Ninpumuna was a
Mesopotamian goddess
Deities in ancient Mesopotamia were almost exclusively anthropomorphic. They were thought to possess extraordinary powers and were often envisioned as being of tremendous physical size. The deities typically wore ''melam'', an ambiguous substan ...
associated with
salt springs
A brine spring or salt spring is a Brine, saltwater Spring (hydrology), spring.
Brine springs are not necessarily associated with halite deposits in the immediate vicinity. They may occur at valley bottoms made of clay and gravel which became sogg ...
. It is assumed she was also an underworld deity. She is only attested in a handful of texts from the
Ur III period
The Third Dynasty of Ur, also called the Neo-Sumerian Empire, refers to a 22nd to 21st century BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians consider t ...
from
Ur and
Puzrish-Dagan
Puzrish-Dagan (modern Drehem) is an important archaeological site in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate (Iraq). It is best-known for the thousands of clay tablets that are known to have come from the site through looting during the early twentieth century ...
, in which she can appear alongside deities such as
Ninazu
Ninazu ( sux, ) was a Mesopotamian god of the underworld of Sumerian origin. He was also associated with snakes and vegetation, and with time acquired the character of a warrior god. He was frequently associated with Ereshkigal, either as a s ...
and
Ningishzida
Ningishzida ( Sumerian: DNIN-G̃IŠ-ZID-DA, possible meaning "Lord f theGood Tree") was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part ...
. It has been proposed she was also worshiped in the cult center of the latter god, Gishbanda.
Character
Ninpumuna's name can be translated from
Sumerian
Sumerian or Sumerians may refer to:
*Sumer, an ancient civilization
**Sumerian language
**Sumerian art
**Sumerian architecture
**Sumerian literature
**Cuneiform script, used in Sumerian writing
*Sumerian Records, an American record label based in ...
as "mistress of the
salt spring
A brine spring or salt spring is a saltwater spring.
Brine springs are not necessarily associated with halite deposits in the immediate vicinity. They may occur at valley bottoms made of clay and gravel which became soggy with brine seeped downslo ...
." The term ''pu
3-mun'', "salt spring," is first attested in a document from the Early Dynastic period. The theonym is rendered as ''
dNin-TÚL-mun-na'' in the ''
Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie
The ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie und Vorderasiatischen Archäologie'' (RlA), formerly ''Reallexikon der Assyriologie'', is a multi-language (English, German, and French) encyclopedia on the Ancient Near East. It was founded by Bruno Meissner in ...
'', but more recent publications by Dina Katz (2007), Annabelle Staiger (2010) and Jose Hernández (2013) consistently use the reading "Ninpumuna." Mark E. Cohen already referred to her as "Ninpumunna" in a monograph published in 1993.
It is presumed that Ninpumuna was associated with the
underworld
The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld.
...
. Possibly the type of springs she was associated with was perceived as a symbol of death. However, it has been noted that future studies of her character need to take into account that salt also had positive associations in Mesopotamian culture, chiefly as a valuable ware or as a ritual agent of purification.
Worship
The only known texts which mention Ninpumuna come from
Ur and
Puzrish-Dagan
Puzrish-Dagan (modern Drehem) is an important archaeological site in Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate (Iraq). It is best-known for the thousands of clay tablets that are known to have come from the site through looting during the early twentieth century ...
. All have been dated to roughly the same forty years old section of the
Ur III period
The Third Dynasty of Ur, also called the Neo-Sumerian Empire, refers to a 22nd to 21st century BC (middle chronology) Sumerian ruling dynasty based in the city of Ur and a short-lived territorial-political state which some historians consider t ...
, and most were specifically written during the reigns of kings
Amar-Sin
Amar-Sin ( akk, : '' DAmar D Sîn'', after the Moon God Sîn", the "𒀭" being a silent honorific for "Divine"), initially misread as Bur-Sin (c. 2046-2037 BC middle chronology, or possibly ca. 1982–1973 BC short chronology) was the third rule ...
and
Ibbi-Sin
Ibbi-Sin ( sux, , ), son of Shu-Sin, was king of Sumer and Akkad and last king of the Ur III dynasty, and reigned c. 2028–2004 BCE (Middle chronology) or possibly c. 1964–1940 BCE (Short chronology). During his reign, ...
.
In a text from the latter of these two sites, a priestess of
Meslamtaea is stated to be responsible for offering sheep to Ninpumuna. However, she also had her own clergy, as evidenced by the fact that a "''saĝĝa'' of Ninpumuna" appears in a document from the same location dealing with deliveries for Usaga, a possible member of the royal family, and to an
Amorite
The Amorites (; sux, 𒈥𒌅, MAR.TU; Akkadian: 𒀀𒈬𒊒𒌝 or 𒋾𒀉𒉡𒌝/𒊎 ; he, אֱמוֹרִי, 'Ĕmōrī; grc, Ἀμορραῖοι) were an ancient Northwest Semitic-speaking people from the Levant who also occupied lar ...
named
Naplānum. The term ''saĝĝa'' can be translated as "
temple
A temple (from the Latin ) is a building reserved for spiritual rituals and activities such as prayer and sacrifice. Religions which erect temples include Christianity (whose temples are typically called churches), Hinduism (whose temples ...
administrator." One ceremony involving Ninpumuna took place in a temple of
Ninsun
Ninsun (also called Ninsumun, cuneiform: dNIN.SUMUN2; Sumerian: ''Nin-sumun(ak)'' "lady of the wild cows") was a Mesopotamian goddess. She is best known as the mother of the hero Gilgamesh and wife of deified legendary king Lugalbanda, and appea ...
, and apparently was overseen by the reigning king at the time,
Shu-Sin
Shu-Sin, also Šu-Suen ( akk, : '' DŠu D Sîn'', after the Moon God Sîn", the "𒀭" being a silent honorific for "Divine", formerly read Gimil-Sin) was king of Sumer and Akkad, and was the penultimate king of the Ur III dynasty. He succeeded h ...
. She also appears in the fourth ritual from a series pertaining to funerary rites of the same monarch which has been discovered in Puzrish-Dagan. According to this text, she received an offering of sacrificial animals alongside deities such as
Ninshubur
Ninshubur (; Ninšubur, "Lady of Subartu" or "Lady of servants"), also spelled Ninšubura, was a Mesopotamian goddess whose primary role was that of the '' sukkal'' (divine vizier) of the goddess Inanna. While it is agreed that in this context Ni ...
,
Bau,
Belet-Šuḫnir,
Haya, various manifestations of
Inanna
Inanna, also sux, 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀭𒈾, nin-an-na, label=none is an List of Mesopotamian deities, ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, Divine law, divine justice, and political p ...
,
Shamash
Utu (dUD "Sun"), also known under the Akkadian name Shamash, ''šmš'', syc, ܫܡܫܐ ''šemša'', he, שֶׁמֶשׁ ''šemeš'', ar, شمس ''šams'', Ashurian Aramaic: 𐣴𐣬𐣴 ''š'meš(ā)'' was the ancient Mesopotamian sun god. ...
, Meslamtaea,
Geshtinanna
Geshtinanna was a Mesopotamian goddess best known due to her role in myths about the death of Dumuzi, her brother. It is not certain what functions did she fulfill in the Mesopotamian pantheon, though her association with the scribal arts and dr ...
,
Allatum
Allani, also known under the Akkadian name Allatu (or Allatum) was the Hurrian goddess of the underworld, incorporated into Hittite and Mesopotamian pantheons as well.
Name and epithets
The name Allani is derived from a Hurrian word meaning " ...
,
Gilgamesh
sux, , label=none
, image = Hero lion Dur-Sharrukin Louvre AO19862.jpg
, alt =
, caption = Possible representation of Gilgamesh as Master of Animals, grasping a lion in his left arm and snake in his right hand, in an Assyr ...
, the underworld gatekeeper
Bitu, the deified king Amar-Sin, and others. The order in which they are arranged might be random.
In Ur Nipumuna appears in two offering lists, in both of which she receives offerings alongside
Ninazu
Ninazu ( sux, ) was a Mesopotamian god of the underworld of Sumerian origin. He was also associated with snakes and vegetation, and with time acquired the character of a warrior god. He was frequently associated with Ereshkigal, either as a s ...
, and in one also and
Ningirida
Ningirida was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Ninazu and mother of Ningishzida. Little is known about her character beyond her relation to these two gods.
Name and character
The correct reading of Ningirda's name relies on the syll ...
,
Ningishzida
Ningishzida ( Sumerian: DNIN-G̃IŠ-ZID-DA, possible meaning "Lord f theGood Tree") was a Mesopotamian deity of vegetation, the underworld and sometimes war. He was commonly associated with snakes. Like Dumuzi, he was believed to spend a part ...
,
Ninazimua Azimua, also known as Ninazimua, was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the wife of Ningishzida.
Name
Ninazimua is the original spelling of the name of this goddess, attested in sources from the Ur III period. Later the NIN sign was usually omitte ...
,
Alla and a deity whose name is not fully preserved. Similar associations between her and underworld deities are common in known sources. She is also attested in association with
Alammuš
Alammuš (Alammush) was a Mesopotamian god. He was the sukkal (attendant deity) of the moon god Nanna, and like him was worshiped in Ur. He was also closely associated with the cattle god Ningublaga, and especially in astronomical texts they coul ...
and
Ninurima
Ninurima was a Mesopotamian goddess regarded as the spouse of Alammuš, an attendant of the moon god Nanna. She is best attested in texts from the Ur III period from Ur, though she also occurs in a number of god lists, including ''An = Anum''.
C ...
. Based on her connection to Ningishzida, Annabelle Steiger suggests that she might have been worshiped in his cult center, Gishbanda.
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*{{cite book, last=Staiger, first=Annabelle, editor1-last=Shehata, editor1-first=Dahlia, editor2-last=Weiershäuser, editor2-first=Frauke, editor3-last=Zand, editor3-first=Kamran V., title=Von Göttern und Menschen: Beiträge zu Literatur und Geschichte des Alten Orients. Festschrift für Brigitte Groneberg, publisher=Brill, series=Cuneiform Monographs, volume=41, year=2010, isbn=978-90-04-18748-1, url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KG3cneWa8BkC&pg=PA225, language=de, access-date=2022-10-01, doi=10.1163/9789004187474_014, pages=225-236
Mesopotamian goddesses
Underworld goddesses
Salt springs