In
genetics
Genetics is the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.Hartl D, Jones E (2005) It is an important branch in biology because heredity is vital to organisms' evolution. Gregor Mendel, a Moravian Augustinian friar wor ...
, a nonsense mutation is a
point mutation
A point mutation is a genetic mutation where a single nucleotide base is changed, inserted or deleted from a DNA or RNA sequence of an organism's genome. Point mutations have a variety of effects on the downstream protein product—consequences ...
in a
sequence
In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...
of
DNA that results in a premature
stop codon
In molecular biology (specifically protein biosynthesis), a stop codon (or termination codon) is a codon (nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA) that signals the termination of the translation process of the current protein. Most codons in me ...
, or a ''nonsense codon'' in the
transcribed mRNA
In molecular biology, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of Protein biosynthesis, synthesizing a protein.
mRNA is ...
, and in leading to a truncated, incomplete, and usually nonfunctional
protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, respo ...
product.
The functional effect of a nonsense mutation depends on the location of the
stop codon
In molecular biology (specifically protein biosynthesis), a stop codon (or termination codon) is a codon (nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA) that signals the termination of the translation process of the current protein. Most codons in me ...
within the coding
DNA. For example, the effect of a nonsense mutation depends on the proximity of the nonsense mutation to the original stop codon, and the degree to which functional subdomains of the protein are affected. As nonsense mutations leads to premature termination of
polypeptide chains
Peptides (, ) are short chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. Long chains of amino acids are called proteins. Chains of fewer than twenty amino acids are called oligopeptides, and include dipeptides, tripeptides, and tetrapeptides.
A p ...
; they are also called chain termination mutations.
Missense mutations
In genetics, a missense mutation is a point mutation in which a single nucleotide change results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid. It is a type of nonsynonymous substitution.
Substitution of protein from DNA mutations
Missense mu ...
differ from nonsense mutations since they are
point mutations
A point mutation is a genetic mutation where a single nucleotide base is changed, inserted or deleted from a DNA or RNA sequence of an organism's genome. Point mutations have a variety of effects on the downstream protein product—consequence ...
that exhibit a single
nucleotide
Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules wi ...
change to cause substitution of a different
amino acid
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although hundreds of amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the alpha-amino acids, which comprise proteins. Only 22 alpha am ...
. A nonsense mutation also differs from a
nonstop mutation, which is a point mutation that removes a stop codon. About 10% of patients facing genetic diseases have involvement with nonsense mutations.
Some of the diseases that these mutations can cause are
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a severe type of muscular dystrophy that primarily affects boys. Muscle weakness usually begins around the age of four, and worsens quickly. Muscle loss typically occurs first in the thighs and pelvis fol ...
(DMD),
cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a rare genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine. Long-term issues include difficulty breathing and coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. O ...
(CF),
spinal muscular atrophy
Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a rare neuromuscular disorder that results in the loss of motor neurons and progressive muscle wasting. It is usually diagnosed in infancy or early childhood and if left untreated it is the most common genetic ...
(SMA),
cancers
Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Poss ...
,
metabolic diseases
Inborn errors of metabolism form a large class of genetic diseases involving congenital disorders of enzyme activities. The majority are due to defects of single genes that code for enzymes that facilitate conversion of various substances ( substra ...
, and
neurologic disorders. The rate of nonsense mutations is variable from gene-to-gene and tissue-to-tissue but gene silencing occurs in every patient with a nonsense mutation.
Simple Example
DNA: 5' - ATG ACT CAC
CGA GCG CGA AGC TGA - 3'
3' - TAC TGA GTG
GCT CGC GCT TCG ACT - 5'
mRNA
In molecular biology, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of Protein biosynthesis, synthesizing a protein.
mRNA is ...
: 5' - AUG ACU CAC CGA GCG CGA AGC UGA - 3'
Protein:
Met Thr His
His or HIS may refer to:
Computing
* Hightech Information System, a Hong Kong graphics card company
* Honeywell Information Systems
* Hybrid intelligent system
* Microsoft Host Integration Server
Education
* Hangzhou International School, in ...
Arg Ala Ala, ALA, Alaa or Alae may refer to:
Places
* Ala, Hiiu County, Estonia, a village
* Ala, Valga County, Estonia, a village
* Ala, Alappuzha, Kerala, India, a village
* Ala, Iran, a village in Semnan Province
* Ala, Gotland, Sweden
* Alad, S ...
Arg Ser
Ser or SER may refer to:
Places
* Ser, a village in Bogdand Commune, Satu Mare County, Romania
* Serpens (Ser), an astronomical constellation of the northern hemisphere
* Serres, known as Ser in Serbian, a city in Macedonia, Greece
Organization ...
Stop
Stop may refer to:
Places
* Stop, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in the United States
* Stop (Rogatica), a village in Rogatica, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Facilities
* Bus stop
* Truck stop, a type of rest stop for truck d ...
The example above begins with a 5'
DNA sequence
DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. Th ...
with eight
nucleotides
Nucleotides are organic molecules consisting of a nucleoside and a phosphate. They serve as monomeric units of the nucleic acid polymers – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA), both of which are essential biomolecules w ...
seen and its complementary strand shown below. The next row highlights the 5'
mRNA
In molecular biology, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of Protein biosynthesis, synthesizing a protein.
mRNA is ...
strand, which is generated through
transcription
Transcription refers to the process of converting sounds (voice, music etc.) into letters or musical notes, or producing a copy of something in another medium, including:
Genetics
* Transcription (biology), the copying of DNA into RNA, the fir ...
. Lastly, the final row showcases which the
amino acids
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although hundreds of amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the alpha-amino acids, which comprise proteins. Only 22 alpha am ...
that are
translated
Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between ''transla ...
from each respective
codon
The genetic code is the set of rules used by living cells to translate information encoded within genetic material ( DNA or RNA sequences of nucleotide triplets, or codons) into proteins. Translation is accomplished by the ribosome, which links ...
, with the eighth and final codon representing the
stop codon
In molecular biology (specifically protein biosynthesis), a stop codon (or termination codon) is a codon (nucleotide triplet within messenger RNA) that signals the termination of the translation process of the current protein. Most codons in me ...
. The codons corresponding to the fourth amino acid,
Arginine
Arginine is the amino acid with the formula (H2N)(HN)CN(H)(CH2)3CH(NH2)CO2H. The molecule features a guanidino group appended to a standard amino acid framework. At physiological pH, the carboxylic acid is deprotonated (−CO2−) and both the am ...
, are highlighted because they will undergo a nonsense mutation in the following figure of this example.
DNA: 5' - ATG ACT CAC
TGA GCG CGA AGC TGA - 3'
3' - TAC TGA GTG
ACT CGC GCT TCG ACT - 5'
mRNA
In molecular biology, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) is a single-stranded molecule of RNA that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene, and is read by a ribosome in the process of Protein biosynthesis, synthesizing a protein.
mRNA is ...
: 5' - AUG ACU CAC
UGA GCG CGU AGC UGA - 3'
Protein:
Met Thr His
His or HIS may refer to:
Computing
* Hightech Information System, a Hong Kong graphics card company
* Honeywell Information Systems
* Hybrid intelligent system
* Microsoft Host Integration Server
Education
* Hangzhou International School, in ...
Stop
Stop may refer to:
Places
* Stop, Kentucky, an unincorporated community in the United States
* Stop (Rogatica), a village in Rogatica, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Facilities
* Bus stop
* Truck stop, a type of rest stop for truck d ...
Now, suppose that a nonsense mutation was introduced at the fourth codon in the 5' DNA sequence (CGA) causing the
cytosine
Cytosine () ( symbol C or Cyt) is one of the four nucleobases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine, guanine, and thymine (uracil in RNA). It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an am ...
to be replaced with
thymine
Thymine () ( symbol T or Thy) is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-methyluracil, a pyrimidine nu ...
, yielding TGA in the 5' DNA sequence and ACT in the complementary strand. Because ACT is transcribed as UGA, it is translated as a stop codon. This leads the remaining codons of the mRNA to not be translated into protein because the stop codon is prematurely reached during translation. This can yield a truncated (i.e., abbreviated) protein product, which quite often lacks the functionality of the normal, non-mutant protein.
Possible Outcomes of Nonsense Mutations
Deleterious
Deleterious outcomes represent the majority of nonsense mutations and are the most common outcome that is observed naturally. These changes cause the overall
fitness and
reproductive success
Reproductive success is an individual's production of offspring per breeding event or lifetime. This is not limited by the number of offspring produced by one individual, but also the reproductive success of these offspring themselves.
Reproduct ...
of the
organism
In biology, an organism () is any living system that functions as an individual entity. All organisms are composed of cells (cell theory). Organisms are classified by taxonomy into groups such as multicellular animals, plants, and ...
to decrease.
For example, a nonsense mutation occurring in a
gene
In biology, the word gene (from , ; "...Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word gene to describe the Mendelian units of heredity..." meaning ''generation'' or ''birth'' or ''gender'') can have several different meanings. The Mendelian gene is a ba ...
encoding a protein can cause structural or functional defects in the protein that disrupt
cellular biology. Depending on the significance of the functions of this protein, this disruption now could be detrimental to the fitness and survival of that organism.
Neutral
When a nonsense mutation is neutral, it does not provide benefits or harm. These occur when the effects of the mutation are unnoticed. In other words, this means that the mutation does not positively or negatively affect the organism. An example of this type of nonsense mutation is one that occurs directly before the original stop codon for that given protein.
Because this mutation occurred in such close proximity to the end of the protein chain, the impact of this change might not be as significant. This would suggest that this amino acid that was mutated did not have a large impact on the overall structure or function of the protein or the organism as a whole. This scenario is rare, but possible.
Beneficial
Beneficial nonsense mutations are the rarest of possible nonsense mutation outcomes. Beneficial nonsense mutations increase the overall fitness and reproductive success of an organism, opposite of the effects of a deleterious mutation.
Because a nonsense mutation introduces a premature stop codon within a sequence of DNA, it is extremely unlikely that this scenario can actually benefit the organism.
An example of this would occur with a nonsense mutation that impacts a dysfunctional protein that releases
toxins
A toxin is a naturally occurring organic poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. Toxins occur especially as a protein or conjugated protein. The term toxin was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1 ...
. The stop codon that this mutation brings would stop this dysfunctional protein from properly carrying out its function. Stopping this protein from performing at full strength causes less toxin to be released and the fitness of the organism to be improved. These types of situations with nonsense mutations occur a lot less frequently than the deleterious outcomes.
Suppressing Nonsense Mutations
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay
Despite an expected tendency for premature termination codons to yield shortened polypeptide products, in fact the formation of truncated proteins does not occur often ''
in vivo
Studies that are ''in vivo'' (Latin for "within the living"; often not italicized in English) are those in which the effects of various biological entities are tested on whole, living organisms or cells, usually animals, including humans, and ...
''. Many organisms—including humans and lower species, such as
yeast
Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constitut ...
—employ a
nonsense-mediated mRNA decay
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a surveillance pathway that exists in all eukaryotes. Its main function is to reduce errors in gene expression by eliminating mRNA transcripts that contain premature stop codons. Translation of these aberran ...
pathway, which degrades mRNAs containing nonsense mutations before they are able to be translated into nonfunctional polypeptides.
tRNA Suppression
Because nonsense mutations result in altered mRNA with a premature stop codon, one way of suppressing the damage done to the final protein’s function is to alter the tRNA that reads the mRNA. These
tRNA
Transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA and formerly referred to as sRNA, for soluble RNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length (in eukaryotes), that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino ac ...
’s are termed
suppressor tRNA’s. If the stop codon is UAG, any other amino acid tRNA could be altered from its original
anticodon
Transfer RNA (abbreviated tRNA and formerly referred to as sRNA, for soluble RNA) is an adaptor molecule composed of RNA, typically 76 to 90 nucleotides in length (in eukaryotes), that serves as the physical link between the mRNA and the amino ac ...
to AUC so it will recognize the UAG codon instead. This will result in the protein not being truncated, but it may still have an altered amino acid. These suppressor tRNA mutations are only possible if the cell has more than one tRNA that reads a particular codon, otherwise the mutation would kill the cell. The only stop codons are UAG, UAA, and UGA. UAG and UAA suppressors read their respective stop codons instead of their original codon, but UAA suppressors also read UAG due to
wobble base
A wobble base pair is a pairing between two nucleotides in RNA molecules that does not follow Watson-Crick base pair rules. The four main wobble base pairs are guanine-uracil (G-U), hypoxanthine-uracil (I-U), hypoxanthine-adenine (I-A), and hypox ...
pairing. UGA suppressors are very rare. Another hurdle to pass in this technique is the fact that stop codons are also recognized by
release factors, so the tRNA still needs to compete with the release factors to keep the translation going. Because of this, suppression is usually only 10-40% successful. These suppressor tRNA mutations also target stop codons that are not mutations, causing some proteins to be much longer than they should be. Only bacteria and lower
eukaryotes
Eukaryotes () are organisms whose cells have a nucleus. All animals, plants, fungi, and many unicellular organisms, are Eukaryotes. They belong to the group of organisms Eukaryota or Eukarya, which is one of the three domains of life. Bacte ...
can survive with these mutations, mammal and insect cells die as a result of a suppressor mutation.
Common Disease-Associated Nonsense Mutations
Nonsense mutations comprise around 20% of single nucleotide substitutions within protein coding sequences that result in human disease.
Nonsense mutation-mediated
pathology
Pathology is the study of the causes and effects of disease or injury. The word ''pathology'' also refers to the study of disease in general, incorporating a wide range of biology research fields and medical practices. However, when used in ...
is often attributed to reduced amounts of full-length protein, because only 5-25% of transcripts possessing nonsense mutations do not undergo
nonsense-mediated decay
Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) is a surveillance pathway that exists in all eukaryotes. Its main function is to reduce errors in gene expression by eliminating mRNA transcripts that contain premature stop codons. Translation of these aberrant ...
(NMD).
Translation of the remaining nonsense-bearing mRNA may generate abbreviated protein variants with toxic effects.
Twenty-three different single-point nucleotide substitutions are capable of converting a non-stop codon into a stop-codon, with the mutations CGA
TGA and CAG
TAG being the most common disease-related substitutions characterized in the Human Gene Mutation Database (HGMD).
As a result of different substitution frequencies for each nucleotide, the proportions of the three stop codons generated by disease-inducing nonsense mutations differs from stop codon distributions in non-diseased gene variants.
Notably, the codon TAG is overrepresented, while the TGA and TAA codons are underrepresented in disease-related nonsense mutations.
Translation termination efficiency is influenced by the specific stop codon sequence on the mRNA, with the UAA sequence yielding the highest termination.
Sequences surrounding the stop codon also impact termination efficiency.
Consequently, the underlying pathology of diseases caused by nonsense mutations is ultimately dependent on the identity of the mutated gene, and specific location of the mutation.
Examples of diseases induced by nonsense mutations include:
*
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a rare genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine. Long-term issues include difficulty breathing and coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. O ...
(caused by the G542X mutation in the
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a membrane protein and anion channel in vertebrates that is encoded by the ''CFTR'' gene.
Geneticist Lap-Chee Tsui and his team identified the CFTR gene in 1989 as the gene linked wi ...
(CFTR)
*
Beta thalassaemia (β-globin)
*
Hurler syndrome
Hurler syndrome, also known as mucopolysaccharidosis Type IH (MPS-IH), Hurler's disease, and formerly gargoylism, is a genetic disorder that results in the buildup of large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in lysosomes. The inab ...
*
Dravet Syndrome
Dravet syndrome, previously known as severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI), is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder which causes a catastrophic form of epilepsy, with prolonged seizures that are often triggered by hot temperatures or feve ...
*
Usher Syndrome
Usher syndrome, also known as Hallgren syndrome, Usher–Hallgren syndrome, retinitis pigmentosa–dysacusis syndrome or dystrophia retinae dysacusis syndrome, is a rare genetic disorder caused by a mutation in any one of at least 11 genes result ...
Nonsense mutations in other genes may also drive dysfunction of several tissue or organ systems:
SMAD8
SMAD8 is the eighth homolog of the ENDOGLIN gene family and is involved in the signaling between
TGF-b/BMP. It has been identified that novel nonsense mutations in SMAD8 are associated with
pulmonary arterial hypertension. The pulmonary system relies on SMAD1, SMAD5, and SMAD 8 to regulate pulmonary vascular function.
Downregulation
In the biological context of organisms' production of gene products, downregulation is the process by which a cell decreases the quantity of a cellular component, such as RNA or protein, in response to an external stimulus. The complementary proc ...
and loss of signals that are normally operated by SMAD8 contributed to
pathogenesis
Pathogenesis is the process by which a disease or disorder develops. It can include factors which contribute not only to the onset of the disease or disorder, but also to its progression and maintenance. The word comes from Greek πάθος ''pat ...
in pulmonary arterial hypertension.
The
ALK1 gene, apart of the TGF-B signaling family, was found to have been mutated while also down-regulating the SMAD8 gene in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension.
SMAD8 mutants were not
phosphorylate
In chemistry, phosphorylation is the attachment of a phosphate group to a molecule or an ion. This process and its inverse, dephosphorylation, are common in biology and could be driven by natural selection. Text was copied from this source, ...
d by ALK1, disrupting interactions with SMAD4 that would normally allow for signaling in
wild-type
The wild type (WT) is the phenotype of the typical form of a species as it occurs in nature. Originally, the wild type was conceptualized as a product of the standard "normal" allele at a locus, in contrast to that produced by a non-standard, "m ...
organisms.
LGR4
LGR4 binds
R-spondins to activate the
Wnt signaling pathway
The Wnt signaling pathways are a group of signal transduction pathways which begin with proteins that pass signals into a cell through cell surface receptors. The name Wnt is a portmanteau created from the names Wingless and Int-1. Wnt signaling p ...
.
Wnt signaling regulates bone mass and
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
differentiation and is important for the development of bone, heart, and muscle.
An LGR4 nonsense mutation in a healthy population has been linked to low bone mass density and symptoms of
osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a systemic skeletal disorder characterized by low bone mass, micro-architectural deterioration of bone tissue leading to bone fragility, and consequent increase in fracture risk. It is the most common reason for a broken bone ...
. LGR4
mutant
In biology, and especially in genetics, a mutant is an organism or a new genetic character arising or resulting from an instance of mutation, which is generally an alteration of the DNA sequence of the genome or chromosome of an organism. It ...
mice showed the observed low bone mass is not due to age-related bone loss.
Mutations in LGR4 have been associated with family lineages with medical histories of rare bone disorders.
Wild-type mice lacking LGR4 also displayed delayed
osteoblast
Osteoblasts (from the Greek language, Greek combining forms for "bone", ὀστέο-, ''osteo-'' and βλαστάνω, ''blastanō'' "germinate") are cell (biology), cells with a single Cell nucleus, nucleus that synthesize bone. However, in the p ...
differentiation during development, showcasing the important role of LGR4 in bone mass regulation and development.
Therapeutics Targeting Nonsense Mutation Diseases
Therapeutics for diseases caused by nonsense mutations attempt to recapitulate wild-type function by decreasing the efficacy of NMD, facilitating readthrough of the premature stop codon during translation, or editing the genomic nonsense mutation.
Antisense oligonucleotides to suppress the expression of NMD and translation termination proteins are being explored in animal models of nonsense mutation-induced disease.
Other RNA therapeutics under investigation include synthetic suppressor tRNAs that enable
ribosomes
Ribosomes ( ) are macromolecular machines, found within all cells, that perform biological protein synthesis (mRNA translation). Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by the codons of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules to f ...
to insert an amino acid, instead of initiating chain termination, upon encountering premature stop codons.
CRISPR-Cas9
Cas9 (CRISPR associated protein 9, formerly called Cas5, Csn1, or Csx12) is a 160 kilodalton protein which plays a vital role in the immunological defense of certain bacteria against DNA viruses and plasmids, and is heavily utilized in genetic ...
based single nucleotide substitutions have been used to generate amino acid codons from stop codons, achieving an editing success rate of 10% in cell cultures.
Read-through has been achieved using small molecule drugs such as
aminoglycosides
Aminoglycoside is a medicinal and bacteriologic category of traditional Gram-negative antibacterial medications that inhibit protein synthesis and contain as a portion of the molecule an amino-modified glycoside ( sugar). The term can also refer ...
and negamycin.
An
oxadiazole Oxadiazoles are a class of heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound of the azole family; with the molecular formula C2H2N2O. There are four isomers of oxadiazole:
File:1,2,3-oxadiazole.svg, 1,2,3-oxadiazole
File:1,2,4-oxadiazole.svg, 1,2,4-oxadiazo ...
,
Ataluren (previously PTC124), facilitates the selective read-through of aberrant stop codons, rendering it a potential therapeutic against nonsense mutation-induced disease. Ataluren, sold under the tradename Translarna, is currently an approved treatment for Duchenne muscular dystrophy in the
European Economic area
The European Economic Area (EEA) was established via the ''Agreement on the European Economic Area'', an international agreement which enables the extension of the European Union's single market to member states of the European Free Trade Ass ...
and
Brazil
Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
.
However, phase III trials of Ataluren as a cystic fibrosis therapeutic have failed to meet their primary endpoints.
See also
Nonsense mutation foundation supporting nonsense mutation patients across all genes
*
Emily's Entourage, a cystic fibrosis nonprofit researching nonsense mutations
*
Missense mRNA
Missense mRNA is a messenger RNA bearing one or more mutated codons that yield polypeptides with an amino acid sequence different from the wild-type or naturally occurring polypeptide. Missense mRNA molecules are created when template DNA str ...
*
Nonsense suppressor A nonsense suppressor is a factor which can inhibit the effect of the nonsense mutation. Nonsense suppressors can be generally divided into two classes: a) a mutated tRNA which can bind with a termination codon on mRNA; b) a mutation on ribosomes d ...
*
Cystic fibrosis
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a rare genetic disorder that affects mostly the lungs, but also the pancreas, liver, kidneys, and intestine. Long-term issues include difficulty breathing and coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. O ...
(caused by the G542X mutation in the
cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator
Cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) is a membrane protein and anion channel in vertebrates that is encoded by the ''CFTR'' gene.
Geneticist Lap-Chee Tsui and his team identified the CFTR gene in 1989 as the gene linked wi ...
(CFTR)
*
Beta thalassaemia (β-globin)
*
Hurler syndrome
Hurler syndrome, also known as mucopolysaccharidosis Type IH (MPS-IH), Hurler's disease, and formerly gargoylism, is a genetic disorder that results in the buildup of large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in lysosomes. The inab ...
*
Dravet Syndrome
Dravet syndrome, previously known as severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy (SMEI), is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder which causes a catastrophic form of epilepsy, with prolonged seizures that are often triggered by hot temperatures or feve ...
*
Ataluren
External links and references
{{Mutation
Modification of genetic information
Mutation