Need for power (nPow) is a term that was popularized by renowned psychologist

David McClelland David Clarence McClelland (May 20, 1917 – March 27, 1998) was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He published a number of works between the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for th ...

in 1961. McClelland's thinking was influenced by the pioneering work of

Henry Murray Henry Alexander Murray (May 13, 1893 – June 23, 1988) was an American psychologist at Harvard University, where from 1959 to 1962 he conducted a series of psychologically damaging and purposefully abusive experiments on minors and under ...

, who first identified underlying psychological human needs and motivational processes (1938). It was Murray who set out a taxonomy of needs, including needs for achievement,

power Power most often refers to: * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events ** Abusive power Power may a ...

, and affiliation—and placed these in the context of an integrated motivational model. McClelland was inspired by Murray's research, and he continued to further develop Murray's theory by focusing on this theory in regard to the human population. In McClelland's book ''The Achieving Society'', nPow helps explain an individual's imperative to be in charge. According to his work there are two kinds of power, ''social'' and ''personal''.

Background

Murray's system of needs

Henry Murray was one of the first psychologists to systematically investigate human needs. In his 1938 book, ''Explorations in Human Personality'', he identified and labeled twenty needs he believed were universal in nature for all humans. Later research demonstrated that

Murray's system of needs In 1938, Henry Murray developed a system of needs as part of his theory of personality, which he named ''personology''. He argued that everyone had a set of universal basic needs, with individual differences on these needs leading to the uniquenes ...

positively correlates with the

Big Five personality traits The Big Five personality traits is a suggested taxonomy, or grouping, for personality traits, developed from the 1980s onward in psychological trait theory. Starting in the 1990s, the theory identified five factors by labels, for the US English ...

McClelland's three needs theory

In the 1960s, psychologist

expanded on Murray's work, focusing on the effects of human needs in a work environment. His

need theory Need theory, also known as Three needs theory,
Umuc.edu. Retrieved July 16, 2014. proposed by

need for affiliation The need for affiliation (N-Affil) is a term that was popularized by David McClelland and describes a person's need to feel a sense of involvement and "belonging" within a social group; McClelland's thinking was strongly influenced by the pioneering ...

, the

need for achievement Need for achievement (N-Ach) is an individual's desire for significant accomplishment, mastering of skills, control, or high standards. The term was first used by Henry Murray and associated with a range of actions. These include: "intense, prolonge ...

, or the need for power.

Thematic apperception test

To determine how strongly an individual felt each of the three needs, McClelland used the

thematic apperception test Thematic apperception test (TAT) is a projective psychological test developed during the 1930s by Henry A. Murray and Christiana D. Morgan at Harvard University. Proponents of the technique assert that subjects' responses, in the narratives they ...

(TAT), which is designed to uncover a person's unconscious drives, emotions, wants and needs. During the test, a psychologist shows an individual a series of picture cards depicting ambiguous situations and asks them to tell a story about each image. The psychologist then interprets those stories to identify desires or personality traits the individual may be are unaware of or want to hide. Several empirical studies have demonstrated that the TAT cannot detect mental illness at a rate higher than chance, and the inter-rater validity as measured by

Cronbach's alpha Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach's \alpha), also known as tau-equivalent reliability (\rho_T) or coefficient alpha (coefficient \alpha), is a reliability coefficient that provides a method of measuring internal consistency of tests and measures. Numero ...

(the likelihood of two psychologists providing similar interpretations of the same person's results) is low, especially if the clinician gives a subjective interpretation instead of using the test's original scoring system.Meyer, G
The reliability and validity of the Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test compared to other psychological and medical instruments.
/ref> However, proponents of the TAT argue that Cronbach's alpha is artificially low for tests with a small number of items, and that the TAT provides a more detailed and flexible description of an individual than a structured questionnaire.

Effects of a high need for power

McClelland defines the need for power (nPow) as a desire for "power either to control other people (for ne's/nowiki> own goals) or to achieve higher goals (for the greater good)," and describes people high in this trait as seeking "neither recognition nor approval from others - only agreement and compliance

In his later research, McClelland refined his theory to include two distinct types of power motivation: the need for ''socialized power'', expressed on the TAT by descriptions of plans, self-doubts, mixed outcomes, and concern for others, and the need for ''personal power'', expressed by stories in which one individual seeks power and must oppose another to get it. Compared to people who value affiliation or achievement, individuals with high nPow scores tend to be more argumentative, more assertive in group discussions, and more likely to experience frustration when they feel powerless or not in control of a situation. They are more likely to seek or hold a position in which they have control over others, and to engage in

conspicuous consumption In sociology and in economics, the term conspicuous consumption describes and explains the consumer practice of buying and using goods of a higher quality, price, or in greater quantity than practical. In 1899, the sociologist Thorstein Veblen co ...

Pros and cons

For individuals

A high nPow score predicts greater career success for men and for women who report high satisfaction with the power-related aspects of their workplace.Chusmir, L. & Parker, B. (1984)
Dimensions of need for power: Personalized vs. socialized power in female and male managers.
Sex Roles, 11, 759-769. McClelland's own research included case studies illustrating the advantage of high nPow in the workplace, especially for more experienced workers competing for management positions. In one characteristic example, a successful salesman with a high need for affiliation and a low need for power began to perform poorly after being promoted to management. He experienced difficulty giving direct orders, leading his subordinates to complain that he failed to set clear goals and reward individuals who performed well. Outside of work, a high nPow score is associated with both positive and negative outcomes, with the result often depending on whether an individual also reports a strong sense of responsibility. When combined with a low score on a measure of responsibility, a high nPow score predicts higher rates of externalizing

self-destructive Self-destructive behavior is any behavior that is harmful or potentially harmful towards the person who engages in the behavior. Self-destructive behaviors have been shown by many people throughout the years. It is on a continuum, with one extr ...

behavior, such as binge-drinking and physical aggression. Men with this combination of personality traits are more likely to divorce, separate, or physically abuse their spouses. However, this association disappears for individuals with average or high responsibility scores, who are disproportionately likely to report positive outcomes like taking on social leadership roles.Worell, J. [Ed.
The Encyclopedia of Women and Gender: Sex Similarities and Differences, Volume 1.
/ref>

For society

As with individual outcomes, whether a high need for power results in positive or negative outcomes is influenced by the individual's other traits, particularly responsibility and empathy. An argumentative group member may prevent groupthink, or they may intimidate other group members and refuse to make reasonable compromises; a hard-charging manager may motivate and focus their team, or they may bully and manipulate their subordinates. Even dangerous behaviors, like impulsive risk-taking, can be beneficial in moderation: successful stock traders and entrepreneurs often have a high propensity for risk.

Gender

On average, men report a higher need for power than women, which may be due to biological factors, social factors, or an interaction between them. Gender also influences how the need for power is outwardly expressed: men are more likely to express anger directly, use physical violence to establish control, or engage in risky or impulsive behavior, while women are more likely to employ

relational aggression Relational aggression or alternative aggressionSimmons, Rachel (2002). ''Odd Girl Out: The Hidden Culture of Aggression in Girls''. New York, New York: Mariner Books. pp. 8–9. . Retrieved 2016-11-02. is a type of aggression in which harm is cause ...

or suppress their hostility. When the needs for socialized and personal power are measured separately, women managers express a greater desire for socialized power than their male counterparts, but an equal desire for personal power. Men, but not women, reported greater job satisfaction if they had a high need for socialized power.

Other parts of the theory

Need for achievement

Murray defined

as the attempt to overcome obstacles. Need for achievement (nAch) was defined by McClelland as the motive to strive for success in particular situations in which his/her performance would be looked at against some type of standard. McClelland used the thematic apperception test in order to test this part of his theory. He would show people four pictures and ask people to write a story regarding these pictures. Based on his/her story, McClelland would be able to determine what type of achievement a person strived.

Need for affiliation

Murray believed

was a trait that was very strong in most people, especially in stressful situations. Murray believed that when people were put into a stressful situation, people were more likely to feel less stress if another person was present. In McClelland's research, he found that people who had need for affiliation were often unpopular tried to avoid interpersonal conflicts because they have levels of anxiety about if others will accept them.

References

{{reflist Motivational theories Power (social and political) concepts