![Njal saga - Skarphedinn](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Njal_saga_-_Skarphedinn.jpg)
''Njáls saga'' ( ), also ''Njála'' ( ), ''Brennu-Njáls saga'' ( ) or ''"The Story of Burnt Njáll"'', is a thirteenth-century
Icelandic saga
The sagas of Icelanders ( is, Íslendingasögur, ), also known as family sagas, are one genre of Icelandic sagas. They are prose narratives mostly based on historical events that mostly took place in Iceland in the ninth, tenth, and early e ...
that describes events between 960 and 1020.
The saga deals with a process of blood feuds in the
Icelandic Commonwealth
The Icelandic Commonwealth, also known as the Icelandic Free State, was the political unit existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king with the Old Covenant in 1262. With t ...
, showing how the requirements of honor could lead to minor slights spiralling into destructive and prolonged bloodshed. Insults where a character's manhood is called into question are especially prominent and may reflect an author critical of an overly restrictive ideal of masculinity.
Another characteristic of the narrative is the presence of omens and prophetic dreams. It is disputed whether this reflects a
fatalistic
Fatalism is a family of related philosophical doctrines that stress the subjugation of all events or actions to fate or destiny, and is commonly associated with the consequent attitude of resignation in the face of future events which are thou ...
outlook on the part of the author.
The principal characters in the saga are the friends
Njáll Þorgeirsson
Njáll Þorgeirsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic: ) was a 10th and early-11th-century Icelandic lawyer who lived at Bergþórshvoll in Landeyjar, Iceland. He was one of the main protagonists of ''Njáls saga'', a medieval Icelandic saga which ...
, a lawyer and a sage, and
Gunnar Hámundarson
Gunnar Hámundarson () was a 10th-century Icelandic chieftain. He lived in Hlíðarendi in Fljótshlíð and is probably better known as Gunnar of Hlíðarendi ( non, Gunnarr á Hlíðarenda). He features prominently in the first half of Nj ...
, a formidable warrior. Gunnar's wife,
Hallgerðr langbrók, instigates a
feud
A feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one part ...
that leads to the death of many characters over several decades including the killing by fire of the eponymous "Burnt Njáll".
The work is anonymous, although there has been extensive speculation on the author's identity. The major events described in the saga are probably historical but the material was shaped by the author, drawing on oral tradition, according to his artistic needs. ''Njáls saga'' is the longest and most highly developed of the sagas of Icelanders. It is often considered the peak of the saga tradition.
Authorship and sources
''Njáls saga'', like the other
sagas of Icelanders
The sagas of Icelanders ( is, Íslendingasögur, ), also known as family sagas, are one genre of Icelandic sagas. They are prose narratives mostly based on historical events that mostly took place in Iceland in the ninth, tenth, and early el ...
, is anonymous. There are, however, several hypotheses about the saga's authorship. The oldest idea, attested in the early 17th century, is that
Sæmundr fróði
Sæmundr Sigfússon, better known as Sæmundr fróði (''Sæmundr the Learned''; 1056–1133), was an Icelandic priest and scholar.
Biography
Sæmundr is known to have studied abroad. Previously it has generally been held that he studied in Fra ...
wrote the work. Other suggested authors include Sæmundr's sons,
Jón Loftsson
Jón Loftsson (1124–1197; Modern Icelandic: ; Old Norse: ) was chieftain of Oddi at Rangárvellir in the south part of Iceland.
Jón Loftsson was a member of the Oddaverjar family clan. His parents were Loftur Sæmundsson and Þóra M ...
,
Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of the ...
,
Einarr Gilsson,
Brandr Jónsson and
Þorvarðr Þórarinsson.
The saga is now believed to have been composed in the period from 1270 to 1290. Among written sources which the author likely used are ''
Laxdæla saga'', ''
Eyrbyggja saga'' and ''
Ljósvetninga saga Ljósvetninga saga () is one of the sagas of Icelanders, commonly dated to the thirteenth century and takes place between the end of the tenth century to the mid-eleventh century in the North of Iceland. The saga's main character is Guðmundr inn r ...
'' as well as the lost sagas ''
Brjáns saga
''Brjáns saga'' (also ''Brjánssaga'') is a hypothetical early specimen of Old Norse literature. According to the hypothesis, certain episodes in ''Njáls saga'' and ''Þorsteins saga Síðu-Hallssonar'' drew on this lost saga.
There is no ext ...
'' and ''
Gauks saga Trandilssonar''. however, the author probably derived the bulk of the material in the saga from
oral tradition
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas and cultural material is received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985 ...
, which he manipulated for his own artistic purposes. Opinions on the historicity of the saga have varied greatly, ranging from pure fiction to nearly verbatim truth to any number of nuanced views. It can be regarded as certain that Njáll and Gunnarr were real historical people and their fateful deaths are referred to in other sources.
Gabriel Turville-Petre
Edward Oswald Gabriel Turville-Petre (25 March 1908 – 17 February 1978) was an English philologist who specialized in Old Norse studies.
Born at Bosworth Hall, Leicestershire to a prominent Roman Catholic family, Turville-Petre was edu ...
said, "It was not the author's purpose to write a work of history, but rather to use a historical subject for an epic in prose".
Themes
''Njáls saga'' explores the consequences of vengeance as a defence of family honor by dealing with a
blood feud
A feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one pa ...
spanning some 50 years. The saga shows how even worthy people can destroy themselves by disputes and demonstrates the tensions in the
Icelandic Commonwealth
The Icelandic Commonwealth, also known as the Icelandic Free State, was the political unit existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king with the Old Covenant in 1262. With t ...
which eventually led to its destruction. Any insult to one's honor had to be revenged: sometimes this includes slights which seem trivial to modern readers.
Magnus Magnusson
Magnus Magnusson, (born Magnús Sigursteinsson; 12 October 1929 – 7 January 2007) was an Icelandic-born British-based journalist, translator, writer and television presenter. Born in Reykjavík, he lived in Scotland for almost all his life, a ...
finds it "a little pathetic, now, to read how vulnerable these men were to calls on their honour; it was fatally easy to goad them into action to avenge some suspicion of an insult".
[Magnusson 1987 ]960
Year 960 ( CMLX) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Summer – Siege of Chandax: A Byzantine fleet with an expeditionary force (co ...
16.
Insults involving a character's manliness are especially prominent in the saga. Thus, Njáll's lack of a beard is repeatedly referred to and used by his opponents to call his manhood into question. Another example, among many, is when the gift of a silk garment is considered an insult by Flosi and a hard-won settlement breaks down as a consequence. Ármann Jakobsson has argued that it is "difficult to find a man whose manhood is not vulnerable" and that ''Njáls saga'' criticizes the idea of a misogynistic society by showing that the ideal of masculinity can be so restrictive that it becomes oppressive to men and destructive to society.
[Ármann Jakobsson 2007:214.]
Omens, prophetic dreams and supernatural foresight figure prominently in ''Njáls saga''. The role of
fate
Destiny, sometimes referred to as fate (from Latin ''fatum'' "decree, prediction, destiny, fate"), is a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual.
Fate
Although often ...
and, especially, of
fatalism
Fatalism is a family of related philosophical doctrines that stress the subjugation of all events or actions to fate or destiny, and is commonly associated with the consequent attitude of resignation in the face of future events which are thou ...
is, however, a matter of scholarly contention.
Halldór Laxness
Halldór Kiljan Laxness (; born Halldór Guðjónsson; 23 April 1902 – 8 February 1998) was an Icelandic writer and winner of the 1955 Nobel Prize in Literature. He wrote novels, poetry, newspaper articles, essays, plays, travelogues and s ...
argued that the saga is primarily a book about the fatalism inherent in
Norse paganism
Old Norse religion, also known as Norse paganism, is the most common name for a branch of Germanic religion which developed during the Proto-Norse period, when the North Germanic peoples separated into a distinct branch of the Germanic peop ...
. In his view, the course of events is foreordained from the moment Hrútr sees the thieves' eyes in his niece and until the vengeance for Njáll's burning is completed to the southeast in
Wales
Wales ( cy, Cymru ) is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is bordered by England to the Wales–England border, east, the Irish Sea to the north and west, the Celtic Sea to the south west and the ...
. In this way, Laxness believed that ''Njáls saga'' attested to the presence of a "very strong heathen spirit", antithetical to Christianity, in 13th century Iceland. Magnus Magnusson wrote that "
e action is swept along by a powerful under-current of fate" and that Njáll wages a "fierce struggle to alter its course" but that he is nevertheless "not a fatalist in the heathen sense".
Thorsteinn Gylfason rejects the idea that there is any fatalism in ''Njáls saga'', arguing that there is no hostile supernatural plan which its characters are subject to.
Synopsis
Hrútur and Hallgerður
![Njal saga - Karis aid](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Njal_saga_-_Karis_aid.jpg)
The first episode covers the period from the betrothal of Hrútur Herjólfsson and Unnr to the ugly legacy of their divorce. We are shown Hrútur's exploits in
Norway
Norway, officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe, the mainland territory of which comprises the western and northernmost portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The remote Arctic island of Jan Mayen and t ...
, where he gains honour at court and in battle, but he ruins his subsequent marriage by becoming the lover of the aging queen mother
Gunnhildr. When he denies having a woman in Iceland, she curses him so that he is unable to consummate his marriage. After Unnr divorces him, he retains the dowry by challenging Unnr's father, Mörður, to combat. Mörður refuses, as he knows Hrútur's reputation and that he will lose the fight. Because of this, Hrútr keeps the dowry. While this conforms to Icelandic law, it offends justice.
The first chapter gives one of Hrútr's insights when he makes comments about his beautiful niece, "I do not know how thieves' eyes came into the family". The saga next follows this niece, Hallgerður, through her first two marriages. Both husbands die by the axe of Hallgerður's doting, brutish foster-father, Þjóstólfr. Hallgerður provokes the first death but not the second, although it follows from a disagreement between her and her husband. It is Hrútr who, despite the family ties, avenges the death by killing Þjóstólfr.
Gunnar and Njáll
Gunnar Hámundarson
Gunnar Hámundarson () was a 10th-century Icelandic chieftain. He lived in Hlíðarendi in Fljótshlíð and is probably better known as Gunnar of Hlíðarendi ( non, Gunnarr á Hlíðarenda). He features prominently in the first half of Nj ...
and
Njáll Þorgeirsson
Njáll Þorgeirsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic: ) was a 10th and early-11th-century Icelandic lawyer who lived at Bergþórshvoll in Landeyjar, Iceland. He was one of the main protagonists of ''Njáls saga'', a medieval Icelandic saga which ...
are now introduced. Gunnar is a man of outstanding physical prowess, and Njáll has outstanding sagacity; they are close friends. When Gunnar is obliged to revive Unnr's dowry-claim against Hrútur, Njáll gives him the means to do so. By skillful play-acting, Gunnar begins the legal process in Hrútur's own house. He follows Hrútr's doubtful example when it comes to court, and Hrútur, who has previously won by threat of violence, loses to a threat of violence. Despite his humiliation, he sees future links with Gunnar.
This comes about when Gunnar returns with honours from a trip to Scandinavia. He goes to the
Althing
The Alþingi (''general meeting'' in Icelandic, , anglicised as ' or ') is the supreme national parliament of Iceland. It is one of the oldest surviving parliaments in the world. The Althing was founded in 930 at ("thing fields" or "assembly ...
– the annual assembly – in splendour, and meets Hallgerður. They are impressed with one another and are soon betrothed, despite Hrútr's warnings about Hallgerður's character, and Njáll's misgivings.
Hrútur and Njáll are proven right when Hallgerður clashes with Njál's wife, Bergþóra. Hallgerður charms a number of dubious characters into killing members of Njáll's household and the spirited Bergþóra arranges vengeance. After each killing, their husbands make financial settlements according to the status of the victims. The fifth victim is Þórður, foster-father of Njáll's sons. Þráinn Sigfússon, Gunnarr's uncle and Hallgerður's son-in-law, accompanies the killers. When the feud ends and settlements are made, Þráinn's presence at that killing later causes conflict.
Gunnarr's feuds
Hallgerður now uses one of her slaves, Melkólfur, to burgle the home of a churlish man named Otkell. Gunnar immediately seeks to make amends, but his handsome offers are not accepted. A lawsuit is started against him which, with Njáll's help, he wins, gaining great honour. However, while remonstrating with Hallgerður about the burglary, Gunnar slaps her.
This is followed by Otkell accidentally wounding Gunnar. Insult follows injury and Gunnarr reluctantly goes to avenge himself. With belated help from his brother Kolskeggur, he kills Otkell and his companions.
Under Njáll's influence a new settlement is arranged, and Gunnarr's reputation grows. Njáll warns him that this will be the start of his career of killings.
Next, Gunnar accepts a challenge to a horse-fight from a man called Starkaður. In the course of the fight, his opponents cheat, and Gunnar finds himself in a fresh squabble. Njáll tries to mediate but Þorgeir Starkaðsson refuses to accept it. On a journey with his two brothers, Gunnar is ambushed by Starkaður and his allies. In the battle, fourteen attackers and Gunnar's brother Hjörtur are killed.
Worming through all this is Unnr's son, Mörður Valgarðsson. Mörður envies and hates Gunnar, and uses other men to attain his aims. He has learned that Njáll prophesied that Gunnar will die if he kills twice in the same family and subsequently breaks the settlement for his death. He instigates an attack on Gunnar by persons dissatisfied by the settlement. Again, Gunnarr wins the fight, but he kills a second man in the same family. The settlement that follows requires that Gunnarr and Kolskeggur leave Iceland for three years.
Arrangements are made for exile. But as Gunnar leaves home, he looks homeward and, touched by the beauty of his homeland, resolves not to leave Iceland, thus becoming an outlaw. He goes about as though nothing has changed but his enemies, Mörður among them, seek revenge. He defends himself in his home until his bowstring is cut. Hallgerður refuses to give him strands of her hair to restring his bow; this is in revenge for the slap he once gave her. Gunnar's enemies resist Mörður's proposal to burn him in the house as shameful, but eventually they take the roof off to get to Gunnar. Njáll's son
Skarphéðinn assists Högni Gunnarsson in some acts of vengeance before a settlement is achieved.
Kári and the sons of Njáll
Scandinavian rulers honor two Icelandic expeditions: those of Þráinn Sigfússon and of Njáll's two younger sons. Both return with enhanced honor, but also with companions. Þráinn brings back the malevolent Hrappr; the sons of Njáll and the noble
Kári Sölmundarson
Kári Sölmundarson ( Modern Icelandic: ; Old Norse: ) was a Hebridean viking and soldier of fortune who lived in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries. He is a major character in '' Njál's Saga''. Kári was the son of Solmund, who was t ...
, who marries their sister. But Njáll's sons also bring back a grievance, blaming Þráinn for the way in which the ''de facto'' ruler of Norway,
Jarl Hákon, has treated them while looking for Hrappr, who had been hidden by Þráinn. While Njáll says they have been foolish in raising the matter, he advises them to publicise it so that it will be seen as a matter of honor. Þrain refuses a settlement, and his retainers, including Hallgerðr, on her last appearance, insult them.
The most dramatic of the saga's battles follows. Njáll's sons, with Kári, prepare to ambush Þráinn and his followers. There is a bridge of ice over the river between them. Skarphéðinn overtakes his brothers, leaps the river, and slides on the ice past Þráinn, splitting his skull in passing. Between them the attackers kill four men, including Hrappr.
Þráinn's brother, Ketill, has married Njáll's daughter, and between them they bring about a settlement. Wishing to stop further contention, Njáll adopts Þráinn's son Höskuldr as his foster-son. Höskuldr grows up in Njáll's household, and is loved and favoured by him. When he is fully grown, Njáll attempts to find a suitable wife for him, Hildigunnr. However, she refuses, saying that she will only marry Höskuldr if he becomes a chieftain. Njáll manages to get Höskuldr a chieftaincy by instituting the
Fifth Court
The Fifth Court (, c.1015 – c.1262) was a supreme court established in Iceland approximately in the year 1015 during the period of the Icelandic Commonwealth. It was an institution of Althing, the nation's legislative and judicial authority. Th ...
at the Althing, and Höskuldr and Hildigunnr are married.
At this point, the saga recounts the
conversion of Iceland to Christianity in 999 CE.
Höskuldr and Flosi, the burning
Mörðr Valgarðsson now finds Höskuldr to be such a successful chief that his own chieftaincy is declining. He sets the sons of Njáll against Höskuldr; the tragedy of the saga is that they are so susceptible to his promptings that they, with Mörðr and Kári, murder him as he sows in his field. As one character says, "Höskuldr was killed for less than no reason; all men mourn his death; but none more than Njal, his foster-father".
Flosi, the uncle of Höskuldr's wife, takes revenge against the killers, and seeks help from powerful chieftains. He is pressured (against his better judgement) by Hildigunnr to accept only blood vengeance. Njáll's sons find themselves at the Althing having to plead for help. Skarphéðinn has become grimly fatalistic, and insults many who might help them.
After some legal sparring, arbitrators are chosen, including
Snorri goði
Snorri Þorgrímsson (Old Norse: ; Modern Icelandic: ) or Snorri Goði (O.N.: ; M.I.: ; 963–1031) was a prominent chieftain in Western Iceland, who featured in a number of Icelandic sagas. The main source of his life is the '' Eyrbyggja saga ...
, who proposes a
weregild
Weregild (also spelled wergild, wergeld (in archaic/historical usage of English), weregeld, etc.), also known as man price (blood money), was a precept in some archaic legal codes whereby a monetary value was established for a person's life, to b ...
of three times the normal compensation for Höskuldr. This is so much that it can only be paid if the arbitrators, and many at the Althing, contribute. The great collection is gathered, and Njáll adds a gift of a fancy cloak. Flosi claims to be insulted by the offer of a unisex garment (an insult from Skarp-Heðinn also adds fuel to the fire) and the settlement breaks down.
Everyone leaves the Althing and prepares, amid portents and prophecies, for the showdown. A hundred men descend on Njáll's home,
Bergthorsknoll (Bergþórshváll), to find it defended by about thirty. Any victory for Flosi will be at some cost. But Njáll suggests that his sons defend from within the house, and they, while realizing that this is futile, agree. Flosi and his men set fire to the building.
Both the innocent and the guilty are surrounded. Flosi allows the women to leave but beheads Helgi Njálsson, who attempts to escape disguised as a woman. Although Flosi invites Njáll and Bergþóra to leave, they refuse, preferring to die with their sons and their grandson Þórðr (the son of Kári). Eventually eleven people die, not including Kári who escapes under cover of the smoke by running along the beam of the house. Flosi knows that Kári will exact vengeance for the burning.
The Althing
At the Althing, both sides gather. Flosi bribes Eyjólfr Bölverksson, one of the finest lawyers in Iceland, into taking over the case, while his opponents blackmail Mörðr Valgarðsson into prosecuting, advised by Þórhallr, Njáll's foster-son, who was trained in the law by Njáll, but is kept away from the proceedings by an infected leg. There is a legal joust between the parties. Eventually, when his legal action seems to be failing, Þórhallr lances his boil with his spear and begins fighting. Flosi's men are driven back until Snorri separates the parties. In the confusion, several are killed including Ljótr, Flosi's brother-in-law.
Ljótr's father, Hallr of Síða, takes advantage of the truce to appeal for peace, and seeks no compensation for his son. Moved by this, all but Kári and Njáll's nephew Þorgeir reach a settlement, while everyone contributes to Ljótr's weregild, which in the end amounts to a quadruple compensation. The burners are exiled.
Before the sons of Sigfús reach home, Kári attacks them, and most of the rest of the saga describes his vengeance for the burning. He is supported by Þorgeir and an attractive anti-hero named Björn. He pursues them to Orkney and Wales. The most dramatic moment is when he breaks into the earl's hall in Orkney and kills a man who is giving a slanderous account of those killed at the burning.
After a pilgrimage to Rome, Flosi returns to Iceland. Kári follows, and is shipwrecked near Flosi's home. Testing Flosi's nobility he goes to him for help, and they arrange a final peace. Kári marries Höskuldr's widow. Finally, there is a full reconciliation.
Popular culture
*In numerous Shanghai magazines, the Chinese composer
Nie Er
Nie Er (14 February 1912 – 17 July 1935), born Nie Shouxin, courtesy name Ziyi (子義 or 子藝), was a Chinese composer best known for "March of the Volunteers", the national anthem of People's Republic of China. In numerous Shanghai magaz ...
went by the English name ''George Njal'', after a character in the saga.
[Jones. Andrew F. 001(2001). Yellow Music - CL: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. ]Duke University Press
Duke University Press is an academic publisher and university press affiliated with Duke University. It was founded in 1921 by William T. Laprade as The Trinity College Press. (Duke University was initially called Trinity College). In 1926 Du ...
. p
122
*
Þórunn Erlu-Valdimarsdóttir, ''Kalt er annars blóð'' (Reykjavík: JPV, 2007) retells the saga as a crime novel.
* The 2014 Icelandic novel ''Mörður'' by
Bjarni Harðarson
Bjarni Harðarson (born 25 December 1961 in Arnýjarhús, Hveragerði) is a bookseller, novelist, and former MP from the Icelandic Progressive Party.
Election and resignation
Bjarni was elected to parliament in 2007 as the eighth MP from the Sou ...
retells ''Njáls saga'' from Mörðr Valgarðsson's point of view.
* An
Iceland
Iceland ( is, Ísland; ) is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean and in the Arctic Ocean. Iceland is the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Iceland's capital and largest city is Reykjavík, which (along with its s ...
ic short film called ''Brennu-Njálssaga'' (known by its
English
English usually refers to:
* English language
* English people
English may also refer to:
Peoples, culture, and language
* ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England
** English national ide ...
title in
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
as ''The Saga of Burnt Njal'') was directed by
Friðrik Þór Friðriksson
Friðrik Þór Friðriksson (born 12 May 1954; pronounced ), sometimes credited as Fridrik Thor Fridriksson, is an Icelandic film director and producer.
Biography
Fridriksson started his film making career with experimental films and documenta ...
and released 1981. The film is featured on the Icelandic DVD release of
Angels of the Universe
''Angels of the Universe'' (Icelandic: ''Englar alheimsins'' ()) is a 2000 Icelandic film directed and produced by Friðrik Þór Friðriksson. The leading role is played by Ingvar E. Sigurðsson, who was nominated for the European Film Awards ...
. Featured in the soundtrack is a song called "Brennu-Njálssaga," composed by the Icelandic
new wave band,
Þeyr
Þeyr () was an Icelandic New wave music, new wave band from the early 1980s.
Origins
The origins of Þeyr date back to the late 1970s when singer Magnús Guðmundsson, bassist Hilmar Örn Agnarsson and Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson (drums and synthesi ...
with the collaboration of
Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson
Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson (; born 23 April 1958), also known as HÖH, is a musician, an art director, and '' allsherjargoði'' (''chief goði'') of Ásatrúarfélagið ("the Ásatrú Association").
Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson was a pioneer in the use ...
. This song later appeared in 1981 when the group released its single ''
Iður til Fóta
''Iður til Fóta'' was a single released in 1981 by the Icelandic group Þeyr through Eskvímó and it was edited in 10" format. The title translates as "Moving Your Feet" but in Icelandic also forms a pun which can equally translate as "Guts ...
'' (in the cassette version only).
* Episode 27 of ''
Monty Python's Flying Circus
''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' (also known as simply ''Monty Python'') is a British surreal sketch comedy series created by and starring Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Michael Palin and Terry Gilliam, who became known ...
'' is titled "Njorl's Saga". The "saga" in question is quite unrelated to any events in Njal's Saga, despite the similarities between the names.
* The 1964 book ''The Burning of Njal'' by
Henry Treece
Henry Treece (22 December 1911 – 10 June 1966) was a British poet and writer who also worked as a teacher and editor. He wrote a range of works but is mostly remembered as a writer of children's historical novels.
Life and work
Treece wa ...
re-tells the saga from the recovery of Hrútr's dowry to Kári's final reconciliation with Flosi.
*
The Red Romance Book, a collection of heroic tales and legends published in 1905 and lavishly illustrated by
Henry Justice Ford
Henry Justice Ford (1860–1941) was a prolific and successful English artist and illustrator, active from 1886 through to the late 1920s. Sometimes known as H. J. Ford or Henry J. Ford, he came to public attention when he provided the numerous b ...
, includes three stories based on the saga: ''The Slaying of Hallgerda's Husbands'', ''The Death of Gunnar'', and ''Njal's Burning''.
* The Hallgerda Mons, a
mountain on Venus, is named for Hallgerðr.
* In DreamWorks' animated series ''Dragons: Race to the Edge'' season 3 episode 3 a small excerpt from Njáls saga is chiseled into a sword and a wall in a cave using the
Futhorc runic alphabet.
* The 1995 adventure film ''
The Viking Sagas
''The Viking Sagas'' is a 1995 American film directed by Michael Chapman (cinematographer), Michael Chapman and starring Ralf Möller and Sven-Ole Thorsen. It is heavily inspired by the ''Njáls saga'', through it features an original plot. It wa ...
'' is inspired heavily by the saga, through features an original plot.
* Tim Severin's ''
Viking-Trilogy'' (2005) uses large parts of the saga.
* The trope of a man trapped in a building and burned to death drives the Icelandic TV series
''Trapped'' (Ófærð).
*
BBC Radio 3
BBC Radio 3 is a British national radio station owned and operated by the BBC. It replaced the BBC Third Programme in 1967 and broadcasts classical music and opera, with jazz, world music, Radio drama, drama, High culture, culture and the arts ...
broadcast ''The Saga of Burnt Njal'', an audio adaptation by
Hattie Naylor
Hattie Naylor is an English playwright. Her 2009 ''Ivan and the Dogs'' won the Tinniswood Award for original radio drama and was nominated in the 2010 Olivier Awards for Outstanding Contribution to Theatre. It has since been developed into a film ...
based on a translation by Benjamin Danielsson and directed by Gemma Jenkins, on 24 October 2021, with Justin Salinger as "Njal",
Christine Kavanagh
Christine Mary Kavanagh (born 24 March 1957 in Prescot, Lancashire) is an English actress.
Career overview
Kavanagh was educated in Brussels, and trained as a drama teacher at Bretton Hall College and as an actor at Bristol Old Vic Theatr ...
as "Bergthora", Justice Ritchie as "Gunnar",
Lisa Hammond as "Hattgerd",
Jasmine Hyde
Jasmine Hyde is an English actress who has appeared on the stage radio and screen. She is best known for her role as the young Hilda Rumpole in many years of the BBC Radio 4 dramatisations of Rumpole of the Bailey, opposite Benedict Cumberbat ...
as "Mord" and Salomé Gunnarsdottir as "The Voice of the Saga".
Manuscripts and editions
''Njáls saga'' survives in around 60 manuscripts and fragments, 21 of which – an unusually large number – are from the
Middle Ages
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
. None of the vellum manuscripts survives complete, but they tended to be copied conservatively, indicating the reverence which Icelandic scribes have had for the saga and making it relatively easy to reconstruct a complete medieval text. The vellum manuscripts were classified most recently by
Einar Ólafur Sveinsson
Einar Ólafur Sveinsson, often abbreviated Einar Ól. Sveinsson (12 December 1899 – 18 April 1984) was an Icelandic scholar of Old Norse literature who was Professor of Icelandic Literature at the University of Iceland. His writings on and ed ...
in 1953, en route to his 1954
Íslenzk fornrit
Hið íslenzka fornritafélag, or The Old Icelandic Text Society is a text publication society. It is the standard publisher of Old Icelandic texts (such as the Sagas of Icelanders, Kings' sagas and bishops' sagas) with thorough introductions and c ...
edition of the saga, which remains the standard edition. However, a project on 'The Variance of ''Njáls saga'' ', based in the
Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies
The Árni Magnússon Institute for Icelandic Studies ( is, Stofnun Árna Magnússonar í íslenskum fræðum ) is an institute of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture of Iceland which conducts research in Icelandic and related academic s ...
, is reassessing the complete history of the manuscript transmission of the saga.
The first printed edition of the saga, by Ólafur Ólafsson, based primarily on Reykjabók, with reference to Kálfalækjabók and Möðruvallabók, was published in Copenhagen in 1772. A major step in the editing of the saga was the 1875–89 critical edition of Konráð Gíslason and Eiríkur Jónsson. The current main edition is that of Einar Ólafur Sveinsson from 1954.
The known, surviving manuscripts of the saga, most of which are available in digital facsimile, are:
Translations
''Njáls saga'' has been translated into English four times:
*
** Repr. 1900, London: Grant Richards.
** Repr. 1911: London, New York: Dent, Dutton.
*
** Repr. 1956, London: George Allen and Unwin.
** Repr. 1979, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
** Repr. 1998, Ware, Herts.: Wordsworth Editions.
*
* Translation by Robert Cook, in
** Rev. repr. as ''Njal's Saga'', 2001, London: Penguin.
Further reading
* Jakobsson, Ármann. 2007. "Masculinity and Politics in ''Njáls saga''", ''Viator'' 38, pp. 191–215.
*
Sveinsson,
Einar Ól. 2010
954
Year 954 ( CMLIV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place Europe
* Spring – A Hungarian army led by Bulcsú crosses the Rhine. He camps at Worms in th ...
''Brennu-Njáls saga''. Hið íslenzka fornritafélag. .
* Laxness, Halldór. 1997
945
Year 945 ( CMXLV) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* January 27 – The co-emperors Stephen and Constantine are overthrown barel ...
"Eftirmáli", ''Brennunjáls saga''. Vaka-Helgafell. .
* Magnusson, Magnus. 1987
960
Year 960 ( CMLX) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar.
Events
By place
Byzantine Empire
* Summer – Siege of Chandax: A Byzantine fleet with an expeditionary force (co ...
"Introduction", ''Njal's Saga''. Penguin Classics. .
*
Gylfason, Thorsteinn. 1998. "Introduction", ''Njál's Saga''. Wordsworth Classics. .
* Ólason, Vésteinn. 1998. ''Dialogues with the Viking Age: Narration and Representation in the Sagas of the Icelanders''. Heimskringla. .
* Ólason, Vésteinn. 2006. "Íslendingasögur og þættir", ''Íslensk bókmenntasaga'' I. .
* Swalm, Brendan. ''Sowing Strokes and Reaping Blows: Scenic Proverbialization and Paroemial Cognitive Patterning in “Brennu-Njáls saga”''. M.A. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, 2015.
External links
Modernized Icelandic text with translations into many languages at the Icelandic Saga DatabaseAn online public domain edition of Njal's Saga George Dasent's English translation. Icelandic Saga Database
Modernized Icelandic textThe official Njal's Saga website—The Njála museum in Hvolsvöllur, Icelandwww.njalurefill.is Njals Tapestry*
* Annotated bibliography and text a
Wikisaga
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Njals Saga
13th-century books
Sagas of Icelanders
Sources of Norse mythology