is a

Japanese-language is spoken natively by about 128 million people, primarily by Japanese people and primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. Japanese belongs to the Japonic or Japanese- Ryukyuan language family. There have been m ...

term used in countries in

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...

and

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...

to specify the ethnically Japanese children born in the new country to

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

ese-born immigrants (who are called ). The are considered the second generation, and the grandchildren of the Japanese-born immigrants are called , or third generation. ( are Japanese for "one, two, three"; ''see'' Japanese numerals.)

History

Japanese Immigrants in Immigrant´s public lodge

Although the earliest organized group of Japanese emigrants left Japan centuries ago, and a later group settled in

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...

in 1897,Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA)
"Japan-Mexico Relations"
retrieved 2011-05-17 the four largest populations of Japanese immigrants and their descendants live in

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = Seal (emblem), National seal , national_motto = "Fi ...

, and the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

American ''Nisei''

Some US ''Nisei'' were born after the end of

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

during the

baby boom A baby boom is a period marked by a significant increase of birth rate. This demographic phenomenon is usually ascribed within certain geographical bounds of defined national and cultural populations. People born during these periods are often ca ...

. Most ''Nisei'', however, who were living in the western United States during World War II, were forcibly

interned Internment is the imprisonment of people, commonly in large groups, without charges or intent to file charges. The term is especially used for the confinement "of enemy citizens in wartime or of terrorism suspects". Thus, while it can simply ...

with their parents (''Issei'') after Executive Order 9066 was promulgated to exclude everyone of Japanese descent from the

West Coast West Coast or west coast may refer to: Geography Australia * Western Australia *Regions of South Australia#Weather forecasting, West Coast of South Australia * West Coast, Tasmania **West Coast Range, mountain range in the region Canada * Britis ...

areas of

California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...

Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...

Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...

, and

Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...

. It has been argued that some ''Nisei'' feel caught in a dilemma between their Nisei parents and other Americans. The Nisei of

Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...

had a somewhat different experience. In the United States, two representative ''Nisei'' were Daniel Inouye and

Fred Korematsu was an American civil rights activist who resisted the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy launched its attack on Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive O ...

. Hawaiian-born was one of many young Nisei men who volunteered to fight in the nation's military when restrictions against Japanese-American enlistment were removed in 1943. Inouye later went on to become a U.S. Senator from Hawaii after it achieved statehood. was one of many Japanese-American citizens living on the West Coast who resisted internment during World War II. In 1944, Korematsu lost a

U.S. Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that involve a point o ...

challenge to the wartime internment of Japanese Americans but gained vindication decades later. The

Presidential Medal of Freedom The Presidential Medal of Freedom is the highest civilian award of the United States, along with the Congressional Gold Medal. It is an award bestowed by the president of the United States to recognize people who have made "an especially merito ...

, the highest civilian honor in the United States, was awarded to Korematsu in 1998. At the White House award ceremonies, President

Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton ( né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and agai ...

explained, "In the long history of our country's constant search for justice, some names of ordinary citizens stand for millions of souls. Plessy,

Brown Brown is a color. It can be considered a composite color, but it is mainly a darker shade of orange. In the CMYK color model used in printing or painting, brown is usually made by combining the colors orange and black. In the RGB color model us ...

Parks A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are urban green space, green spaces set aside for recreation inside t ...

... to that distinguished list, today we add the name of Fred Korematsu." The overwhelming majority of Japanese Americans had reacted to the internment by acquiescing to the government's order, hoping to prove their loyalty as Americans. To them, Korematsu's opposition was treacherous to both his country and his community. Across the span of decades, he was seen as a traitor, a test case, an embarrassment and, finally, a hero.

Brazilian ''Nisei''

Brazil is home to the largest Japanese population outside

, estimated to number more than 1.5 million (including those of mixed-race or mixed-ethnicity), more than that of the 1.2 million in the

. The ''Nisei'' Japanese Brazilians are an important part of the ethnic minority in that

n nation.

Canadian ''Nisei''

Within Japanese-Canadian communities across Canada, three distinct subgroups developed, each with different sociocultural referents, generational identity, and wartime experiences.McLellan, Janet. (1999)
''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto,'' p. 36.
/ref>

Peruvian ''Nisei''

Among the approximately 80,000 Peruvians of Japanese descent, the ''Nisei'' Japanese Peruvians comprise the largest element.

Cultural profile

Generations

Japanese Americans and Japanese Canadians have special names for each of their generations in North America. These are formed by combining one of the

Japanese numbers The Japanese numerals are the number names used in Japanese. In writing, they are the same as the Chinese numerals, and large numbers follow the Chinese style of grouping by 10,000. Two pronunciations are used: the Sino-Japanese (on'yomi) readi ...

corresponding to the

generation A generation refers to all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively. It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about 20–⁠30 years, during which children are born and gr ...

with the Japanese word for generation (''sei'' 世). The Japanese-American and Japanese-Canadian communities have themselves distinguished their members with terms like ''Issei'', ''Nisei,'' and ''Sansei'' which describe the first,

second The second (symbol: s) is the unit of time in the International System of Units (SI), historically defined as of a day – this factor derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes and finally to 60 seconds ...

and third generation of immigrants. The fourth generation is called ''Yonsei'' (四世) and the fifth is called ''Gosei'' (五世). The ''Issei,'' ''Nisei'' and ''Sansei'' generations reflect distinctly different attitudes to authority, gender, non-Japanese involvement, and religious belief and practice, and other matters. The age when individuals faced the wartime evacuation and internment is the single, most significant factor which explains these variations in their experiences, attitudes and behaviour patterns. The term '' Nikkei'' (日系) encompasses all of the world's Japanese immigrants across generations. The collective memory of the ''Issei'' and older ''Nisei'' was an image of Meiji Japan from 1870 through 1911, which contrasted sharply with the Japan that newer immigrants had more recently left. These differing attitudes, social values and associations with Japan were often incompatible with each other.McLellan
p. 37.
/ref> In this context, the significant differences in post-war experiences and opportunities did nothing to mitigate the gaps which separated generational perspectives. The second generation of immigrants, born in Canada or the United States to parents not born in Canada or the United States, is called ''Nisei'' (二世). The ''Nisei'' have become part of the general immigrant experience in the United States and Canada to become part of the greater "melting pot" of the United States and the "mosaic" of Canada. Some ''Nisei'' have resisted being absorbed into the majority society, largely because of their tendency to maintain Japanese interpersonal styles of relationships. Most ''Nisei'' were educated in Canadian or American school systems where they were taught Canadian or American national values as national citizens of those countries of individualism and citizenship. When these were taken away in the early 1940s, the ''Nisei'' confronted great difficulty in accepting or coming to terms with internment and forced resettlement. Older ''Nisei'' tended to identify more closely with the ''Issei,'' sharing similar economic and social characteristics. Older ''Nisei'' who had been employed in small businesses, in farming, in fishing or in semi-skilled occupations, tended to remain in blue-collar work. In contrast, the younger ''Nisei'' attended university and college and entered various professions and white-collar employment after the war. This sharp division in post-war experiences and opportunities exacerbated the gaps between these ''Nisei.'' In North America, since the redress victory in 1988, a significant evolutionary change has occurred. The Nisei, their parents and their children are changing the way they look at themselves as individuals of Japanese descent in their respective nations of Canada, the United States and Mexico. There are currently just over one hundred thousand British Japanese, mostly in

London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a majo ...

; but unlike other '' Nikkei'' terms used centered from Japan to distinguish the distance from Japanese nationality elsewhere in the world, these Britons do not conventionally parse their communities in generational terms as ''Issei,'' ''Nisei,'' or ''Sansei.''

Aging

The ''

kanreki Hwangap () in Korean, in Japanese or Jiazi () in Chinese, is a traditional way of celebrating one's 61st birthday in Korea. It is technically the 60th birthday, but in Korean age, the person would be celebrating their 61st. The number 60 means a ...

'' (還暦), a traditional, pre-modern Japanese rite of passage to old age at 60, was sometimes celebrated by the ''Issei'' and is now being celebrated by increasing numbers of ''Nisei.'' Rituals are enactments of shared meanings, norms, and values; and this Japanese rite of passage highlights a collective response among the Nisei to the conventional dilemmas of growing older. Aging is affecting the demographics of the Nisei. According to a 2011 columnist in ''The Rafu Shimpo'' of Los Angeles, the obituaries showing the number of Japanese Americans in their 80s and 90s — Nisei, in a word — who are passing is staggering"

Languages

The Japanese-born ''Issei'' learned Japanese as their mother tongue, and their success in learning English as a second language was varied. Most ''Nisei'' speak Japanese to some extent, learned from ''Issei'' parents, Japanese school, and living in a Japanese community or in the internment camps. A majority of English-speaking ''Nisei'' have retained knowledge of the Japanese language, at least in its spoken form. Most ''Sansei'' speak English as their first language and most marry people of non-Japanese ancestry.

Education

An illustrative point-of-view, as revealed in the poetry of an ''Issei'' woman:

Intermarriage

There was relatively little intermarriage during the Nisei generation, partly because the war and the

unconstitutional Constitutionality is said to be the condition of acting in accordance with an applicable constitution; "Webster On Line" the status of a law, a procedure, or an act's accordance with the laws or set forth in the applicable constitution. When l ...

incarceration of these

American citizens Citizenship of the United States is a legal status that entails Americans with specific rights, duties, protections, and benefits in the United States. It serves as a foundation of fundamental rights derived from and protected by the Constituti ...

intervened exactly at a time when the group was of marrying age. Identification of them with the enemy by the American public, made them unpopular and unlikely candidates for interracial marriage. Besides this, they were thrown, en masse, into concentration camps with others of the same ethnicity, causing the majority of Nisei to marry other Nisei. Another factor is that

anti-miscegenation laws Anti-miscegenation laws or miscegenation laws are laws that enforce racial segregation at the level of marriage and intimate relationships by criminalization, criminalizing interracial marriage and sometimes also sex between members of different R ...

criminalizing interracial marriage, cohabitation, and sex were in effect in many U.S. states until 1967. This is why third generation Sansei are mostly still of the same racial appearance as the Issei, who first immigrated to the U.S. The Sansei generation has widely intermarried in the post WWII years, with estimates of such unions at over 60 percent.

History

Internment

When the Canadian and American governments interned West Coast Japanese citizens, Japanese American citizens, and Japanese Canadian citizens in 1942, neither distinguished between American/Canadian-born citizens of Japanese ancestry (''Nisei'') and their parents, born in Japan but now living in the U.S. or Canada (''Issei'').

World War II service

Redress

Japanese American redress

In 1978, the Japanese American Citizens League actively began demanding be taken as redress for harms endured by Japanese Americans during World War II. In 1980, Congress established the

Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians The Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) was a group of nine people appointed by the U.S. Congress in 1980 to conduct an official governmental study into the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Pr ...

( CWRIC) The commission report, ''Personal Justice Denied,'' condemned the internment as "unjust and motivated by racism rather than real military necessity". In 1988, U.S. President

Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan ( ; February 6, 1911June 5, 2004) was an American politician, actor, and union leader who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He also served as the 33rd governor of California from 1967 ...

signed the

Civil Liberties Act of 1988 The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 (, title I, August 10, 1988, , et seq.) is a United States federal law that granted reparations to Japanese Americans who had been wrongly interned by the United States government during World War II. The act was ...

, which provided for a formal apology and payments of $20,000 for each survivor. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". The Civil Liberties Act Amendments of 1992, appropriating an additional $400 million in order to ensure that all remaining internees received their $20,000 redress payments, was signed into law by President

George H. W. Bush George Herbert Walker BushSince around 2000, he has been usually called George H. W. Bush, Bush Senior, Bush 41 or Bush the Elder to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd president from 2001 to 2009; pr ...

, who also issued another formal apology from the U.S. government. Japanese and Japanese Americans who were relocated during WWII were compensated for direct property losses in 1948. These payments were awarded to 82,210 Japanese Americans or their heirs at a cost of $1.6 billion; the program's final disbursement occurred in 1999.DemocracyNow
WWII Reparations: Japanese-American Internees
/ref>

Japanese Canadian redress

In 1983, the

National Association of Japanese Canadians National may refer to: Common uses * Nation or country ** Nationality – a ''national'' is a person who is subject to a nation, regardless of whether the person has full rights as a citizen Places in the United States * National, Maryland, c ...

( NAJC) mounted a campaign demanding redress for injustices during the war years.Establishing Recognition of Past Injustices: Uses of Archival Records in Documenting the Experience of Japanese Canadians During the Second World War
Roberts-Moore, Judith. Archivaria: The Journal of the Association of Canadian Archivists, 53 (2002). NAJC hired

Price Waterhouse PricewaterhouseCoopers is an international professional services brand of firms, operating as partnerships under the PwC brand. It is the second-largest professional services network in the world and is considered one of the Big Four accounting ...

to estimate the economic losses to Japanese Canadians resulting from property confiscations and loss of wages due to internment. On the basis of detailed records maintained by the Custodian of Alien Property, it was determined that the total loss totalled $443 million (in 1986 dollars). In 1988, Prime Minister

Brian Mulroney Martin Brian Mulroney ( ; born March 20, 1939) is a Canadian lawyer, businessman, and politician who served as the 18th prime minister of Canada from 1984 to 1993. Born in the eastern Quebec city of Baie-Comeau, Mulroney studied political sci ...

gave that long-awaited formal apology and the Canadian government began to make good on a compensation package—including $21,000 to all surviving internees, and the re-instatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.Apology and compensation
CBC Archives

Life

Politics

Notable individuals

The number of ''nisei'' who have earned some degree of public recognition has continued to increase over time; but the quiet lives of those whose names are known only to family and friends are no less important in understanding the broader narrative of the ''nikkei.'' Although the names highlighted here are over-represented by ''nisei'' from North America, the Latin American member countries of the

Pan American Nikkei Association The Pan American Nikkei Association - PANA, the English-language name of the ''Asociación Panamericana Nikkei- APN'', is a multinational, nongovernmental organization. Member countries are Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Japa ...

(PANA) include

Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, th ...

Bolivia , image_flag = Bandera de Bolivia (Estado).svg , flag_alt = Horizontal tricolor (red, yellow, and green from top to bottom) with the coat of arms of Bolivia in the center , flag_alt2 = 7 × 7 square p ...

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...

Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...

Paraguay Paraguay (; ), officially the Republic of Paraguay ( es, República del Paraguay, links=no; gn, Tavakuairetã Paraguái, links=si), is a landlocked country in South America. It is bordered by Argentina to the south and southwest, Brazil to th ...

, and

Uruguay Uruguay (; ), officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay ( es, República Oriental del Uruguay), is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast; while bordering ...

, in addition to the English-speaking

and

. * John Fujio Aiso (1909–1987), American military leader, lawyer, and judge * Sally Amaki, American singer and voice actress based in Tokyo *

Steve Aoki Steven Hiroyuki Aoki (, ; born November 30, 1977), best known as Steve Aoki, is an American DJ, record producer, music programmer, and record executive.

(born 1977), Japanese American electro house musician *

Alberto Fujimori Alberto Kenya Fujimori Inomoto ( or ; born 28 July 1938) is a Peruvian politician, professor and former engineer who was President of Peru from 28 July 1990 until 22 November 2000. Frequently described as a dictator, * * * * * * he remains a ...

(born 1938), President of Peru, 1990–2000 *

Francis Fukuyama Francis Yoshihiro Fukuyama (; born October 27, 1952) is an American political scientist, political economist, international relations scholar and writer. Fukuyama is known for his book ''The End of History and the Last Man'' (1992), which argue ...

(born 1952), philosopher and political economist *

Luiz Gushiken Luiz Gushiken (8 May 1950 – 13 September 2013) was a Brazilian union leader and politician. He was formerly the head of the social communication office of Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva's administration, a position which carried a ministerial ran ...

(1950–2013), Brazilian

politician A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking, a ...

and

activist Activism (or Advocacy) consists of efforts to promote, impede, direct or intervene in social, political, economic or environmental reform with the desire to make changes in society toward a perceived greater good. Forms of activism range fro ...

Barney F. Hajiro Barney Fushimi Hajiro (September 16, 1916 – January 21, 2011) was an American combat veteran of World War II who received the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military award for valor.Martin, Douglas"Barney Hajiro, Medal of Honor Recipi ...

(1916–2011), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II * Mikio Hasemoto (1916–1943), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 9.
June 4, 2008. recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 13.
June 4, 2008. *

Joe Hayashi Joe J. Hayashi (August 14, 1920 – April 22, 1945) was a United States Army soldier. "Hayashi, Joe," pp. 9–10 [PDF 13 of 44/nowiki>">DF 13 of 44"> "Hayashi, Joe," pp. 9–10 [PDF 13 of 44/nowiki> retrieved 2012-12-7. See also *List of Me ...

(1920–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II * Shizuya Hayashi (1917–2008), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 10.
June 4, 2008. * William Hohri (1927–2010), political activist *

James Iha (born March 26, 1968) is an American rock musician. He is best known as a guitarist and co-founder of the alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins. He was a member until the initial breakup in 2000. Among his musical projects of recent years ...

(born 1968),

guitarist A guitarist (or a guitar player) is a person who plays the guitar. Guitarists may play a variety of guitar family instruments such as classical guitars, acoustic guitars, electric guitars, and bass guitars. Some guitarists accompany themselv ...

, member of

alternative rock Alternative rock, or alt-rock, is a category of rock music that emerged from the independent music underground of the 1970s and became widely popular in the 1990s. "Alternative" refers to the genre's distinction from Popular culture, mainstre ...

band

The Smashing Pumpkins The Smashing Pumpkins (also referred to as simply Smashing Pumpkins) are an American alternative rock band from Chicago. Formed in 1988 by frontman and guitarist Billy Corgan, bassist D'arcy Wretzky, guitarist James Iha and drummer Jimmy Chamb ...

* Daniel K. Inouye (1924–2012), Senator from Hawaii, Medal of Honor recipient World War II * Yeiki Kobashigawa (1920–2005), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 12.
June 4, 2008. *

Yuri Kochiyama was an American civil rights activist. Influenced by her Japanese-American family's experience in an American internment camp, her association with Malcolm X, and her Maoist beliefs, she advocated for many causes, including black separatism, ...

(1921–2014), civil rights activist *

Ford Konno Ford Hiroshi Konno (born January 1, 1933) is a Japanese–American former competition swimmer, two-time Olympic champion, and former world record-holder in three events. Konno was born in Honolulu, Hawaii. He attended McKinley High School in Ho ...

(born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1952) and silver medalist (1952, 1956) swimmer *

Tommy Kono Tamio "Tommy" Kono (June 27, 1930 – April 24, 2016) was a Japanese American weightlifter in the 1950s and 1960s. Kono set world records in four different weight classes: lightweight (149 pounds or 67.5 kilograms), middleweight (165 lb or ...

(1930–2016 ), Olympic gold medalist (1952, 1956) and silver medalist (1960) weightlifter and only lifter to have set world records in four different weightlifting classes *

Robert T. Kuroda Robert Toshio Kuroda (November 8, 1922 – October 20, 1944) was a United States Army soldier.Kakesako, Gregg K "Honoring a war hero,"''Honolulu Star Bulletin.'' August 31, 2003; retrieved 2012-12-7. He was a recipient of the United States milita ...

(1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II *

Ben Kuroki Ben Kuroki (May 16, 1917 – September 1, 2015) was the only American of Japanese Americans, Japanese descent in the United States Army Air Forces to serve in combat operations in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II, Pacific theater of World ...

(1917–2015), only Japanese American U.S. Army Air Forces aircrew member to fly combat missions in the Pacific theater in World War II *

Mike Masaoka Mike Masaru Masaoka ( ja, 正岡優, October 15, 1915 – June 26, 1991) was a Japanese-American lobbyist, author, and spokesman. He worked with the Japanese American Citizens League for over 30 years. He was a key player in encouraging cooperati ...

(1915–1991) leader of the Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) *

Spark Matsunaga Spark Masayuki Matsunaga ( ja, 松永正幸, October 8, 1916April 15, 1990) was an American politician and attorney who served as United States Senator for Hawaii from 1977 until his death in 1990. Matsunaga also represented Hawaii in the U.S. ...

(1916–1990), US Senator from Hawaii *

Norman Mineta Norman Yoshio Mineta ( ja, 峯田良雄, November 12, 1931 – May 3, 2022) was an American politician. A member of the Democratic Party, Mineta served in the United States Cabinet for Presidents Bill Clinton, a Democrat, and George W. Bush, a ...

(1931–2022), former Congressman from California and Secretary of Transportation *

Wataru Misaka Wataru Misaka (December 21, 1923 – November 20, 2019) was an American professional basketball player. A point guard of Japanese descent, he broke a color barrier in professional basketball by being the first non-white player and the first p ...

(1923–2019), became the first player of Asian descent and the first non-Caucasian to play in the NBA in 1947 * Hiroshi Miyamura (1925–2022), US Medal of Honor recipient in Korean War *

Pat Morita Noriyuki "Pat" Morita (June 28, 1932 – November 24, 2005) was an American actor and comedian. He was known for his roles as Matsuo "Arnold" Takahashi on ''Happy Days'', Mr. Miyagi in ''The Karate Kid'' film series, Captain Sam Pak on the sitco ...

(1932–2005), television and movie actor nominated for the

Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor The Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of an actor who has delivered an outstanding performance in a supporting role while worki ...

in 1984 *

Kaoru Moto Kaoru Moto (April 25, 1917 – August 26, 1992) was a United States Army soldier.Vachon, Duane "'Tegara osele na wo nokose', To leave a name behind - PFC Kaoru Moto, U.S. Army, WW II, 100th Infantry Battalion, Medal of Honor, (1917-1992),"''Ha ...

(1917–1992), Medal of Honor *

Sadao Munemori Sadao Munemori ( ja, 旨森貞雄, August 17, 1922 – April 5, 1945) was a United States Army soldier and posthumous recipient of the Medal of Honor, after he sacrificed his life to save those of his fellow soldiers at Seravezza, Italy durin ...

(1922–1945), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II * Kiyoshi K. Muranaga (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II *

Mirai Nagasu is an American figure skater. She is a 2018 Olympic Games team event bronze medalist, three-time Four Continents medalist (silver in 2016, bronze in 2011 and 2017), the 2007 JGP Final champion, a two-time World Junior medalist (silver in 2007 ...

(1993– ), U.S. Figure Skating champion in 2008 and Olympic bronze medalist *

Masato Nakae Masato (written: , , , , , , , or ) is a masculine Japanese given name. Notable people with the name include: *Masato (kickboxer) (born 1979), Japanese former welterweight kickboxer, won K-1 WORLD MAX kickboxing tournament in 2003, 2008 * Masato ...

(1917–1998), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 14.
June 4, 2008. * Shinyei Nakamine (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II * William K. Nakamura (1922–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 15.
June 4, 2008. *

George Nakashima George Katsutoshi Nakashima ( ja, 中島勝寿 ''Nakashima Katsutoshi'', May 24, 1905 – June 15, 1990) was an American woodworker, architect, and furniture maker who was one of the leading innovators of 20th century furniture design and a fathe ...

(1905–1990), furniture and cabinetmaker * Joe M. Nishimoto (1920–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II *

Isamu Noguchi was an American artist and landscape architect whose artistic career spanned six decades, from the 1920s onward. Known for his sculpture and public artworks, Noguchi also designed stage sets for various Martha Graham productions, and several ...

(1904–1988), sculptor and landscape architect * Allan M. Ohata (1918–1977), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 16.
June 4, 2008. *

Apolo Anton Ohno Apolo Anton Ohno (; born May 22, 1982) is an American retired short track speed skating competitor and an eight-time medalist (two gold, two silver, four bronze) in the Winter Olympics. Ohno is the most decorated American at the Winter Olympics ...

(born 1982) Olympic gold (2002, 2006), silver (2002, 2010), and bronze (2006, 2010) medalist speed skater *

John Okada John Okada (September 23, 1923 – February 20, 1971) was a Japanese American novelist known for his critically acclaimed novel ''No-No Boy''. Biography Born in Seattle, Okada was a student at the University of Washington during the attack ...

(1923–1971), writer *

James K. Okubo James K. Okubo (May 30, 1920 – January 29, 1967) was a United States Army soldier.Kakesako, Gregg K"AJA medic’s medal may be upgraded,"''Honolulu Star-Bulletin,'' September 15, 2009; 2012-12-29. He was a posthumous recipient of the Medal of Ho ...

(1920–1967), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II * Yukio Okutsu (1921–2003), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 17.
June 4, 2008. *

Frank H. Ono Frank H. Ono (June 5, 1923 – May 6, 1980) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.US Army Center of Military History"Medal of ...

(1923–1980), Medal of Honor recipient in World War II *

Ken Ono Ken Ono (born March 20, 1968) is a Japanese-American mathematician who specializes in number theory, especially in integer partitions, modular forms, umbral moonshine, the Riemann Hypothesis and the fields of interest to Srinivasa Ramanujan. He ...

(born 1968), mathematician *

Santa J. Ono Santa Jeremy Ono ( ja, 小野三太; born November 23, 1962) is a Canadian-American immunologist and academic administrator, currently serving as the 15th President of the University of Michigan, president of the University of Michigan since O ...

(born 1962), immunologist, President

University of Cincinnati The University of Cincinnati (UC or Cincinnati) is a public research university in Cincinnati, Ohio. Founded in 1819 as Cincinnati College, it is the oldest institution of higher education in Cincinnati and has an annual enrollment of over 44,00 ...

, President

University of British Columbia The University of British Columbia (UBC) is a public university, public research university with campuses near Vancouver and in Kelowna, British Columbia. Established in 1908, it is British Columbia's oldest university. The university ranks a ...

, President

University of Michigan , mottoeng = "Arts, Knowledge, Truth" , former_names = Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania (1817–1821) , budget = $10.3 billion (2021) , endowment = $17 billion (2021)As o ...

Kazuo Otani Kazuo Otani (June 2, 1918 – July 15, 1944) was a United States Army soldier and a recipient of the United States military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II.US Army Center of Military History"Medal of Hono ...

(1918–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 18.
June 4, 2008. * Yoshinobu Oyakawa (born 1933), Olympic gold medalist (1952) in swimming * George T. Sakato (1921–2015), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 19.
June 4, 2008. *

James Shigeta James Saburo Shigeta ( ja, 繁田三郎) (June 17, 1929 – July 28, 2014) was an American actor of Japanese descent. He was noted for his roles in '' The Crimson Kimono'' (1959), '' Walk Like a Dragon'' (1960), ''Flower Drum Song'' (1961), ...

(1929–2014), an American film and television actor *

Mike Shinoda Michael Kenji Shinoda (; ja, 篠田賢治, Shinoda Kenji; born February 11, 1977) is an American musician, singer, rapper, songwriter and record producer. He co-founded the rock band Linkin Park in 1996 and was the band's collaborative vocal ...

(born 1977), musician, rapper, singer, songwriter, record producer, graphic designer, manager and film composer. Member of the American band

Linkin Park Linkin Park is an American rock band from Agoura Hills, California. The band's current lineup comprises vocalist/rhythm guitarist/keyboardist Mike Shinoda, lead guitarist Brad Delson, bassist Dave Farrell, DJ/turntablist Joe Hahn and drummer ...

and supplementary group

Fort Minor Fort Minor was a hip hop side project by American musician Mike Shinoda, who is better known as the rhythm guitarist, keyboardist, producer, and rapper of the rock band Linkin Park. The project's only album, '' The Rising Tied'', was released ...

* Monica Sone (1919–2011), American author of the autobiographical ''Nisei Daughter'' *

David Suzuki David Takayoshi Suzuki (born March 24, 1936) is a Canadian academic, science broadcaster, and environmental activist. Suzuki earned a PhD in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1961, and was a professor in the genetics department at th ...

(born 1936), Canadian academic, science broadcaster and environmental activist *

Shinkichi Tajiri Shinkichi Tajiri (Los Angeles, December 7, 1923 – Baarlo, Netherlands, March 15, 2009) was an American sculptor who resided in the Netherlands from 1956 onwards. He was also active in painting, photography and cinematography. Childhood and ...

(1923–2009), sculptor *

Atsuko Tanaka (ski jumper) (born January 25, 1992) is a Canadian Olympic ski jumper from Calgary, Alberta. Tanaka first started ski jumping when she was ten, later competing internationally in 2004, at the age of 12. In October 2005, when she was 13, Tanaka won gold in ...

(born 1992), Canadian Olympic ski jumper *

George Takei George Takei (; ja, ジョージ・タケイ; born Hosato Takei (武井穂郷), April 20, 1937) is an American actor, author and activist known for his role as Hikaru Sulu, helmsman of the fictional starship USS ''Enterprise'' in the televi ...

(born 1937), actor and gay rights activist best known for his role in the television series ''Star Trek'' * Ted T. Tanouye (1919–1944), Medal of Honor recipient in World War IIMedal of Honor
CRS RL30011, p. 20.
June 4, 2008. * Traci Toguchi (born 1974), actress and singer * Hisaye Yamamoto (1921–2011), author *

Minoru Yamasaki was an American architect, best known for designing the original World Trade Center in New York City and several other large-scale projects. Yamasaki was one of the most prominent architects of the 20th century. He and fellow architect Edward ...

(1912–1986), architect best known for the New York World Trade Center "Twin Towers" *

Karl Yoneda Karl Gozo Yoneda ( ja, 米田剛三, July 15, 1906 – May 8, 1999) was a Japanese American activist, union organizer, World War II veteran and author. He played a substantial role in the founding of the International Longshore and Warehous ...

(1906–1999), Communist labor activist * George Yoshia (born 1922), California musician and teacher

References

Bibliography

* Dinnerstein, Leonard & Reimers, David M. (1999)
''Ethnic Americans: A History of Immigration.''
New York:

Columbia University Press Columbia University Press is a university press based in New York City, and affiliated with Columbia University. It is currently directed by Jennifer Crewe (2014–present) and publishes titles in the humanities and sciences, including the fiel ...

. * Hosokawa, Bill. (2002)
''Nisei: The Quiet Americans.''
Boulder:

University Press of Colorado The University Press of Colorado is a nonprofit publisher supported partly by Adams State University, Colorado State University, Fort Lewis College, Metropolitan State University of Denver, the University of Colorado, the University of Northern Co ...

* Itoh, Keiko. (2001)
''The Japanese Community in Pre-War Britain: From Integration to Disintegration.''
London:

Routledge Routledge () is a British multinational publisher. It was founded in 1836 by George Routledge, and specialises in providing academic books, journals and online resources in the fields of the humanities, behavioural science, education, law, and ...

. * McLellan, Janet. (1999)
''Many Petals of the Lotus: Five Asian Buddhist Communities in Toronto.''
Toronto:

University of Toronto Press The University of Toronto Press is a Canadian university press founded in 1901. Although it was founded in 1901, the press did not actually publish any books until 1911. The press originally printed only examination books and the university calen ...

. * Moulin, Pierre. (2007)
''Dachau, Holocaust, and US Samurais: Nisei Soldiers First in Dachau?''
Bloomington, Indiana: AuthorHouse. * Tamura, Eileen & Daniels, Roger. (1994)
''Americanization, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity: The Nisei Generation in Hawaii.''
Urbana:

University of Illinois Press The University of Illinois Press (UIP) is an American university press and is part of the University of Illinois system. Founded in 1918, the press publishes some 120 new books each year, plus 33 scholarly journals, and several electronic project ...

. * Yenne, Bill. (2007)
''Rising Sons: The Japanese American GIs Who Fought for the United States in World War II.''
New York: Macmillan. * Yoo, David & Daniels, Roger. (1999)
''Growing Up Nisei: Race, Generation, and Culture Among Japanese Americans of California, 1924–49.''
Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

External links

Japanese American National Museum JANM generational teas

in

Washington, DC ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan ...

Japanese American Citizens League

Japanese Cultural & Community Center
of

Northern California Northern California (colloquially known as NorCal) is a geographic and cultural region that generally comprises the northern portion of the U.S. state of California. Spanning the state's northernmost 48 counties, its main population centers incl ...

Japanese American Community and Cultural Center
of

Southern California Southern California (commonly shortened to SoCal) is a geographic and Cultural area, cultural region that generally comprises the southern portion of the U.S. state of California. It includes the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the second most po ...

Japanese American Historical Society

Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project

Japanese American Museum
of

San Jose, California San Jose, officially San José (; ; ), is a major city in the U.S. state of California that is the cultural, financial, and political center of Silicon Valley and largest city in Northern California by both population and area. With a 2020 popul ...

Japanese American Network

Japanese-American's own companies in USA

Japanese American Relocation Digital Archives

* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20110525012332/http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/yamato.cfm Photo Exhibit of Japanese American communityin

Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...

Nikkei Federation

Discover Nikkei

* ttps://www.pbs.org/thewar/at_war_democracy_japanese_american.htm The War: Fighting for Democracy: Japanese Americansbr>''“The War Relocation Centers of World War II: When Fear Was Stronger than Justice”'', a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan

{{Japanese diaspora Japanese words and phrases Japanese diaspora Japanese-American history Cultural generations Transitional justice fr:Nisei

History

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