) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesRépublique du Niger, "Loi n° 2001-037 du 31 décembre 2001 fixant les modalités de promotion et de développement des langues nationales." L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde
(accessed 21 September 2016) , languages = , religion_ref = , religion_year = 2012 , religion = , demonym = Nigerien , capital = Niamey , coordinates = , largest_city = Niamey , government_type = Unitary semi-presidential

republic A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...

, leader_title1 = President , leader_name1 = Mohamed Bazoum , leader_title2 = Prime Minister , leader_name2 = Ouhoumoudou Mahamadou , leader_title3 = President of the National Assembly , leader_name3 = Seyni Oumarou , legislature = National Assembly , area_rank = 21st , area_km2 = 1,267,000 , area_sq_mi = 489,678 , percent_water = 0.02 , population_estimate = 24,484,587 , population_estimate_rank = 56th , population_estimate_year = 2022 , population_density_km2 = 12.1 , population_density_sq_mi = 31.2 , population_density_rank = , GDP_PPP = $23.475 billion , GDP_PPP_rank = 140th , GDP_PPP_year = 2018 , GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,213World Economic Outlook Database, January 2018

International Monetary Fund
. Database updated on 12 April 2017. Accessed on 21 April 2017. , GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 183rd , GDP_nominal = $9.869 billion , GDP_nominal_rank = 136th , GDP_nominal_year = 2018 , GDP_nominal_per_capita = $510 , GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 179th , sovereignty_type = Independence , sovereignty_note = from France , established_event1 = Republic proclaimed , established_date1 = 18 December 1958 , established_event2 = Declared , established_date2 = 3 August 1960 , Gini_year = 2014 , Gini_change = increase , Gini = 34.0 , Gini_ref = , Gini_rank = 70th , HDI_year = 2021 , HDI_change = increase , HDI = 0.400 , HDI_ref = , HDI_rank = 189th , currency = West African CFA franc , currency_code = XOF , time_zone = WAT , utc_offset = +1 , time_zone_DST = , utc_offset_DST = , drives_on = right , calling_code = +227 , cctld =

.ne .ne is the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Niger. Unrelated to the .ne top-level domain, "ne" is sometimes used as a second-level domain within other country-code domains, in which registrants may register second-level domains ...

, footnote_a = , ethnic_groups_ref = , ethnic_groups_year = 2021 , ethnic_groups = Niger or the Niger ( , ),, ff, Niiser ha, Nijar officially the Republic of the Niger (french: République du Niger, ha, Jamhuriyar Nijar), is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the

northeast The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sepa ...

Chad Chad (; ar, تشاد , ; french: Tchad, ), officially the Republic of Chad, '; ) is a landlocked country at the crossroads of North and Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic ...

to the east, Nigeria to the

south South is one of the cardinal directions or Points of the compass, compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both east and west. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Pro ...

, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the

northwest The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, radially arrayed compass directions (or azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A compass rose is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—each sep ...

. It covers a land area of almost , making it the second-largest landlocked country in West Africa, after

. Over 80% of its land area lies in the

Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...

. Its predominantly

Muslim Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...

population of about million live mostly in clusters in the further south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner. It is listed in the least developed countries group. Some non-desert portions of the country underwent periodic drought and

desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...

. The economy is concentrated around

subsistence agriculture Subsistence agriculture occurs when farmers grow food crops to meet the needs of themselves and their families on smallholdings. Subsistence agriculturalists target farm output for survival and for mostly local requirements, with little or no su ...

, with some export agriculture in the more fertile south, and export of raw materials, including uranium ore. It faces challenges to development due to its landlocked position, desert terrain, higher fertility rates without

birth control Birth control, also known as contraception, anticonception, and fertility control, is the use of methods or devices to prevent unwanted pregnancy. Birth control has been used since ancient times, but effective and safe methods of birth contr ...

and resulting overpopulation. The society reflects a diversity drawn from the independent histories of some ethnic groups and regions and their period living in a single state. Historically, Niger has been on the fringes of some states. Since independence, Nigeriens have lived under 5 constitutions and 3 periods of

military rule Military rule may mean: * Military justice, the legal system applying to members of the armed forces * Martial law, where military authority takes over normal administration of law * Militarism or militarist ideology, the ideology of government as b ...

. After the military coup in 2010, Niger became a

democratic Democrat, Democrats, or Democratic may refer to: Politics *A proponent of democracy, or democratic government; a form of government involving rule by the people. *A member of a Democratic Party: **Democratic Party (United States) (D) **Democratic ...

, multi-party state. A

majority A majority, also called a simple majority or absolute majority to distinguish it from #Related terms, related terms, is more than half of the total.Dictionary definitions of ''majority'' aMerriam-WebsterNiger River which flows through the west of the country; a theory about the origin of the river's name is that it comes from the Tuareg ''n'eghirren'' meaning 'flowing water'. The pronunciation is the French one of , while in Anglophone media is also used.

History

Prehistory

Stone tools, some dating as far back as 280,000 BC, have been found in Adrar Bous, Bilma and Djado in the northern Agadez Region.Geels, Jolijn, (2006) ''Bradt Travel Guide - Niger'', pgs. 15-22 Some of these finds have been linked with the Aterian and Mousterian tool cultures of the

Middle Paleolithic The Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the second subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. The term Middle Stone Age is used as an equivalent or a synonym for the Middle Paleoli ...

period, which flourished in northern Africa circa 90,000 BC–20,000 BC. It is thought that these humans lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In prehistoric times the climate of the

Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...

was wetter and more fertile, a phenomenon archaeologists refer to as the '

Green Sahara The African humid period (AHP) (also known by other names) is a climate period in Africa during the late Pleistocene and Holocene geologic epochs, when northern Africa was wetter than today. The covering of much of the Sahara desert by grasses, ...

' which provided "favourable" conditions for hunting and later agriculture and livestock herding. The Neolithic era began circa 10,000 BC; this period saw a number of changes, such as the introduction of pottery (as evidenced at Tagalagal, Temet and Tin Ouffadene), the spread of cattle husbandry, and the burying of the dead in stone tumuli. As the climate changed in the period 4000–2800 BC the Sahara gradually began drying out, forcing a change in settlement patterns to the south and east.Niger
. ''Encyclopédie Larousse'' Agriculture spread, including the planting of

millet Millets () are a highly varied group of small-seeded grasses, widely grown around the world as cereal crops or grains for fodder and human food. Most species generally referred to as millets belong to the tribe Paniceae, but some millets al ...

and

sorghum ''Sorghum'' () is a genus of about 25 species of flowering plants in the grass family (Poaceae). Some of these species are grown as cereals for human consumption and some in pastures for animals. One species is grown for grain, while many othe ...

, and pottery production. Iron and copper items appear in this era, with finds including those at Azawagh, Takedda, Marendet and the Termit Massif. The

Kiffian The Kiffian culture is a prehistoric industry, or domain, that existed between approximately 8,000 BC and 6,000 BC in the Sahara Desert, during the African humid period referred to as the Neolithic Subpluvial. Human remains from this culture were ...

(circa 8000–6000 BC) and later Tenerian (circa 5000–2500 BC) cultures, centred on Adrar Bous and

Gobero The Gobero archaeological site, dating to approximately 8000 BCE, is the oldest known graveyard in the Sahara Desert. The site contains important information for archaeologists on how early humans adapted to a constantly changing environment. Gobe ...

where skeletons have been uncovered, flourished during this period.Ancient cemetery found in 'green' Sahara Desert
. By Randolph E. Schmid. Associated Press /ABC News. Societies continued to grow with regional differentiation in agricultural and funerary practices. A culture of this period is the

Bura culture The Bura culture (Bura system) refers to a set of archeological sites in the lower Niger River valley of Niger and Burkina Faso. More specifically, the Iron Age civilization exemplified by the Bura culture was centered in the southwest portion of ...

(circa 200–1300 AD) named for the

Bura archaeological site The archeological site of Bura is located in the Tillabéry Region, of the Tera Department, in southwest Niger. The Bura archeological site has given its name to the area's first-millennium Bura culture. Site description The Bura site consis ...

. where a burial replete with iron and ceramic statuettes were discovered. The Neolithic era saw the flourishing of Saharan rock art, including in the Aïr Mountains, Termit Massif, Djado Plateau, Iwelene, Arakao, Tamakon, Tzerzait, Iferouane, Mammanet and Dabous; the art spans the period from 10,000BC to 100AD and depicts a range of subjects, from the varied fauna of the landscape to depictions of spear-carrying figures dubbed 'Libyan warriors'.Shillington, Kevin (1989, 1995). ''History of Africa, Second Edition''. St. Martin's Press, New York. Page 32.

Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger

By at least the 5th century BC the territory of what later is Niger had become an area of trans-Saharan trade. Led by Tuareg tribes from the north, camels were used as a means of transportation through what is later a desert. Masonen, P:
Trans-Saharan Trade and the West African Discovery of the Mediterranean World.
" This mobility which would continue in waves for centuries was accompanied with further migration to the south and intermixing between sub-Saharan African and North African populations, and the spread of

Islam Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...

. It was aided by the Arab invasion of North Africa in the 7th century, which resulted in population movements to the south. Empires and kingdoms existed in the Sahel during this era. The following adopts a roughly chronological account of some empires.

Mali Empire (1200s–1400s)

The Mali Empire was a

Mandinka Mandinka, Mandika, Mandinkha, Mandinko, or Mandingo may refer to: Media * ''Mandingo'' (novel), a bestselling novel published in 1957 * ''Mandingo'' (film), a 1975 film based on the eponymous 1957 novel * ''Mandingo (play)'', a play by Jack Kir ...

empire founded by

Sundiata Keita Sundiata Keita ( Mandinka, Malinke: ; 1217 – c. 1255) (also known as Manding Diara, Lion of Mali, Sogolon Djata, son of Sogolon, Nare Maghan and Sogo Sogo Simbon Salaba) was a prince and founder of the Mali Empire. He is also the great-uncle ...

(r. 1230–1255) in circa 1230 and existed up to 1600. As detailed in the '' Epic of Sundiata'', Mali emerged as a breakaway region of the

Sosso Empire The Sosso Empire was a twelfth-century Kaniaga kingdom of West Africa. The Kingdom of Sosso, also written as Soso or Susu, was an ancient kingdom on the coast of west Africa. During its empire, reigned their most famous leader, Sumaoro Ka ...

which itself had split from the earlier Ghana Empire. Thereafter Mali defeated the Sosso at the

Battle of Kirina The Battle of Kirina, also known as the Battle of Krina or Siege of Karina ( c. 1235), was a confrontation between Sosso king Sumanguru Kanté and Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita. Sundiata Keita's forces roundly defeated those of Sumanguru Kant ...

in 1235 and then Ghana in 1240. From its heartland around the later Guinea-Mali border region, the empire expanded under successive kings and came to dominate the Trans-Saharan trade routes, reaching its greatest extent during the rule of Mansa Musa (r. 1312–1337). At this point parts of what are now Niger's Tillabéri Region fell under Malian rule. A Muslim, Mansa Musa performed the ''

hajj The Hajj (; ar, حَجّ '; sometimes also spelled Hadj, Hadji or Haj in English) is an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, Saudi Arabia, the holiest city for Muslims. Hajj is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried ...

'' in 1324–25 and encouraged the spread of

in the empire, and it "appears that most ordinary citizens continued to maintain their traditional animist beliefs instead of or alongside the new religion". The empire began "declining" in the 15th century due to a combination of internecine strife over the royal succession, weak kings, the shift of European trade routes to the coast, and rebellions in the empire's periphery by Mossi, Wolof, Tuareg and Songhai peoples. A rump Mali kingdom continued to exist until 1600s.

Songhai Empire (1000s–1591)

The

Songhai Empire The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel/Sudan in the 15th and 16th century. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical ...

was named for its main ethnic group, the Songhai or Sonrai, and was centred on the bend of the Niger River in Mali. Songhai began settling this region from the 7th to 9th centuries; by the 11th century Gao (capital of the former

Kingdom of Gao The Gao Empire preceded the Songhai Empire in the region of the Middle Niger. It owes its name to the town of Gao located at the eastern Niger bend. In the ninth century CE, it was considered to be the most powerful West African kingdom. Gao was f ...

) had become the empire's capital.Boubou Hama and M Guilhem, "L’histoire du Niger, de l’Afrique et du Monde"; Edicef, ''Les royaumes Haoussa'', pp. 104–112 From 1000 to 1325, the Songhai Empire managed to maintain peace with the Mali Empire, its neighbour to the west. In 1325 Songhai was conquered by Mali until regaining its independence in 1375. Under king Sonni Ali (r. 1464–1492) Songhai adopted an expansionist policy which reached its apogee during the reign of Askia Mohammad I (r. 1493–1528); at this point the empire had expanded from its Niger-bend heartland, including to the east where most of later western Niger fell under its rule, including Agadez which was conquered in 1496. The empire was unable to withstand repeated attacks from the Saadi dynasty of Morocco and was decisively defeated at the Battle of Tondibi in 1591; it then collapsed into a number of smaller kingdoms.

Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906)

In c. 1449 in the north of what is now Niger, the

Sultanate of Aïr The Sultanate of Agadez (also known as Tenere Sultanate of Aïr, Sultanate of Aïr, or Asben") was a Berber kingdom centered in the city of Agadez in the Aïr Mountains, located at the southern edge of the Sahara desert in north-central Niger. It ...

was founded by Sultan Ilisawan, based in Agadez. Formerly a trading post inhabited by a mixture of Hausa and Tuaregs, it grew as a strategic position on the Trans-Saharan trade routes. In 1515 Aïr was conquered by Songhai, remaining a part of that empire until its collapse in 1591. The following centuries, it "seems that the sultanate entered a decline" marked by internecine wars and clan conflicts. When Europeans began exploring the region in the 19th century most of Agadez lay in ruins and was taken over by the French (''see below'').

Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s)

To the east, the

Kanem–Bornu Empire The Kanem–Bornu Empire existed in areas which are now part of Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon and Chad. It was known to the Arabian geographers as the Kanem Empire from the 8th century AD onward and lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu (the B ...

dominated the region around

Lake Chad Lake Chad (french: Lac Tchad) is a historically large, shallow, endorheic lake in Central Africa, which has varied in size over the centuries. According to the ''Global Resource Information Database'' of the United Nations Environment Programme, ...

for a period. It was founded by the Zaghawa around the 8th century and based in

Njimi Njimi was the capital of the Kanuri state of Kanem (later Kanem-Bornu), north of Lake Chad, from the 11th through the 14th centuries. Founded by the Sefawa dynasty in the 11th century, the town dominated trans-Saharan trade in ivory and slaves b ...

, north-east of the lake. The kingdom gradually expanded, including during the rule of the Sayfawa dynasty which began in c. 1075 under ''Mai'' (king) Hummay. The kingdom reached its greatest extent in the 1200s, partly due to the effort of ''Mai'' Dunama Dibbalemi (r. 1210–1259), and grew "richer" from its control of some Trans-Saharan trade routes; most of eastern and south-eastern Niger, including Bilma and Kaouar, was under Kanem's control in this period. Islam had been introduced to the kingdom by Arab traders from the 11th century, gaining more converts over the following centuries. Attacks by the Bulala people in the 14th century forced Kanem to shift westwards of Lake Chad where it became known as the Bornu Empire ruled from its capital Ngazargamu on what is later the Niger-Nigeria border. Bornu "prospered" during the rule of ''Mai'' Idris Alooma (r. circa 1575–1610) and re-conquered most of the "traditional lands" of Kanem, hence the designation 'Kanem–Bornu' for the empire. By the 17th century and into the 18th the Bornu kingdom had entered a "period of decline", shrinking back to its Lake Chad heartland. Circa 1730–40 a group of Kanuri settlers led by Mallam Yunus left Kanem and founded the Sultanate of Damagaram, centred on the town of Zinder. The sultanate remained nominally subject to the Borno Empire until the reign of Sultan Tanimoune Dan Souleymane in the 19th century, who declared independence and initiated a phase of expansion. The sultanate managed to resist the advance of the Sokoto Caliphate (''see below''), and was later captured by the French in 1899.

The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)

Between the Niger River and Lake Chad lay Hausa Kingdoms, encompassing the cultural-linguistic area known as Hausaland which straddles what later is the Niger-Nigeria border. The Hausa are thought to be a mixture of autochthonous peoples and migrant peoples from the north and/or east, emerging as a distinct people sometime in the 900s–1400s when the kingdoms were founded. They gradually adopted Islam from the 14th century, and sometimes this existed alongside other religions, developing into syncretic forms; some Hausa groups such as the Azna resisted Islam altogether (the area of Dogondoutchi remains an animist stronghold). The Hausa kingdoms were not a compact entity but several federations of kingdoms more or less independent of one other. Their organisation was hierarchical and somewhat democratic: the Hausa kings were elected by the notables of the country and could be removed by them. The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states founded, according to the Bayajidda legend, by the six sons of Bawo. Bawo was the only son of the Hausa queen Daurama and Bayajidda or ( Abu Yazid according to certain historians) who came from Baghdad. The seven original Hausa states (also referred to as the 'Hausa bakwai') were: Daura (state of queen Daurama), Kano, Rano, Zaria, Gobir, Katsina and Biram. An extension of the legend states that Bawo had a further seven sons with a concubine, who went on to the found the so-called 'Banza (''illegitimate'') Bakwai':

Zamfara Zamfara (Hausa: Jihar Zamfara Fula: Leydi Zamfara 𞤤𞤫𞤴𞤣𞤭 𞤶𞤢𞤥𞤬𞤢𞤪𞤢) is a state in northwestern Nigeria. The capital of Zamfara state is Gusau and its current Governor is Bello Matawalle. Until 1996, the area was ...

, Kebbi, Nupe, Gwari, Yauri,

Ilorin Ilorin is the List of capitals of states of Nigeria, capital city of Kwara State in Western Nigeria.. Retrieved 18 February 2007 As of the 2006 census, it had a population of 777,667, making it the List of Nigerian cities by population, 7th ...

and Kwararafa. A smaller state not fitting into this scheme was Konni, centred on

Birni-N'Konni Birni-N'Konni (also Birnin-Konni or shortened to Konni/Bkonni) is a town in the Tahoua Region of Niger, lying immediately north of the border of Nigeria and west of seasonal Maggia River. It is an important market town and transport hub and ...

. The Fulani (also called Peul, Fulbe etc.), a pastoral people found throughout the Sahel, began migrating to Hausaland during the 1200s–1500s. During the later 18th century some Fulani were unhappy with the syncretic form of Islam practised there; exploiting also the populace's disdain with corruption amongst the Hausa elite, the Fulani scholar Usman Dan Fodio (from Gobir) declared a

jihad Jihad (; ar, جهاد, jihād ) is an Arabic word which literally means "striving" or "struggling", especially with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it can refer to almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with Go ...

in 1804.H. J. Fisher. The Sahara and Central Sudan. in The Cambridge History of Africa: From C 1600 to C 179. Richard Gray, J. D. Fage, Roland Anthony Oliver, eds. Cambridge University Press, (1975) pp. 134–6 After conquering most of Hausaland (and not the Bornu Kingdom which remained independent) he proclaimed the

Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (), also known as the Fulani Empire or the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fulani jihads after defeating the Hausa Kingdoms in the Ful ...

in 1809. Some of the Hausa states survived by fleeing south, such as the Katsina who moved to Maradi in the south of what later is Niger. Some of these surviving states harassed the Caliphate and a period of wars and skirmishes commenced, with some states (such as Katsina and Gobir) maintaining independence whereas elsewhere newer ones were formed (such as the Sultanate of Tessaoua). The Caliphate managed to survive until, "fatally weakened" by the invasions of Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr, it finally fell to the British in 1903, with its lands later being partitioned between Britain and France. Other smaller kingdoms of the period include the Dosso Kingdom, a Zarma polity founded in 1750 which resisted the rule of Hausa and Sokoto states.

Colonial (1900–58)

In the 19th century some European explorers travelled in the area of what later is Niger, such as Mungo Park (in 1805–06), the Oudney- Denham- Clapperton expedition (1822–25), Heinrich Barth (1850–55; with James Richardson and

Adolf Overweg Adolf Overweg (24 July 1822 – 27 September 1852) was a German astronomer, geologist, and explorer of Africa. As a member of a mission to fix trade routes in Central Africa he became the first person of European origin to circumnavigate Lake ...

), Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs (1865–67), Gustav Nachtigal (1869–74) and

Parfait-Louis Monteil Parfait-Louis Monteil (1855 – 29 September 1925) was a French colonial military officer and explorer who made an epic journey in West Africa between 1890 and 1892, travelling east from Senegal to Lake Chad, and then north across the Sahara to T ...

(1890–92). Some European countries already possessed littoral colonies in Africa, and in the latter half of the century they began to turn their eyes towards the interior of the continent. This process, known as the '

Scramble for Africa The Scramble for Africa, also called the Partition of Africa, or Conquest of Africa, was the invasion, annexation, division, and colonisation of Africa, colonization of most of Africa by seven Western Europe, Western European powers during a ...

', culminated in the 1885 Berlin conference in which the colonial powers outlined the division of Africa into spheres of influence. As a result of this, France gained control of the upper valley of the Niger River (roughly equivalent to the areas of what later is Mali and Niger). France then set about making a reality of their rule on the ground. In 1897 the French officer Marius Gabriel Cazemajou was sent to Niger; he reached the Sultanate of Damagaram in 1898 and stayed in Zinder at the court of Sultan Amadou Kouran Daga—he was later killed as Daga feared he would ally with the Chad-based warlord Rabih az-Zubayr. In 1899–1900 France coordinated three expeditions—the Gentil Mission from French Congo, the Foureau-Lamy Mission from Algeria and the Voulet–Chanoine Mission from Timbuktu—with the aim of linking France's African possessions. The three eventually met at Kousséri (in the further north of Cameroon) and defeated Rabih az-Zubayr's forces at the Battle of Kousséri. The Voulet-Chanoine Mission was "marred by atrocities", and "became notorious" for pillaging, looting, raping and killing local civilians on its passage throughout southern Niger. On 8 May 1899, in retaliation for the resistance of queen

Sarraounia Sarraounia Mangou was a chief/priestess of the animist Azna subgroup of the Hausa people , Hausa, who fought French colonial troops of the Voulet–Chanoine Mission at the Battle of Lougou (in present-day Niger) in 1899. She is the subject of th ...

, captain Voulet and his men murdered all the inhabitants of the village of

in what is regarded as "one of the worst massacres in French colonial history". The "brutal" methods of Voulet and Chanoine caused a "scandal" and Paris was forced to intervene; when Lieutenant-Colonel

Jean-François Klobb Jean-François Arsène Klobb (1857–1899) was a French colonial officer. He was assassinated by order of Captain Paul Voulet. Background and early career Born on June 29, 1857 in Ribeauvillé in the department of Haut-Rhin in Alsace, he was se ...

caught up with the mission near Tessaoua to relieve them of command he was killed. Lt. Paul Joalland, Klobb's former officer, and Lt.

Octave Meynier Octave Meynier was a French military officer, born on 22 February 1874 at Saint-Yrieix-la-Perche in France and died on 31 May 1961 at Algiers. He is remembered as one of two officers who took control of the Voulet-Chanoine Mission, which mutinied ...

eventually took over the mission following a mutiny in which Voulet and Chanoine were killed. The Military Territory of Niger was subsequently created within the Upper Senegal and Niger colony (what later is Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) in December 1904 with its capital at Niamey. The border with Britain's colony of Nigeria to the south was finalised in 1910, a rough delimitation having already been agreed by the two powers via treaties during the period 1898–1906. The capital of the territory was moved to Zinder in 1912 when the Niger Military Territory was split off from Upper Senegal and Niger, before being moved back to Niamey in 1922 when Niger became a fully-fledged colony within

French West Africa French West Africa (french: Afrique-Occidentale française, ) was a federation of eight French colonial territories in West Africa: Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Ivory Coast, Upper Volta (now Burki ...

. The borders of Niger were drawn up in stages and had been fixed at their later position by the 1930s. Territorial adjustments took place in this period: the areas west of the Niger river were

attached "Attached" is the 160th episode of the American science fiction television series '' Star Trek: The Next Generation''. The eighth episode of the seventh season. This explores the relationship between two cultures on an exoplanet and between Crush ...

to Niger in 1926–27, and during the dissolution of Upper Volta (modern Burkina Faso) in 1932–47 most of the east of that territory was added to Niger; and in the east the Tibesti Mountains were transferred to Chad in 1931. The French generally adopted a form of indirect rule, allowing existing native structures to continue to exist within the colonial framework of governance providing that they acknowledged French supremacy. The Zarma of the Dosso Kingdom in particular proved amenable to French rule, using them as allies against the encroachments of Hausa and other nearby states; over time the Zarma thus became one of the "more educated and westernised" groups in Niger. Perceived threats to French rule, such as the Kobkitanda rebellion in Dosso Region (1905–06), led by the blind cleric Alfa Saibou, and the Karma revolt in the Niger valley (December 1905–March 1906) led by Oumarou Karma were suppressed with force, as were the latter Hamallayya and Hauka religious movements. While "largely successful" in subduing the "sedentary" populations of the south, the French faced "considerably more difficulty" with the Tuareg in the north (centered on the Sultanate of Aïr in Agadez), and France was unable to occupy Agadez until 1906. Tuareg resistance continued, culminating in the Kaocen revolt of 1916–17, led by Ag Mohammed Wau Teguidda Kaocen, with backing from the

Senussi The Senusiyya, Senussi or Sanusi ( ar, السنوسية ''as-Sanūssiyya'') are a Muslim political-religious tariqa (Sufi order) and clan in colonial Libya and the Sudan region founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Senussi ( ar, السنوسي ...

in Fezzan; the revolt was violently suppressed and Kaocen fled to Fezzan where he was later killed. A puppet sultan was set up by the French and the "decline and marginalisation" of the north of the colony continued, exacerbated by a series of droughts. While it remained "something of a backwater", some limited economic development took place in Niger during the colonial years, such as the introduction of groundnut cultivation. Measures to improve food security following a series of devastating famines in 1913, 1920 and 1931 were introduced. During the Second World War, during which time mainland France was occupied by Nazi Germany,

Charles de Gaulle Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle (; ; (commonly abbreviated as CDG) 22 November 18909 November 1970) was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government ...

issued the Brazzaville Declaration, declaring that the French colonial empire would be replaced post-war with a less centralised French Union. The French Union which lasted from 1946 to 1958 conferred a limited form of French citizenship on the inhabitants of the colonies, with some decentralisation of power and limited participation in political life for local advisory assemblies. It was during this period that the

Nigerien Progressive Party This article is about the demographic features of the population of Niger, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The largest ...

(''Parti Progressiste Nigérien'', or PPN, originally a branch of the African Democratic Rally, or '' Rassemblement Démocratique Africain'' – RDA) was formed under the leadership of former teacher Hamani Diori, and the left-wing Mouvement Socialiste Africain-Sawaba (MSA) led by Djibo Bakary. Following the Overseas Reform Act (''Loi Cadre'') of 23 July 1956 and the establishment of the Fifth French Republic on 4 December 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the

French Community The French Community (1958–1960; french: Communauté française) was the constitutional organization set up in 1958 between France and its remaining African colonies, then in the process of decolonization. It replaced the French Union, which ...

. On 18 December 1958, an autonomous Republic of Niger was officially created under the leadership of Hamani Diori. MSA was banned in 1959 for its perceived excessive anti-French stance.Mamoudou Djibo. Les enjeux politiques dans la colonie du Niger (1944–1960). Autrepart no 27 (2003), pp. 41–60. On 11 July 1960, Niger decided to leave the French Community and acquired full independence at midnight, local time, on 3 August 1960; Diori thus became the first president of the country.

Post-colonial (1960–)

Diori years (1960–74)

For its first 14 years as an independent state Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. The 1960s saw an expansion of the education system and some limited economic development and industrialisation. Links with France remained, with Diori allowing the development of French-led uranium mining in Arlit and supporting France in the

Algerian War The Algerian War, also known as the Algerian Revolution or the Algerian War of Independence,( ar, الثورة الجزائرية '; '' ber, Tagrawla Tadzayrit''; french: Guerre d'Algérie or ') and sometimes in Algeria as the War of 1 November ...

. Relations with other African states were mostly "positive", with the exception of

Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. Dahomey developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a region ...

(Benin), owing to a border dispute. Niger remained a one-party state throughout this period, with Diori surviving a planned coup in 1963 and an assassination attempt in 1965; most of this activity was masterminded by Djibo Bakary's MSA-Sawaba group which had launched an abortive rebellion in 1964. In the 1970s, a combination of economic difficulties, droughts and accusations of rampant corruption and mismanagement of food supplies resulted in a coup d'état that overthrew the Diori regime.

First military regime (1974–1991)

The coup had been masterminded by Col. Seyni Kountché and a military group under the name of the ''Conseil Militaire Supreme'', with Kountché going on to rule the country until his death in 1987. The first action of the military government was to address the food crisis. Whilst political prisoners of the Diori regime were released after the coup, political and individual freedoms "in general deteriorated" during this period. There were attempted coups (in 1975, 1976 and 1984) which were thwarted, their instigators being punished. Kountché sought to create a 'development society', funded mostly by the uranium mines in Agadez Region. Parastatal companies were created, infrastructure (building and new roads, schools, health centres) constructed, and there was corruption in government agencies, which Kountché did not hesitate to punish. In the 1980s Kountché began cautiously loosening the grip of the military, with some relaxation of state censorship and attempts made to 'civilianise' the regime. The economic boom ended following the collapse in uranium prices, and

IMF The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is a major financial agency of the United Nations, and an international financial institution, headquartered in Washington, D.C., consisting of 190 countries. Its stated mission is "working to foster globa ...

-led austerity and privatisation measures provoked opposition by some Nigeriens. In 1985 a Tuareg revolt in Tchintabaraden was suppressed. Kountché died in November 1987 from a brain tumour, and was succeeded by his chief of staff, Col. Ali Saibou who was confirmed as Chief of the Supreme Military Council four days later. Saibou curtailed the most repressive aspects of the Kountché era (such as the secret police and media censorship), and set about introducing a process of political reform under the overall direction of a single party (the ''Mouvement National pour la Société du Développement'', or MNSD). A Second Republic was declared and a new constitution was drawn up, which was adopted following a referendum in 1989. General Saibou became the first president of the Second Republic after winning the presidential election on 10 December 1989.Nohlen, D, Krennerich, M & Thibaut, B (1999) ''Elections in Africa: A data handbook'', p685 President Saibou's efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of trade union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. On 9 February 1990, a violently repressed student march in Niamey led to the death of three students, which led to increased national and international pressure for further democratic reform. The Saibou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. Meanwhile, trouble re-emerged in Agadez Region when a group of armed Tuaregs attacked the town of Tchintabaraden (seen by some as the start of the first Tuareg Rebellion), prompting a military crackdown which led to deaths (the precise numbers are disputed, with estimates ranging from 70 to up to 1,000).

National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)

The National Sovereign Conference of 1991 brought about multi-party democracy. From 29 July to 3 November, a national conference gathered together all elements of society to make recommendations for the future direction of the country. The conference was presided over by Prof. André Salifou and developed a plan for a transitional government; this was then installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put into place in April 1993. After the National Sovereign Conference, the transitional government drafted a constitution that eliminated the previous single-party system of the 1989 Constitution and guaranteed more freedoms. The new constitution was adopted by a referendum on 26 December 1992. Following this, presidential elections were held and Mahamane Ousmane became the first president of the Third Republic on 27 March 1993. Ousmane's presidency saw four government changes and legislative elections in 1995, and an economic slump. The violence in Agadez Region continued during this period, prompting the Nigerien government to sign a truce with Tuareg rebels in 1992 which was ineffective owing to internal dissension within the Tuareg ranks. Another rebellion, led by dissatisfied Toubou peoples claiming that, like the Tuareg, the Nigerien government had neglected their region, broke out in the east of the country. In April 1995 a peace deal with a Tuareg rebel group was signed, with the government agreeing to absorb some former rebels into the military and, with French assistance, help others return to a productive civilian life.

Second military regime and third military regime (1996–1999)

The governmental paralysis prompted the military to intervene; on 27 January 1996, Col. Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara led a coup that deposed President Ousmane and ended the Third Republic.Kaye Whiteman
"Obituary: Ibrahim Bare Mainassara"
''The Independent'' (London), 12 April 1999. Maïnassara headed a ''Conseil de Salut National'' (National Salvation Council) composed of military officials which carried out a six-month transition period, during which a constitution was drafted and adopted on 12 May 1996. Presidential campaigns were organised in the months that followed. Maïnassara entered the campaign as an independent candidate and won the election on 8 July 1996, the elections were viewed nationally and internationally by some as irregular, as the electoral commission was replaced during the campaign. Meanwhile, Maïnassara instigated an

and World Bank-approved privatisation programme which enriched some of his supporters and were opposed by the trade unions. Following fraudulent local elections in 1999 the opposition ceased any cooperation with the Maïnassara regime. In a circumstance (possibly attempting to flee the country), Maïnassara was assassinated at Niamey Airport on 9 April 1999. Maj. Daouda Malam Wanké then took over, establishing a transitional National Reconciliation Council to oversee the drafting of a constitution with a French-style

semi-presidential system A semi-presidential republic, is a republic in which a president exists alongside a prime minister and a cabinet, with the latter two being responsible to the legislature of the state. It differs from a parliamentary republic in that it has a ...

. This was adopted on 9 August 1999 and was followed by presidential and legislative elections in October and November of the same year. The elections were generally found to be free and fair by international observers. Wanké then withdrew from governmental affairs.

Fifth Republic (1999–2009)

After winning the election in November 1999, President Tandja Mamadou was sworn in office on 22 December 1999 as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Mamadou brought about administrative and economic reforms that had been halted due to the military coups since the Third Republic, and helped peacefully resolve a decades-long boundary dispute with Benin. In August 2002, unrest within military camps occurred in Niamey, Diffa, and

Nguigmi N'guigmi is a city and Communes of Niger, Commune of fifteen thousand in the easternmost part of Niger, very near to Lake Chad – lying on its shore until the lake retreated. It is a crossroads for the traditional camel caravans of the Toureg ...

, and the government was able to restore order within days. On 24 July 2004, municipal elections were held to elect local representatives, previously appointed by the government. These elections were followed by presidential elections, in which Mamadou was re-elected for a second term, thus becoming the first president of the republic to win consecutive elections without being deposed by military coups. The legislative and executive configuration remained somewhat similar to that of the first term of the president: Hama Amadou was reappointed as prime minister and Mahamane Ousmane, the head of the CDS party, was re-elected as the president of the National Assembly (parliament) by his peers. By 2007, the relationship between President Tandja Mamadou and his prime minister had "deteriorated", leading to the replacement of the latter in June 2007 by Seyni Oumarou following a successful vote of no confidence at the Assembly. President Tandja Mamadou sought out to extend his presidency by modifying the constitution which limited presidential terms. Proponents of the extended presidency, rallied behind the 'Tazartche' (Hausa for 'overstay') movement, were countered by opponents ('anti-Tazartche') composed of opposition party militants and civil society activists. The north saw the outbreak of a Second Tuareg Rebellion in 2007 led by the ''Niger Movement for Justice, Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice'' (MNJ). With a number of kidnappings the rebellion had "largely fizzled out inconclusively" by 2009. The "poor" security situation in the region is thought to have allowed elements of Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) to gain a foothold in the country.

Fourth military regime (2009–2010)

In 2009, President Tandja Mamadou decided to organize a constitutional referendum seeking to 2009–2010 Nigerien constitutional crisis, extend his presidency, which was opposed by other political parties, and being against the decision of the Constitutional Court which had ruled that the referendum would be unconstitutional. Mamadou then modified and adopted a new constitution by referendum, which was declared illegal by the Constitutional Court, prompting Mamadou to dissolve the Court and assume emergency powers.Niger president rules by decree after court snub
. Reuters. Fri 26 June 2009 The opposition boycotted the referendum and the constitution was adopted with 92.5% of voters and a 68% turnout, according to official results. The adoption of the constitution created a Sixth Republic, with a presidential system, and the suspension of the 1999 Constitution and a three-year interim government with Tandja Mamadou as president. The events generated political and social unrest. In a 2010 Nigerien coup d'état, coup d'état in February 2010, a military junta led by captain Salou Djibo was established in response to Tandja's attempted extension of his political term by modifying the constitution. The Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy, led by General Salou Djibo, carried out a one-year transition plan, drafted a constitution and held elections in 2011.

Seventh Republic (2010–)

Following the adoption of a constitution in 2010 and 2011 Nigerien general election, presidential elections a year later, Mahamadou Issoufou was elected as the first president of the Seventh Republic; he was then 2016 Nigerien general election, re-elected in 2016. The constitution restored the semi-presidential system which had been abolished a year earlier. An attempted coup against him in 2011 was thwarted and its ringleaders arrested. Issoufou's time in office has been marked by threats to the country's security, stemming from the fallout from the Libyan Civil War and Northern Mali conflict, a rise in attacks by AQIM, the use of Niger as a transit country for migrants (sometimes organised by criminal gangs), and the spillover of Nigeria's Boko Haram insurgency into south-eastern Niger. French and American forces are assisting Niger in countering these threats. On 27 December 2020, Nigeriens 2020–21 Nigerien general election, went to the polls after Issoufou announced he would step down, paving the way to a peaceful transition of power. No candidate won an absolute majority in the vote: Mohamed Bazoum came closest with 39.33%. As per the constitution, a run-off election was held on 20 February 2021, with Bazoum taking 55.75% of the vote and opposition candidate (and former president) Mahamane Ousmane taking 44.25%, according to the electoral commission. On 31 March 2021, Niger's security forces thwarted an attempted coup by a military unit in the capital, Niamey. Gunfire was heard in the presidential palace. The attack took place two days before newly elected president Mohamed Bazoum was due to be sworn into office. The Presidential Guard arrested some people during the incident. On 2 April 2021, Bazoum was sworn in as the President of Niger.

Geography

It is a landlocked nation in West Africa located along the border between the

Sahara , photo = Sahara real color.jpg , photo_caption = The Sahara taken by Apollo 17 astronauts, 1972 , map = , map_image = , location = , country = , country1 = , ...

and Sub-Saharan Africa, Sub-Saharan regions. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and

to the east. It lies between latitudes 11th parallel north, 11° and 24th parallel north, 24°N, and longitudes prime meridian, 0° and 16th meridian east, 16°E. Its area is of which is water. This makes it less than twice the size of France, and the world's 22nd largest country. It borders seven countries and has a total perimeter of . The longest border is with Nigeria to the south (). This is followed by

to the east, at , Algeria to the north-northwest (), and Mali at . Niger has borders in its further southwest with Burkina Faso at and Benin at and to the north-northeast Libya at . The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of . The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at .

Climate

The hotter and drier climate with desert area causes more frequent fires in some regions. In the south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The terrain is predominantly desert plains and sand dunes, with flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.

Biodiversity

The territory of Niger contains five terrestrial ecoregions: Sahelian Acacia savanna, West Sudanian savanna, Lake Chad flooded savanna, South Saharan steppe and woodlands, and West Saharan montane xeric woodlands. The north is covered by deserts and semi-deserts. The typical mammal fauna consists of addax antelopes, scimitar-horned oryx, gazelles, and in the mountains, Barbary sheep. The Aïr and Ténéré National Nature Reserve was founded in the northern parts to protect these species. The southern parts are naturally dominated savannahs. The W National Park, situated in the bordering area to Burkina Faso and Benin, belongs to "one of the most important areas" for wildlife in Western Africa, which is called the WAP (W–Arli National Park, Arli–Pendjari National Park, Pendjari) Complex. It has a population of the West African lion and one of the last populations of the Northwest African cheetah. Other wildlife includes elephants, buffaloes, roan antelopes, Kob, kob antelopes and warthogs. The West African giraffe is found in the further north where it has its last relict population. Environmental issues include destructive farming practices as a result of population pressure, illegal hunting, bush fires in some areas and human encroachment upon the flood plains of the Niger River for paddy cultivation. Dams constructed on the Niger River in the neighboring countries of Mali and Guinea and within Niger are cited as a reason for a reduction of water flow in the Niger River—which has a direct effect upon the environment. A "lack of adequate staff" to guard wildlife in the parks and reserves is another factor cited for loss of wildlife. Farmer-managed natural regeneration is practiced since 1983 to increase food and timber production, and Resilience (ecology), resilience to Extremes on Earth, climate extremes.

Governance and politics

Niger's new constitution was approved on 31 October 2010. It restored the semi-presidential system of government of the 1999 constitution (Fifth Republic) in which the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister named by the president share executive power. On 26 May 2009, President Tandja dissolved parliament after the country's constitutional court ruled against plans to hold a referendum on whether to allow him a third term in office. According to the constitution, a new parliament was elected within three months. This began a political struggle between Tandja, trying to extend his term-limited authority beyond 2009 through the establishment of a Sixth Republic, and his opponents who demanded that he step down at the end of his second term in December 2009. See 2009 Nigerien constitutional crisis. The military took over the country and President Tandja was put in prison, charged with corruption. The military kept their promise to return the country to democratic civilian rule. A constitutional referendum and national elections were held. A presidential election was held on 31 January 2011, but as no clear winner emerged, run-off elections were held on 12 March 2011. Mahamadou Issoufou of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism was elected president. A parliamentary election was held at the same time.

Foreign relations

Niger pursues a moderate foreign policy and maintains friendly relations with the West and the Islamic world as well as non-aligned countries. It belongs to the UN and its main specialized agencies and in 1980–81 served on the UN Security Council. Niger maintains a special relationship with former colonial power France and has close relations with its West African neighbors. It is a charter member of the African Union and the West African Monetary Union and also belongs to the Niger Basin Authority and Lake Chad Basin Commission, the Economic Community of West African States, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). The westernmost regions of Niger are joined with contiguous regions of Mali and Burkina Faso under the Liptako-Gourma Authority. The border dispute with Benin, inherited from colonial times and concerning inter alia Lété Island in the Niger River, was solved by the International Court of Justice in 2005 to Niger's advantage.

Military

The Niger Armed Forces (Forces armées nigériennes) are the military and paramilitary forces of Niger, under the president as supreme commander. They consist of the Niger Army (Armée de Terre), the Niger Air Force (Armée de l'Air) and the auxiliary paramilitary forces, such as the Gendarmerie Nationale (Niger), National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie nationale) and the National Guard of Niger, National Guard (Garde Nationale). Both paramilitary forces are trained in military fashion and have some military responsibilities in wartime. In peace time their duties are mostly policing duties. The armed forces are composed of approximately 12,900 personnel, including 3,700 Gendarmerie Nationale (Niger), gendarmes, 3200 National Guard of Niger, national guards, 300 air force personnel, and 6,000 army personnel. The armed forces of Niger have been involved several military coups over the years with the most recent in 2010. Niger's armed forces have a long history of military cooperation with France and the United States. , Niamey is home to a U.S. drone base.

Judicial system

The current Judiciary of Niger was established with the creation of the Fourth Republic in 1999. The constitution of December 1992 was revised by national referendum on 12 May 1996 and, again, by referendum, revised to the current version on 18 July 1999. It is based on the Code Napoleon "''Inquisitorial system''", established in Niger during French colonial rule and the 1960 Constitution of Niger. The Court of Appeals reviews questions of fact and law, while the Supreme Court reviews application of the law and constitutional questions. The High Court of Justice (HCJ) deals with cases involving senior government officials. The justice system also includes civil criminal courts, customary courts, traditional mediation, and a military court.Niger:Système judiciaire
. NIGER Situation institutionnelle. Sory Baldé, CEAN, IEP-Université Montesquieu-Bordeaux IV (2007) Accessed 13 April 2009 The military court provides the same rights as civil criminal courts; however, customary courts do not. The military court cannot try civilians.
in 2008 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. (25 February 2009) As a publication of the United States Federal Government, this report is in the Public Domain. Portions of it may be used here verbatim.

Law enforcement

Law enforcement in Niger is the responsibility of the Ministry of Defense through the Gendarmerie Nationale (Niger), National Gendarmerie and the Ministry of the Interior through the National Police (Niger), National Police and the National Guard of Niger, National Guard. The National Police (Niger), National Police is primarily responsible for law enforcement in urban areas. Outside big cities and in rural areas, this responsibility falls on the Gendarmerie Nationale (Niger), National Gendarmerie and the National Guard of Niger, National Guard.

Government finance

Government finance is derived revenue exports (Mining, oil and agricultural exports) as well as various forms of taxes collected by the government. In the past, foreign aid has contributed to large percentages of the budget. In 2013, Niger's government has adopted a zero-deficit budget of 1.279 trillion CFA francs ($2.53 billion) which is claimed to balance revenues and expenditures by an 11% reduction in the budget from the previous year. The 2014 budget was 1.867 trillion CFA which is distributed as follows according to: public debt (76,703,692,000 CFA), personnel expenditures (210,979,633,960 CFA), operating expenditures (128,988,777,711 CFA); subsidies and transfers: 308,379,641,366 CFA) and Investment (1,142,513,658,712 CFA).

Foreign aid

The importance of external support for Niger's development is demonstrated by the fact that about 45% of the government's FY 2002 budget, including 80% of its capital budget, derives from donor resources.Background Notes for Niger: January 2009
Bureau of African Affairs, United States State Department. Retrieved 26 February 2009. Portions of the "Economy" section are here used verbatim, as this document is in the public domain. The most important donors in Niger are France, the European Union, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and various United Nations agencies (UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, World Food Program, and United Nations Population Fund). Other principal donors include the United States, Belgium, Germany, Switzerland, Canada, and Saudi Arabia. While USAID does not have an office in Niger, the United States is a major donor, contributing nearly $10 million each year to Niger's development. The U.S. also is a major partner in policy coordination in such areas as food security and HIV/AIDS.

Administrative divisions

Niger is divided into 7 Regions of Niger, Regions and one capital district. These Regions are subdivided into 36 Departments of Niger, departments. The 36 Departments are currently broken down into Communes of varying types. there were 265 communes, including communes urbaines (Urban Communes: as subdivisions of major cities), communes rurales (Rural Communes), in sparsely populated areas and postes administratifs (Administrative Posts) for largely uninhabited desert areas or military zones. Rural communes may contain official villages and settlements, while Urban Communes are divided into quarters. Niger subvisions were renamed in 2002, in the implementation of a decentralisation project, first begun in 1998. Previously, Niger was divided into 7 Departments, 36 Arrondissements, and Communes. These subdivisions were administered by officials appointed by the national government. These offices will be replaced in the future by democratically elected councils at each level. The ''pre-2002'' departments (renamed as regions) and capital district are: * Agadez Region * Diffa Region * Dosso Region * Maradi Region * Tahoua Region * Tillabéri Region * Zinder Region * Niamey

Largest cities and towns

Economy

The economy of Niger centers on subsistence crops, livestock, and some of the world's largest uranium deposits. Drought cycles, desertification, a 2.9% population growth rate, and the drop in world demand for uranium have undercut the economy. Niger shares a common currency, the CFA franc, and a common central bank, the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO), with seven other members of the West African Monetary Union. Niger is also a member of the Organization for the Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA). In December 2000, Niger qualified for enhanced debt relief under the International Monetary Fund program for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and concluded an agreement with the Fund for Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF). Debt relief provided under the enhanced HIPC initiative significantly reduces Niger's annual debt service obligations, freeing funds for expenditures on basic health care, primary education, HIV/AIDS prevention, rural infrastructure, and other programs geared at poverty reduction. In December 2005, it was announced that Niger had received 100% multilateral debt relief from the IMF, which translates into the forgiveness of approximately US$86 million in debts to the IMF, excluding the remaining assistance under HIPC. Nearly half of the government's budget is derived from foreign donor resources. Future growth may be sustained by exploitation of oil, gold, coal, and other mineral resources. Uranium prices have recovered somewhat in the last few years. A drought and locust infestation in 2005 led to food shortages for as many as 2.5 million Nigeriens.

Demographics

, the population of Niger was . Expanding from a population of 3.4 million in 1960, Niger's population has rapidly increased with a current growth rate of 3.3% (7.1 children per mother). ''Annuaires Statistiques du Niger 2007–2011''
Structure de la population
(Niger's National Statistics Institute Report) This growth rate is one of the highest in the world and is a source of concern for the government and international agencies.Niger: Population explosion threatens development gains
. The New Humanitarian, IRIN, 11 December 2007. The population is predominantly young, with 49.2% under 15 years old and 2.7% over 65 years, and predominantly rural with only 21% living in urban areas. A 2005 study stated that over 800,000 people (nearly 8% of the population) Slavery in Niger, in Niger are enslaved.

Urban settlements

Ethnic groups

As in most West African countries, Niger has a wide variety of ethnic groups. The ethnic makeup of Niger in 2001 was as follows: Hausa people, Hausa (55.4%), Zarma & Songhay people (subgroup), Songhay (21%), Tuareg people, Tuareg (9.3%), Fula people, Fula (french: Peuls; ff, Fulɓe) (8.5%), Kanuri people, Kanuri Manga (4.7%), Tubu people, Tubu (0.4%), Diffa Arabs, Arab (0.4%), Gurma people, Gourmantche (0.4%), other (0.1%). The Zarma and Songhay people (subgroup), Songhay dominate the Dosso, Tillabéri, and Niamey régions, the Hausa people, Hausa dominate the Zinder, Maradi, and Tahoua regions, Kanuri people, Kanuri Manga dominate the Diffa region, and Touaregs, Tuaregs dominate the Agadez region in Northern Niger.

Languages

French, inherited from the colonial period, is the official language. It is spoken mainly as a second language by people who have received a formal western education and serves as the administrative language. Niger has been a member of the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie since 1970. Niger has ten recognized national languages, namely Arabic language, Arabic, Buduma language, Buduma, Fula language, Fulfulde, Gurma language, Gourmanchéma, Hausa language, Hausa, Kanuri language, Kanuri, Zarma language, Zarma & Songhoyboro Ciine, Songhay, Tuareg languages, Tamasheq, Tasawaq language, Tassawaq, Tebu languages, Tebu. Each is spoken as a first language primarily by the ethnic group with which it is associated. Hausa and Zarma-Songhai, the two most spoken languages, are widely spoken throughout the country as first or second languages.

Religion

Niger is a secular country and separation of state and religion is guaranteed by Articles 3 and 175 of the 2010 Constitution, which dictate that future amendments or revisions may not modify the secular nature of the republic of Niger. Religious freedom is protected by Article 30 of the same constitution.

, widespread in the region since the 10th century, has greatly shaped the culture and mores of the people of Niger. Islam is the most dominant religion, practiced by 99.3% of the population according to the 2012 census. The other two main religions of Niger are Christianity, practiced by 0.3% of the population, and Animism (African traditional religion, traditional indigenous religious beliefs), practiced by 0.2% of the population. Christianity was established earlier in the country by missionaries during the French colonial years. Other urban Christian expatriate communities from Europe and West Africa are also present. Religious persecution has flared in recent years in Niger; Christian charity Open Doors now lists Niger as the 37th most difficult country in which to be a Christian on their World Watch List, 'reflecting how pressure is increasing on Christians in this [...] nation.' Relations between Muslims and Christians have generally been cordial, according to the respective representatives of Christian and Muslim groups in Niger. The numbers of Animist practitioners are a point of contention. As recently as the late 19th century, much of the south center of the nation was unreached by Islam, and the conversion of some rural areas has been only partial. There are still areas where animist based festivals and traditions (such as the Bori (religion), Bori religion) are practiced by syncretic Muslim communities (in some Hausa areas as well as among some Toubou and Wodaabe pastoralists), as opposed to several small communities who maintain their pre-Islamic religion. These include the Hausa-speaking Maouri people, Maouri (or ''Azna'', the Hausa word for "pagan") community in Dogondoutci in the south-southwest and the Kanuri language, Kanuri speaking Manga near Zinder, both of whom practice variations of the pre-Islamic Hausa Maguzawa religion. There are also some tiny Boudouma and Songhay animist communities in the southwest. Over the past decade, syncretic practices have become less common among Muslim Nigerien communities.

Islam

The majority of Muslims in Niger are Sunni, 7% are Shi'a, 5% are Ahmadiyya and 20% non-denominational.International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Niger
. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (14 September 2007). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.'' Islam was spread into what is now Niger beginning in the 15th century, by both the expansion of the

in the west, and the influence of the Trans-Saharan trade traveling from the Maghreb and Egypt. Tuareg people, Tuareg expansion from the north, culminating in their seizure of the far eastern oases from the Bornu Empire, Kanem–Bornu Empire in the 17th centuries, spread distinctively Berber mythology, Berber practices. Both Zarma and Hausa people, Hausa areas were greatly influenced by the 18th- and 19th-century Fula jihads, Fula led Sufi brotherhoods, most notably the

(in today's Nigeria). Modern Muslim practice in Niger is often tied to the Tijaniya Sufism, Sufi Tariqah, brotherhoods, although there are small minority groups tied to Hammallism and Nyassist Sufi orders in the west, and the Sanusiya in the far northeast.Decalo, James. ''Historical Dictionary of Niger''. Scarecrow Press, Metuchen, New Jersey – London, 1979. . pp. 156–7, 193–4. A small center of followers of Salafi movement within Sunni Islam have appeared in the last thirty years, in the capital and in Maradi. These small groups, linked to similar groups in Jos, Nigeria, came to public prominence in the 1990s during a series of religious riots. Despite this, Niger maintains a tradition as a secular state, protected by law. Interfaith relations are deemed very good, and the forms of Islam traditionally practiced in most of the country are marked by tolerance of other faiths and lack of restrictions on personal freedom. Alcohol, such as the locally produced Bière Niger, is sold openly in most of the country.

Education

The literacy rate of Niger is among the lowest in the world; in 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female). Primary education in Niger is compulsory for six years."Niger"
. ''2001 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor''. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2002). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.'' The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls. In 1997, the gross primary enrollment rate was 29.3 percent, and in 1996, the net primary enrollment rate was 24.5 percent. About 60 percent of children who finish primary schools are boys, as the majority of girls rarely attend school for more than a few years. Children are often forced to work rather than attend school, particularly during planting or harvest periods. Nomadic children in the north of the country often do not have access to schools.

Health

The child mortality rate in Niger (deaths among children between the ages of 1 and 4) is high (248 per 1,000) due to generally poor health conditions and inadequate nutrition for most of the country's children. According to the organization Save the Children, Niger has the world's highest infant mortality rate. Niger also has the highest fertility rate in the world (6.49 births per woman according to 2017 estimates); this has resulted in nearly half (49.7%) of the Nigerien population being under age 15 in 2020. Niger has the 11th highest maternal mortality rate in the world at 820 deaths/100,000 live births. There were 3 physicians and 22 nurses per 100,000 persons in 2006. Clean drinking water is scarce by global standards, with significant differences between urban and rural areas. Niger is often located at the bottom of the Human Development Index, UN Human Development Index. Roughly 92% of the population lives in rural areas in the Tillabéri region along the western frontier, and there is a chronic scarcity of clean water, particularly during the hot season, when temperatures regularly exceed 40 degrees Celsius. Just 40% of the 30,000 inhabitants in Téra, a city northwest of the country's capital of Niamey and near to the Burkina Faso border, have access to a working public water infrastructure. Société de Patrimoine des Eaux du Niger (SPEN), Niger's water authority, opened ten boreholes and built a water treatment plant in 2018 to provide potable water to Téra and the surrounding areas. The water supply ran out about a year later, and the water treatment facility was forced to close. With the help of a donation fund from the Dutch government, the European Investment Bank is collaborating with the Niger water authority to find solutions to Niger's water issues. The World Bank identified Niger as one of the 18 fragile regions of Sub-Saharan Africa. The EU bank has a history of investing in regions like these. The European Investment Bank and the Niger Water Authority are looking at two options for dealing with Téra's water shortages. The first choice is to repair the water tank on the outskirts of town. Another choice is to treat and transport water from the Niger River, which is located more than 100 kilometres to the east. Villages between Téra and the Niger River will also have access to sewage. The European Investment Bank will also look at renewable energy as a way to save costs.

Culture

Nigerien culture is marked by variation, evidence of the cultural crossroads which French colonial empires, French colonialism formed into a unified state from the beginning of the 20th century. What is now Niger was created from four distinct cultural areas in the pre-colonial era: the Zarma and Songhay people (subgroup), Songhai dominated the Niger River valley in the southwest; the northern periphery of Hausaland, made mostly of those states which had resisted the

, and ranged along the long southern border with Nigeria; the Chad basin, Lake Chad basin and Kaouar in the far east, populated by Kanuri farmers and Toubou pastoralists who had once been part of the Bornu Empire, Kanem–Bornu Empire; and the Tuareg people, Tuareg nomads of the Aïr Mountains and the Sahara in the vast north. Each of these communities, along with smaller ethnic groups like the pastoral Wodaabe Fula people, Fula, brought their own cultural traditions to the new state of Niger. While successive post-independence governments have tried to forge a shared national culture, this has been slow forming, in part because the major Nigerien communities have their own cultural histories, and in part because Nigerien ethnic groups such as the Hausa people, Hausa, Tuareg and Kanuri are but part of larger ethnic communities which cross borders introduced under colonialism. Until the 1990s, government and politics was inordinately dominated by Niamey and the Zarma people of the surrounding region. At the same time the plurality of the population, in the Hausa borderlands between

and Maine-Soroa, have often looked culturally more to Hausaland in Nigeria than Niamey. Between 1996 and 2003, primary school attendance was around 30%, including 36% of males and only 25% of females. Additional education occurs through madrasas.

Festivals and cultural events

Guérewol festival

The Guérewol festival is a traditional Wodaabe cultural event that takes place in Abalak in Tahoua Region, Tahoua region or In-Gall, In'Gall in Agadez Region. It is an annual traditional courtship ritual practiced by the Wodaabe (Fula) people of Niger. During this ceremony, young men dressed in elaborate ornamentation and made up in traditional face painting gather in lines to dance and sing, vying for the attention of marriageable young women. The Guérewol festival is an international attraction and was featured in films and magazines as prominent as the National Geographic (magazine), National Geographic.

Cure Salée festival

"La Cure salée" (English: Salt Cure) is a yearly festival of Tuareg and Wodaabe nomads in In-Gall, In'Gall in Agadez Region traditionally to celebrate the end of the rainy season. For three days, the festival features a parade of Tuareg camel riders followed with camel and horse races, songs, dances, and storytelling.

Media

Niger began developing diverse media in the late 1990s. Prior to the Third Republic, Nigeriens only had access to tightly controlled state media.SEMINAIRE-ATELIER DE FORMATION ET DE SENSIBILISATION "Mission de service public dans les entreprises de presse d’Etat et privée"
. Historical introduction to Press Laws, in conference proceedings, Organised by FIJ/SAINFO/LO-TCO CCOG. NIAMEY, June 2002. Now Niamey contains scores of newspapers and magazines; some, like ''Le Sahel'', are government operated, while many are critical of the government. Radio is the most important medium, as television sets are beyond the buying power of many of the rural poor, and illiteracy prevents print media from becoming a mass medium.Geels, Jolijn. ''Niger''. Bradt UK/Globe Pequot Press USA, 2006. In addition to the national and regional radio services of the state broadcaster Office of Radio and Television of Niger, ORTN, there are four privately owned radio networks which total more than 100 stations. Three of them—the Anfani FM, Anfani Group, Sarounia and Tenere—are urban-based commercial-format FM broadcasting, FM networks in the major towns.U.S. Department of State. Report on Human Rights Practices – Niger
1993–1995
t

. There is also a network of over 80 community radio stations spread across all seven regions of the country, governed by the Comité de Pilotage de Radios de Proximité (CPRP), a civil society organisation. The independent-sector radio networks are collectively estimated by CPRP officials to cover some 7.6 million people, or about 73% of the population (2005). Aside from Nigerien radio stations, the BBC's Hausa service is listened to on FM repeaters across wide parts of the country, particularly in the south, close to the border with Nigeria. Radio France Internationale also rebroadcasts in French through some of the commercial stations, via satellite. Tenere FM also runs a national independent television station of the same name. Despite relative freedom at the national level, Nigerien Journalism, journalists say they are often pressured by local authorities.Niger : Conseil de presse. Les journalistes refusent la mise sous tutelle
. Ousseini Issa. Médi@ctions n°37, Institut PANOS Afrique de l'Ouest. March 2004. The state ORTN network depends financially on the government, partly through a surcharge on electricity bills, and partly through direct subsidy. The sector is governed by the High Council for Communication (Niger), Conseil Supérieur de Communications, established as an independent body in the early 1990s, since 2007 headed by Daouda Diallo. International human rights groups have criticised the government since at least 1996 as using regulation and police to punish criticism of the state.Attacks on the press: Niger 2006
. Committee to Protect Journalists (2007). Retrieved 23 February 2009.Niger: Emergency legislation infringes non-derogable human rights
. AMNESTY INTERNATIONAL Public Statement. AI Index: AFR 43/001/2007 (Public Document) Press Service Number: 181/07. 21 September 2007.

References

Notes

Sources

* Decalo, Samuel. ''Historical Dictionary of Niger'', 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997, ) – a comprehensive collection of Niger topics * CIA World Factbook
entry on Niger
* US State Department ''Note: This article contains material from the State Department website.''
Unicef Niger statistics

Unesco manuscript on child work and schooling in Niger

History

Prehistory

Empires and kingdoms in pre-colonial Niger

Mali Empire (1200s–1400s)

Songhai Empire (1000s–1591)

Sultanate of Aïr (1400s–1906)

Kanem–Bornu Empire (700s–1700s)

The Hausa states and other smaller kingdoms (1400s–1800s)

Colonial (1900–58)

Post-colonial (1960–)

Diori years (1960–74)

First military regime (1974–1991)

National Conference and Third Republic (1991–1996)

Second military regime and third military regime (1996–1999)

Fifth Republic (1999–2009)

Fourth military regime (2009–2010)

Seventh Republic (2010–)

Geography

Climate

Biodiversity

Governance and politics

Foreign relations

Military

Judicial system

Law enforcement

Government finance

Foreign aid

Administrative divisions

Largest cities and towns

Economy

Demographics

Urban settlements

Ethnic groups

Languages

Religion

Islam

Education

Health

Culture

Festivals and cultural events

Guérewol festival

Cure Salée festival

Media

See also

References

Notes

Sources

External links