phoenician origin, with the Roman myth of their origin being that

Dido

, a Phoenician princess, was granted land by a local ruler based on how much land she could cover with a piece of cowhide. She ingeniously devised a method to extend the cowhide to a high proportion, thus gaining a large territory. She was also rejected by the

Trojan

prince Aeneas according to

Virgil

, thus creating a historical enmity between Carthage and

Rome

, as Aeneas would eventually lay the foundations for Rome. Ancient Carthage was a commercial power and had a strong navy, but relied on mercenaries for land soldiers. The Carthaginians developed an empire in the

Iberian Peninsula

,

Malta

,

Sardinia

,

Corsica

and North West

Sicily

, the latter being the cause of First Punic War with the Romans.

Over a hundred years and more, all Carthaginian territory was eventually conquered by the Romans, resulting in the Carthaginian North African territories becoming the Roman province of Africa in 146 B.C. This led to tension and eventually

conflict

between

Numidia

and Rome. The Numidian wars are notable for launching the careers of both Gaius Marius, and

Sulla

, and stretching the constitutional burden of the Roman republic as Marius required a professional army, something previously contrary to Roman values, to overcome the talented

military

leader

Jugurtha

. Kingdom of

Mauretania

remained independent until being annexed to the Roman Empire by Emperor

Claudius

in 42 AD.

North Africa remained a part of the Roman Empire, which produced many notable citizens such as

Augustine of Hippo

, until incompetent leadership from Roman commanders in the early fifth century allowed the

Germanic peoples

, the Vandals, to cross the

Strait of Gibraltar

, whereupon they overcame the fickle Roman defense. The loss of North Africa is considered a pinnacle point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire as Africa had previously been an important grain province that maintained Roman prosperity despite the barbarian incursions, and the wealth required to create new armies. The issue of regaining North Africa became paramount to the Western Empire, but was frustrated by Vandal victories. The focus of Roman energy had to be on the emerging threat of the

Huns

. In 468 AD, the Romans made one last serious attempt to invade North Africa but were repelled. This perhaps marks the point of terminal decline for the

Western Roman Empire

. The last Roman emperor was deposed in 476 by the Heruli general

Odoacer

. Trade routes between

Europe

and North Africa remained intact until the coming of Islam. Some Berbers were members of the Early African Church (but evolved their own Donatist doctrine), some were

Berber Jews

, and some adhered to traditional Berber religion. African pope

Victor I

served during the reign of Roman emperor Septimius Severus. Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Ottomans and Carthaginians the Kabyle people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent. The Kabyle people were incredibly resistible so much so that even during the Arab conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.

Arab conquest to modern times

The early Muslim conquests included North Africa by 640. By 700, most of North Africa had come under Muslim rule. Indigenous Berbers subsequently started to form their own polities in response in places such as

Fez

and Sijilmasa. In the eleventh century, a reformist movement made up of members that called themselves the Almoravid dynasty expanded south into

Sub-Saharan Africa

.

North Africa's populous and flourishing civilization collapsed after exhausting its resources in internal fighting and suffering devastation from the invasion of the Banu Sulaym and Banu Hilal. Ibn Khaldun noted that the lands ravaged by Banu Hilal invaders had become completely arid desert.

After the Middle Ages much of the area was loosely under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The

Spanish Empire

conquered several coastal cities between the 16th and 18th centuries. After the 19th century, the imperial and colonial presence of France,

the United Kingdom

,

Spain

and

Italy

left the entirety of the region under one form of European occupation.

In World War II from 1940 to 1943 the area was the setting for the North African Campaign. During the 1950s and 1960s all of the North African states gained independence. There remains a dispute over

Western Sahara

between

Morocco

and the

Algeria

n-backed Polisario Front.

The wider protest movement known as the Arab Spring began with revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt which ultimately led to the overthrow of their governments, as well as civil war in Libya. Large protests also occurred in Algeria and Morocco to a lesser extent. Many hundreds died in the uprisings.

Science and technology

''Further information in the sections of History of science and technology in Africa:''

* Education
* Astronomy
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 3, Mathematics
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 4, Metallurgy
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 5, Medicine
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 6, Agriculture
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa, Textiles
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 7, Maritime technology
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 8, Architecture
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 9, Communication systems
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa, Nile Valley, and the Sahel, Warfare
* History of science and technology in Africa#Northern Africa and the Nile Valley 10, Commerce
* History of science and technology in Africa#North Africa, By country

Transport and industry

The economies of

Algeria

and

Libya

were transformed by the discovery of oil and natural gas reserves in the deserts.

Morocco

's major exports are phosphates and agricultural produce, and as in

Egypt

and

Tunisia

, the tourist industry is essential to the economy.

Egypt

has the most varied industrial base, importing technology to develop electronics and engineering industries, and maintaining the reputation of its high-quality cotton textiles.

Oil rigs are scattered throughout the deserts of

Libya

and

Algeria

. Libyan oil is especially prized because of its low sulfur content, which means it produces less sulfur dioxide than other fuel oils.

See also

* Demographics of the Middle East and North Africa
*Culture of Egypt
* European Digital Archive on Soil Maps of the World
* List of modern conflicts in North Africa

References

Further reading

* Cesari, Jocelyne. ''The awakening of Muslim democracy: Religion, modernity, and the state'' (Cambridge University Press, 2014).
* Fischbach, ed. Michael R. ''Biographical encyclopedia of the modern Middle East and North Africa'' (Gale Group, 2008).
* Ilahiane, Hsain. ''Historical dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen)'' (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).
* Issawi, Charles. ''An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa'' (Routledge, 2013).
* Naylor, Phillip C. ''North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present'' (University of Texas Press, 2015).

External links

Human Rights for Indigenous Peoples

North Africa's Weather Forecasts and Weather Conditions

North Africa news and analysis

Africa Interactive Map
from the United States Army Africa

{{Authority control
North Africa,