The Nidulariaceae ('nidulus' - small nest) are a
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
of
fungi
A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...
in the order
Agaricales
The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families, 413 genera, and over 13,000 described species, alo ...
. Commonly known as the bird's nest fungi, their
fruiting bodies
The sporocarp (also known as fruiting body, fruit body or fruitbody) of fungi is a multicellular structure on which spore-producing structures, such as basidia or asci, are borne. The fruitbody is part of the sexual phase of a fungal life cyc ...
resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. As they are
saprobic
Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ( ...
, feeding on decomposing
organic matter
Organic matter, organic material, or natural organic matter refers to the large source of carbon-based compounds found within natural and engineered, terrestrial, and aquatic environments. It is matter composed of organic compounds that have c ...
, they are often seen growing on decaying wood and in soils enriched with wood chips or
bark mulch
A mulch is a layer of material applied to the surface of soil. Reasons for applying mulch include conservation of soil moisture, improving fertility and health of the soil, reducing weed growth and enhancing the visual appeal of the area.
A m ...
; they have a widespread distribution in most ecological regions. The five genera within the family, namely, ''
Crucibulum
''Crucibulum'' is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of fall ...
'', ''
Cyathus'', ''
Mycocalia
''Mycocalia'' is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. Species are usually found growing on herbaceous stems and other plant debris. Thus genus was circumscribed in 1961 by mycologi ...
'', ''
Nidula'', and ''
Nidularia'', are distinguished from each other by differences in morphology and peridiole structure; more recently,
phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
analysis and comparison of DNA sequences is guiding new decisions in the taxonomic organization of this family.
History
Bird's nest fungi were first mentioned by Flemish botanist
Carolus Clusius
Charles de l'Écluse, L'Escluse, or Carolus Clusius (19 February 1526 – 4 April 1609), seigneur de Watènes, was an Artois doctor and pioneering botanist, perhaps the most influential of all 16th-century scientific horticulturists.
Life
Clu ...
in ''Rariorum plantarum historia'' (1601). Over the next couple of centuries, these fungi were the subject of some controversy regarding whether the peridioles were seeds, and the mechanism by which they were dispersed in nature. For example, the French botanist
Jean-Jacques Paulet
Jean-Jacques Paulet (26 April 1740 – 4 August 1826) was a French mycologist.
Paulet was born in Anduze, France and studied medicine in Montpellier, where he received his PhD in March 1764. He published in Paris in 1765 a book titled ''d’Histo ...
, in his work ''Traité des champignons'' (1790–3), proposed the erroneous notion that peridioles were ejected from the fruiting bodies by some sort of spring mechanism.
[Brodie p. 15.]
Description
The Nidulariaceae have a ''gasteroid'' fruiting body, meaning that the spores develop internally, as in an ''angiocarp''. Fruiting bodies are typically gregarious (growing together in groups, but not joined together). Young fruiting bodies are initially covered by a thin membrane that
dehisces irregularly or by a ''circumscissile'' split, in a circular line around the circumference of the cup opening. Fruiting bodies (also called ''peridia'') are small, generally between 5–15 mm wide and 4–8 mm high, urn- or vase-shaped, and contain one to several disc-shaped peridioles that resemble tiny eggs.
This fungus is inedible.
;Peridiole structure
Peridioles contain glebal tissue,
basidia
A basidium () is a microscopic sporangium (a spore-producing structure) found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi which are also called tertiary mycelium, developed from secondary mycelium. Tertiary mycelium is highly-c ...
, and
basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi, a grouping that includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are pro ...
s, surrounded by a hardened wall. They are commonly ''lenticular'' in shape (like a
biconvex lens), measuring 1–3 mm in diameter. The color of the peridioles is characteristic of the genera: ''Cyathus'' has black peridioles, ''Nidularia'' and ''Nidula'' have brown peridioles, ''Mycocalia'' has yellow- to red-brown peridioles, and ''Crucibulum'' has black peridioles that are surrounded by a whitish membrane called the tunica, which makes them appear white.
In most species, the peridioles are dispersed by rain, but they may also be free in the peridium, surrounded by a jelly-like mucilage.
; Microscopic characteristics
Basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi, a grouping that includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are pro ...
s are oval or elliptical in shape, smooth,
hyaline
A hyaline substance is one with a glassy appearance. The word is derived from el, ὑάλινος, translit=hyálinos, lit=transparent, and el, ὕαλος, translit=hýalos, lit=crystal, glass, label=none.
Histopathology
Hyaline cartilage is ...
, and thin-walled.
Habitat and distribution
Species in this family are
cosmopolitan
Cosmopolitan may refer to:
Food and drink
* Cosmopolitan (cocktail), also known as a "Cosmo"
History
* Rootless cosmopolitan, a Soviet derogatory epithet during Joseph Stalin's anti-Semitic campaign of 1949–1953
Hotels and resorts
* Cosmopoli ...
in distribution, and are largely
saprobic
Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ( ...
, obtaining nutrition from the decomposition of wood and plant organic matter.
Life cycle
The life cycle of the Nidulariaceae, which contains both
haploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively ...
and
diploid
Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Sets of chromosomes refer to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, respectively ...
stages, is typical of
taxa
In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular nam ...
in the
basidiomycetes
Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basi ...
that can reproduce both asexually (via
vegetative spores), or sexually (with
meiosis
Meiosis (; , since it is a reductional division) is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, such as sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately resu ...
). Like other wood-decay fungi, this life cycle may be considered as two functionally different phases: the vegetative stage for the spread of
mycelia
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...
, and the reproductive stage for the establishment of spore-producing structures, the fruiting bodies.
The vegetative stage encompasses those phases of the life cycle involved with the germination, spread, and survival of the mycelium. Spores germinate under suitable conditions of moisture and temperature, and grow into branching filaments called
hypha
A hypha (; ) is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium.
Structure
A hypha consists of one or ...
e, pushing out like roots into the rotting wood. These hyphae are
homokaryotic Monokaryotic (adj.) is a term used to refer to multinucleate cells where all nuclei are genetically identical. In multinucleate cells, nuclei share one common cytoplasm, as is found in hyphal cells or mycelium of filamentous fungi.
See also
*Dika ...
, containing a single
nucleus
Nucleus ( : nuclei) is a Latin word for the seed inside a fruit. It most often refers to:
*Atomic nucleus, the very dense central region of an atom
*Cell nucleus, a central organelle of a eukaryotic cell, containing most of the cell's DNA
Nucle ...
in each compartment; they increase in length by adding cell-wall material to a growing tip. As these tips expand and spread to produce new growing points, a network called the mycelium develops. Mycelial growth occurs by
mitosis
In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle in which replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division by mitosis gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the total number of chromosomes is mainta ...
and the synthesis of hyphal biomass. When two homokaryotic hyphae of different
mating compatibility groups fuse with one another, they form a
dikaryotic The dikaryon is a cell nucleus, nuclear feature which is unique to certain fungi. (The green alga ''Derbesia'' had been long considered an exception, until the heterokaryotic hypothesis was challenged by later studies.) Compatible cell-types can fus ...
mycelia in a process called
plasmogamy
Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi, in which the protoplasm of two parent cells (usually from the mycelia) fuse without the fusion of nuclei, effectively bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell. This sta ...
. Prerequisites for mycelial survival and colonization in a substrate (like rotting wood) include suitable humidity and nutrient availability. The majority of ''Nidulariaceae'' species are
saprobic
Saprotrophic nutrition or lysotrophic nutrition is a process of chemoheterotrophic extracellular digestion involved in the processing of decayed (dead or waste) organic matter. It occurs in saprotrophs, and is most often associated with fungi ( ...
, so mycelial growth in rotting wood is made possible by the secretion of
enzyme
Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. A ...
s that break down complex
polysaccharide
Polysaccharides (), or polycarbohydrates, are the most abundant carbohydrates found in food. They are long chain polymeric carbohydrates composed of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic linkages. This carbohydrate can react with wa ...
s (such as
cellulose
Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall ...
and
lignin
Lignin is a class of complex organic polymers that form key structural materials in the support tissues of most plants. Lignins are particularly important in the formation of cell walls, especially in wood and bark, because they lend rigidity ...
) into simple sugars that can be used as nutrients.
After a period of time and under the appropriate environmental conditions, the dikaryotic mycelia may enter the reproductive stage of the life cycle. Fruiting body formation is influenced by external factors such as season (which affects temperature and air humidity), nutrients and light. As fruiting bodies develop they produce peridioles containing the
basidia
A basidium () is a microscopic sporangium (a spore-producing structure) found on the hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi which are also called tertiary mycelium, developed from secondary mycelium. Tertiary mycelium is highly-c ...
upon which new basidiospores are made. Young basidia contain a pair of haploid sexually compatible nuclei which fuse, and the resulting diploid fusion nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce
basidiospore
A basidiospore is a reproductive spore produced by Basidiomycete fungi, a grouping that includes mushrooms, shelf fungi, rusts, and smuts. Basidiospores typically each contain one haploid nucleus that is the product of meiosis, and they are pro ...
s, each containing a single haploid nucleus. The dikaryotic mycelia from which the fruiting bodies are produced is long-lasting, and will continue to produce successive generations of fruiting bodies as long as the environmental conditions are favorable.
Spore dispersal
The nests are "splash-cups". When a raindrop hits one at the right angle, the walls are shaped such that the eggs are expelled to about 1 m away from the cup in some species. Some species have a sticky trailing thread, a ''funicular cord'', attached to the peridiole. If that thread encounters a twig on its flight, the peridiole will swing around and wrap itself around the twig. The spores are thought to be ingested by herbivores and grow in their droppings to continue the life cycle.
Genera
There are five
genera
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...
in the Nidulariaceae:
;''
Crucibulum
''Crucibulum'' is a genus in the Nidulariaceae, a family of fungi whose fruiting bodies resemble tiny egg-filled bird's nests. Often called "splash cups", the fruiting bodies are adapted for spore dispersal by using the kinetic energy of fall ...
''
Fruiting bodies light tan to cinnamon-colored, cup- or crucible-shaped, and typically 1.5–10 mm wide by 5–12 mm tall.
;''
Cyathus''
Fruiting bodies vase-, trumpet- or urn-shaped with dimensions of 4–8 mm wide by 7–18 mm tall. Fruiting bodies are brown to gray-brown in color, and covered with small hair-like structures on the outer surface. Complex funicular cord.
;''
Mycocalia
''Mycocalia'' is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Their fruit bodies resemble tiny egg-filled birds' nests. Species are usually found growing on herbaceous stems and other plant debris. Thus genus was circumscribed in 1961 by mycologi ...
''
Small barrel- to lens-shaped fruiting bodies, usually 0.5–2 mm broad, that grow singly or in small groups.
;''
Nidula''
Fruiting bodies between 3–8 mm in diameter, 5–15 mm tall, and cup- or urn-shaped—having almost vertical sides with the lip flared outwards; color ranging from white, grey, buff, or tawny.
;''
Nidularia''
Typically 0.5–6 mm in diameter x 0.5–3 mm tall. They may be somewhat irregular in shape, or have a well-formed cup that is thin and fragile. No funicular cord.
Phylogenetics
The Nidulariaceae were formerly classified in the class
Gasteromycetes
The gasteroid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota. Species were formerly placed in the obsolete class Gasteromycetes Fr. (literally "stomach fungi"), or the equally obsolete order Gasteromycetales Rea, because they produce spores insi ...
, but this
class
Class or The Class may refer to:
Common uses not otherwise categorized
* Class (biology), a taxonomic rank
* Class (knowledge representation), a collection of individuals or objects
* Class (philosophy), an analytical concept used differentl ...
has been shown to be
polyphyletic
A polyphyletic group is an assemblage of organisms or other evolving elements that is of mixed evolutionary origin. The term is often applied to groups that share similar features known as homoplasies, which are explained as a result of converg ...
, and an artificial assemblage of unrelated taxa that have independently evolved a gasteroid body type. A 2002
phylogenetic
In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...
study of
ribosomal DNA
Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) is a DNA sequence that codes for ribosomal RNA. These sequences regulate transcription initiation and amplification, and contain both transcribed and non-transcribed spacer segments.
In the human genome there are 5 chromos ...
from various gasteroid species, including ''
Cyathus striatus
''Cyathus striatus'', commonly known as the fluted bird's nest, is a common saprobic bird's nest fungus with a widespread distribution throughout temperate regions of the world. This fungus resembles a miniature bird's nest with numerous tiny ...
'' and ''
Crucibulum laeve'' as representatives of the Nidulariaceae, were shown to belong to the ''euagarics clade'', a
monophyletic
In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...
grouping of species from various genera: ''
Hymenogaster'', ''
Hebeloma
''Hebeloma'' is a genus of fungi in the family Hymenogastraceae. Found worldwide, it contains the poison pie or fairy cakes ''(Hebeloma crustuliniforme)'' and the ghoul fungus ''( H. aminophilum)'', from Western Australia, which grows on rotting ...
'', ''
Pholiota
''Pholiota'' is a genus of small to medium-sized, fleshy mushrooms in the family Strophariaceae. They are saprobes that typically live on wood. The genus has a widespread distribution, especially in temperate regions, and contains about 150 spe ...
'', ''
Psathyrellus'', ''
Agaricus campestris
''Agaricus campestris'' is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated button mushroom ''Agaricus bisporus''. It is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.
Taxonomy
This species was ori ...
'', ''
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities result ...
'', and ''
Tulostoma
''Tulostoma'' is a genus of fungi in the family Agaricaceae. Species in the genus are commonly known as stalkballs, or stalked puffballs. Fossils of ''Tulostoma'' have been reported from 12 million year old rocks in central England and 13.5 mill ...
''.
The euagarics are mostly gilled mushrooms, but they do include two gasteroid lineages, including a
puffball
Puffballs are a type of fungus featuring a ball-shaped fruit body that bursts on impact, releasing a cloud of dust-like spores when mature. Puffballs belong to the division Basidiomycota and encompass several genera, including ''Calvatia'', ''Ca ...
lineage in the
Lycoperdales
The Lycoperdales are a now outdated order of fungi. The order included some well-known types such as the giant puffball, the earthstars, and other tuberous fungi. They were defined as having epigeous basidiomes, a hymenium present, one to three ...
, and the bird's nest fungi in the Nidulariales.
Further reading
''Mushrooms of Northeastern North America''(1997)
* Alexopolous, C.J., Charles W. Mims, M. Blackwell et al., ''Introductory Mycology, 4th ed.'' (John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken NJ, 2004)
* Arora, David. (1986). "Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi". 2nd ed. Ten Speed Press.
Footnotes
References
*
*
*
External links
Nidulariaceae
{{Taxonbar, from=Q76854
Agaricales families
Taxa named by Barthélemy Charles Joseph Dumortier