The Ovambo () language is a

dialect cluster A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated varie ...

spoken by the

Ovambo people The Ovambo people (), also called Aawambo, Ambo, Aawambo (Ndonga, Nghandjera, Kwambi, Kwaluudhi, Kolonghadhi, Mbalantu), or Ovawambo (Kwanyama) the biggest of the Aawambo sub-tribes are a Bantu ethnic group native to Southern Africa, primarily mo ...

in southern

Angola , national_anthem = " Angola Avante"() , image_map = , map_caption = , capital = Luanda , religion = , religion_year = 2020 , religion_ref = , coordina ...

and northern

Namibia Namibia (, ), officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa. Its western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Zambia and Angola to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and ea ...

, of which the written standards are Kwanyama and

Ndonga Ndonga, also called Oshindonga, is a Bantu language, Bantu dialect spoken in Namibia and parts of Angola. It is a standardized dialect of the Ovambo language, and is mutual intelligibility, mutually intelligible with Kwanyama dialect, Kwanyama, ...

. The native name for the language is ''Oshiwambo'' (also written ''Oshivambo''), which is also used specifically for the Kwanyama and Ndonga dialects. It is the largest spoken local language in Namibia, particularly by the

. The language is closely related to that of the

Herero Herero may refer to: * Herero people, a people belonging to the Bantu group, with about 240,000 members alive today * Herero language, a language of the Bantu family (Niger-Congo group) * Herero and Namaqua Genocide * Herero chat, a species of b ...

and Himba, the

Herero language Herero (, ''Otjiherero'') is a Bantu language spoken by the Herero and Mbanderu peoples in Namibia and Botswana, as well as by small communities of people in southwestern Angola. There were 211,700 speakers in 2014. Distribution Its lingui ...

(''Otjiherero''). An obvious sign of proximity is the prefix used for language and dialect names,

Proto-Bantu Proto-Bantu is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Bantu languages, a subgroup of the Southern Bantoid languages. It is thought to have originally been spoken in West/Central Africa in the area of what is now Cameroon.Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2 ...

''*ki-'' (class 7, as in the name of the

Swahili language Swahili, also known by its local name , is the native language of the Swahili people, who are found primarily in Tanzania, Kenya and Mozambique (along the East African coast and adjacent litoral islands). It is a Bantu language, though Swahili ...

, ''Kiswahili''), which in Herero has evolved to ''Otji-'' and in Ovambo further to ''Oshi-''.

History

After Namibia's independence in 1990, the area previously known as

Ovamboland Ovamboland, also referred to as Owamboland, was a Bantustan in South West Africa (present-day Namibia), intended by the apartheid government to be a self-governing homeland for the Ovambo people. The term originally referred to the parts of ...

was divided into the

Ohangwena Ohangwena is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia, its capital is Eenhana. Major settlements in the region are the towns Eenhana and Helao Nafidi aa well as the self-governed village of Okongo. , Ohangwena had 150,724 registered voters. Ohangw ...

Omusati Omusati ( ng, Mopane, after the dominant tree in the area) is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia, its capital is Outapi. The towns of Okahao, Oshikuku and Ruacana as well as the self-governed village Tsandi are situated in this region. , Omus ...

Oshana Oshana is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia, its capital is Oshakati. The towns of Oshakati, Ongwediva and Ondangwa, all situated with this region, form an urban cluster with the second largest population concentration in Namibia after the ...

and

Oshikoto Region Oshikoto is one of the fourteen regions of Namibia, named after Lake Otjikoto. Its capital is Omuthiya. The city of Tsumeb, Otjikoto's capital until 2008, and the towns of Omuthiya and Oniipa are also situated in this region. , Oshikoto had 112, ...

s. The population, estimated at between 700,000 and 750,000, fluctuates remarkably. This is because of the indiscriminate border drawn up by the

Portuguese Portuguese may refer to: * anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal ** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods ** Portuguese language, a Romance language *** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language ** Portu ...

and

German Empire The German Empire (),Herbert Tuttle wrote in September 1881 that the term "Reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people. The term literally denotes an empire – particularly a hereditary ...

s during colonial rule, which cut through the Oukwanyama tribal area, placing some in

Angola , national_anthem = " Angola Avante"() , image_map = , map_caption = , capital = Luanda , religion = , religion_year = 2020 , religion_ref = , coordina ...

and others in Namibia. This results in regular cross-border movement. There are approximately one million Oshiwambo speakers in Namibia and Angola. Though it is mainly spoken in the northern regions of Namibia, it is widely spoken across the rest of the country by populations of migrant workers from Ovamboland. These workers comprise a large part of the population in many towns, particularly in the south, where there are jobs in the mining industry. For example, in

Lüderitz Lüderitz is a town in the ǁKaras Region of southern Namibia. It lies on one of the least hospitable coasts in Africa. It is a port developed around Robert Harbour and Shark Island. The town is known for its colonial architecture, includi ...

, an 18-hour drive from Ovamboland, at least 50% of the population speaks Oshiwambo.

Name

The names ''Ambo'' and ''Ovambo'' appear to have originally been exonyms. Despite extensive speculation, their origin remains unknown. The country was called ''Ovamboland'' and ''Amboland'' by the German colonial authorities. In English, ''Ovamboland'' predominates, though ''Ambo country'' is sometimes used, and in English publications from

, ''Owamboland, Wamboland,'' and ''Owambo'' are seen. The endemic forms are ''Owambo kingdoms are'' Ndonga, Kwanyama and Kwambi The people are generally called the ''Ovambo'' or ''Ambo'' in English. The endemic forms are ''Aawambo'' (Ndonga) and ''Ovawambo'' (Kwanyama); the singular in both cases is ''Omuwambo''. The language is generally called ''Ovambo, Ambo,'' or ''Oshiwambo'' in English; the endonym in both standards is ''Oshiwambo.''

Ovambo tribes and dialects

There are eight dialects, including the two written standards Kwanyama and Ndonga. The following table contains the names, areas, dialect names and the locations of the Ovambo tribes according to T. E. Tirronen's ''Ndonga-English Dictionary''. The table also contains information concerning which

noun class In linguistics, a noun class is a particular category of nouns. A noun may belong to a given class because of the characteristic features of its referent, such as gender, animacy, shape, but such designations are often clearly conventional. Some ...

of Proto-Bantu the words belong to. Maho (2009) lists the following as distinct languages in the Ovambo cluster: *Kwanyama **Kafima **Evale **Mbandja **Mbalanhu **Ndongwena **Kwankwa **Dombondola **Esinga *Ndonga *Kwambi *Ngandjera *Kwaluudhi **Kolonkadhi-Eunda

References

External links

PanAfrican L10n page on Oshiwambo
{{Narrow Bantu languages, N-S