Neidan, or internal alchemy (), is an array of esoteric doctrines and physical, mental, and spiritual practices that

Taoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...

initiates use to prolong life and create an immortal spiritual body that would survive after death. Also known as Jindan ( "golden elixir"), inner alchemy combines theories derived from external alchemy (''

waidan , translated as 'external alchemy' or 'external elixir', is the early branch of Chinese alchemy that focuses upon compounding elixirs of immortality by heating minerals, metals, and other natural substances in a luted crucible. The later bran ...

'' ), correlative cosmology (including the

Five Phases (; Japanese: (); Korean: (); Vietnamese: ''ngũ hành'' (五行)), usually translated as Five Phases or Five Agents, is a fivefold conceptual scheme that many traditional Chinese fields used to explain a wide array of phenomena, from cosmi ...

), the

emblems An emblem is an abstract or representational pictorial image that represents a concept, like a moral truth, or an allegory, or a person, like a king or saint. Emblems vs. symbols Although the words ''emblem'' and ''symbol'' are often used in ...

of the ''

Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zho ...

'', and

medical theory Medical research (or biomedical research), also known as experimental medicine, encompasses a wide array of research, extending from "basic research" (also called ''bench science'' or ''bench research''), – involving fundamental scientif ...

, with techniques of

Taoist meditation Taoist meditation (, ), known in Chinese as "Xiu Dao", refers to the traditional meditative practices associated with the Chinese philosophy and religion of Taoism, including concentration, mindfulness, contemplation, and visualization. The ear ...

daoyin Daoyin is a series of cognitive body and mind unity exercises practiced as a form of Taoist neigong, meditation and mindfulness to cultivate '' jing'' (essence) and direct and refine '' qi'', the internal energy of the body according to Traditio ...

gymnastics, and

sexual hygiene Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) is a field of research, healthcare, and social activism that explores the health of an individual's reproductive system and sexual wellbeing during all stages of their life. The term can also be further de ...

. In Neidan the human body becomes a cauldron (or "ding") in which the Three Treasures of Jing ("Essence"), Qi ("Breath") and Shen ("Spirit") are cultivated for the purpose of improving physical, emotional and mental health, and ultimately returning to the primordial unity of the

Tao ''Tao'' or ''Dao'' is the natural order of the universe, whose character one's intuition must discern to realize the potential for individual wisdom, as conceived in the context of East Asian philosophy, East Asian religions, or any other phil ...

, i.e., attaining Taoist Immortality. It is believed the '' Xiuzhen Tu'' is such a cultivation map. In China, it is an important form of practice for most schools of

Taoism Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of Philosophy, philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of China, Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmo ...

Terminology

The Chinese

compound Compound may refer to: Architecture and built environments * Compound (enclosure), a cluster of buildings having a shared purpose, usually inside a fence or wall ** Compound (fortification), a version of the above fortified with defensive struct ...

''nèidān'' combines the common word ''nèi'' meaning "inside; inner; internal" with ''dān'' "cinnabar; vermillion; elixir; alchemy". The

antonym In lexical semantics, opposites are words lying in an inherently incompatible binary relationship. For example, something that is ''long'' entails that it is not ''short''. It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members ...

of ''nèi'' is ''wài'' "outside; exterior; external", and ''nèidān'' "internal elixir / alchemy" was coined from the earlier complementary term ''wàidān'' "external elixir / alchemy". Chinese alchemical texts and sources ordinarily call ''neidan'' the ''jīndān dào'' or Way of the Golden Elixir. In

Modern Standard Chinese Standard Chinese ()—in linguistics Standard Northern Mandarin or Standard Beijing Mandarin, in common speech simply Mandarin, better qualified as Standard Mandarin, Modern Standard Mandarin or Standard Mandarin Chinese—is a modern standar ...

usage, the term ''nèidān shù'' (with "art; skill; technique; method") refers generally to internal alchemical practices. The date for the earliest use of the term ''neidan'' is uncertain. or ''neidan'' had been mentioned in by Xu Xun 许逊 in

Jin dynasty (266–420) The Jin dynasty (; ) or the Jin Empire, sometimes distinguished as the (司馬晉) or the (兩晉), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed from 266 to 420. It was founded by Sima Yan (Emperor Wu), eldest son of Sima Zhao, who had pr ...

, but in the other hand

Arthur Waley Arthur David Waley (born Arthur David Schloss, 19 August 188927 June 1966) was an English orientalist and sinologist who achieved both popular and scholarly acclaim for his translations of Chinese and Japanese poetry. Among his honours were ...

proposed that it was first recorded in the 559 vow taken by

Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of Mahāyāna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. The school emphasizes the ''Lotus Sutra's'' doctrine of the "One Vehicle" (''Ekayāna'') as well as Mādhyamaka philosophy, ...

Buddhist patriarch

Nanyue Huisi Nanyue Huisi (, 515-577), was an eminent Chinese Buddhist monk, traditionally regarded as the third patriarch of the Tiantai school. According to Sasaki, Huisi "was the leading authority on the ''Lotus Sutra'' of his time." Biography The earli ...

praying to successfully make an elixir that would keep him alive until the coming of

Maitreya Maitreya (Sanskrit: ) or Metteyya (Pali: ), also Maitreya Buddha or Metteyya Buddha, is regarded as the future Buddha of this world in Buddhist eschatology. As the 5th and final Buddha of the current kalpa, Maitreya's teachings will be aimed at ...

. Many scholars agreed, including

Joseph Needham Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, in ...

and

Lu Gwei-djen Lu Gwei-djen (; July 22, 1904 – November 28, 1991) was a Chinese biochemist and historian. She was an expert on the history of science and technology in China and a researcher of nutriology. She was an important researcher and co-author of ...

who translated Huisi's vow to live as an ascetic in the mountains:

I am seeking for the longevity in order to defend the Faith, not in order to enjoy worldly happiness. I pray that all the saints and sages will come to my help, so that I may get some good magic mushrooms 'zhi'' and numinous elixirs 'shendan'' enabling me to cure all illnesses and to stop both hunger and thirst. In this way I shall be able to practice continually the way of the Sutras and to engage in the several forms of meditations. I shall hope to find a peaceful dwelling in the depths of the mountains, with enough numinous elixirs and medicine to carry out my plans. Thus, by the aids of external elixirs 'waidan''I shall be able to cultivate the elixir within 'neidan''

Others believed that ''neidan'' first occurred in the biographies of Deng Yuzhi (fl. 483–493) and Su Yuanming (fl. c. 600). However, the authenticity of the relevant passages mention above is doubtful. The term ''neidan'' was seldom used throughout the late

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...

(618–907) and

Five dynasties The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (), from 907 to 979, was an era of political upheaval and division in 10th-century Imperial China. Five dynastic states quickly succeeded one another in the Central Plain, and more than a dozen conc ...

(907–960) period, and only became widespread around the beginning of the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...

(960–1279) period, when ''neidan'' evolved into a highly complex system in both its theoretical and practical aspects. Tang texts described internal alchemical practices with the words ''fúyào'' "take drug/medicine" and ''chángshēng'' "long life, longevity; (Taoism) eternal life". Liu Xiyue's 988 ''Taixuan langranzi jindao shi'' (Master Taixuan Langran's Poems on Advancing in the Tao) has the earliest datable mention of the terms ''neidan'' and ''waidan''. The c. 1019 ''

Yunji Qiqian The ''Yunji qiqian'' is a (c. 1029) anthology of the (1016) Taoist Canon, which the Taoist scholar-official Zhang Junfang compiled for Emperor Zhenzong of Song. The ''Yunji qiqian'' records many early Taoist texts that have been lost since the 1 ...

'' Taoist anthology mentions the term ''neidan''. Early texts that mention ''neidan'' define it as synonymous or similar with some ''qi'' circulation techniques: Cultivation and Transmutation (''xiulian'' ), Embryonic Breathing (''taixi'' ), the Cyclical Elixir (''huandan'' ), the Golden Elixir (''jindan'' ), the Great Elixir (''dadan'' ), the Interior and Exterior Medicines (''nei/waiyao'' ), the Inner and Outer Counterparts (''nei/waixiang'' ), and the Yin Elixir and Yang Elixir (''yindan'' and ''yangdan'' ). Based upon the textual evidence, Farzeen Baldrian-Hussein concludes that in early texts, ''neidan'' refers to a specific technique, and by Song

Emperor Zhenzong Emperor Zhenzong of Song (23 December 968 – 23 March 1022), personal name Zhao Heng, was the third emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 997 to his death in 1022. His personal name was originally Zhao Dechang, but was change ...

's reign (997–1022), the term designates a group of techniques, expressed in specific alchemical language. It is sometimes transliterated using the older Wade–Giles system as ''Neitan'' in literature on western Alchemy.

History and development

Neidan is part of the Chinese alchemical meditative tradition that is said to have been separated into internal and external (''

Waidan , translated as 'external alchemy' or 'external elixir', is the early branch of Chinese alchemy that focuses upon compounding elixirs of immortality by heating minerals, metals, and other natural substances in a luted crucible. The later bran ...

'') at some point during the

. The ''Cantong qi'' (

The Kinship of the Three The ''Cantong qi'' is deemed to be the earliest book on Taoist alchemy in China. The title has been variously translated as ''Kinship of the Three'', ''Akinness of the Three'', ''Triplex Unity'', ''The Seal of the Unity of the Three'', and in s ...

) is the earliest known book on theoretical alchemy in China; it was written by the alchemist

Wei Boyang Wei Boyang () was a notable Chinese writer and Taoist alchemist of the Eastern Han Dynasty. He is the author of '' The Kinship of the Three'', and is noted as the first person to have documented the chemical composition of gunpowder in 142 AD.Pe ...

in 142 AD. This text influenced the formation of Neidan, whose earliest existing texts date from the first half of the 8th century. The authors of several Neidan articles refer to their teachings as the Way of the Golden Elixir (''jindan zhi dao''). The majority of Chinese alchemical sources is found in the ''Daozang'' (

Taoist Canon Daozang (), meaning 'Taoist Canon', consists of around 1,400 texts that were collected (after the ''Daodejing'' and ''Zhuangzi'' and Liezi which are the core Taoist texts). They were collected by Taoist monks of the period in an attempt to brin ...

), the largest collection of Taoist texts. Neidan shares a significant portion of its notions and methods with classical Chinese medicine, ''

fangshi ''Fangshi'' () were Chinese technical specialists who flourished from the third century BCE to the fifth century CE. English translations of ''fangshi'' include alchemist, astrologer, diviner, exorcist, geomancer, doctor, magician, monk, mystic, ...

'' and with other bodies of practices, such as

meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness, or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness, and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally cal ...

and the methods for "nourishing life" (''yangsheng''). What distinguishes alchemy from these related traditions is its unique view of the elixir as a material or immaterial entity that represents the original state of being and the attainment of that state. The Neidan tradition of internal

alchemy Alchemy (from Arabic: ''al-kīmiyā''; from Ancient Greek: χυμεία, ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practiced in China, India, the Muslim world, ...

is practiced by working with the energies that were already present in the human body as opposed to using natural substances, medicines or elixirs, from outside of the body. The

Shangqing School The Shangqing School (Chinese:上清派), also known as Supreme Clarity or Highest Clarity is a Taoist movement that began during the aristocracy of the Western Jin dynasty. Shangqing can be translated as either 'Supreme Clarity' or 'Highest Clari ...

of Taoism played an important role in the emergence of Neidan alchemy, after using Waidan mainly as a meditative practice, and therefore turning it from an external to an internal art.

The Three Treasures

Internal alchemy focuses upon transforming the bodily ''sanbao'' "three treasures", which are the essential energies sustaining human life: *'' Jing'' "nutritive essence, essence; refined, perfected; extract; spirit, demon; sperm, seed" *'' Qi'' "vitality, energy, force; air, vapor; breath; spirit, vigor; attitude" *'' Shen'' "spirit; soul, mind; god, deity; supernatural being" According to the 13th-century '' Book of Balance and Harmony'': :Making one's essence complete, one can preserve the body. To do so, first keep the body at ease, and make sure there are no desires. Thereby energy can be made complete. :Making one's energy complete, one can nurture the mind. To do so, first keep the mind pure, and make sure there are no thoughts. Thereby spirit can be made complete. :Making one's spirit complete, one can recover emptiness. To do so, first keep the will sincere, and make sure body and mind are united. Thereby spirit can be returned to emptiness. ... To attain immortality, there is nothing else but the refinement of these three treasures: essence, energy, spirit." When the "three treasures" are internally maintained, along with a balance of yin and yang, it is possible to achieve a healthy body and

longevity The word " longevity" is sometimes used as a synonym for "life expectancy" in demography. However, the term ''longevity'' is sometimes meant to refer only to especially long-lived members of a population, whereas ''life expectancy'' is always d ...

, which are the main goals of internal alchemy (Ching 1996, 395).

Jing

''Jing'' "essence" referring to the energies of the physical body. Based upon the idea that death was caused by depleting one's ''jing'', Daoist internal alchemy claimed that preserving ''jing'' allowed one to achieve longevity, if not

immortality Immortality is the concept of eternal life. Some modern species may possess biological immortality. Some scientists, futurists, and philosophers have theorized about the immortality of the human body, with some suggesting that human immorta ...

Qi

'' Qi'' or ''ch'i'' is defined as the "natural energy of the universe" and manifests in everyone and everything. By means of internal alchemy, Taoists strive to obtain a positive flow of ''qi'' through the body in paths moving to each individual organ. Healing practices such as

acupuncture Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientifi ...

massage Massage is the manipulation of the body's soft tissues. Massage techniques are commonly applied with hands, fingers, elbows, knees, forearms, feet or a device. The purpose of massage is generally for the treatment of body stress or pain. In Eu ...

, cupping and

herbal medicines Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remedies ...

are believed to open up the ''qi'' meridians throughout the body so that the ''qi'' can flow freely. Keeping ''qi'' in balance and flowing throughout the body promotes health; imbalance can lead to sickness.

Shen

''Shen'' is the original spirit of the body. Taoists try to become conscious of ''shen'' through contemplative practices, including meditation.(Smith 1986, 202)

Works cited

* *. * * * * * * * * * *

References

External links

''Daoist Alchemy in the West: The Esoteric Paradigms''
Lee Irwin

Fabrizio Pregadio

Fabrizio Pregadio (PDF, free download)

Walter Picca
An Shigao and Early Chinese Meditation Techniques
Phra Kiattisak Kittipanyo, ''DIRI Journal'' 1: 98–118. {{Alchemy Chinese philosophy Taoist philosophy Taoist practices Qigong de:Neidan