Mouzi Lihuolun
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The ''Mouzi Lihuolun'' () is a classic
Chinese Buddhist Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including Chinese art, art, politics, Ch ...
text. It comprises a purportedly autobiographical preface by Master Mou, a late 2nd-century Confucian
scholar-official The scholar-officials, also known as literati, scholar-gentlemen or scholar-bureaucrats (), were government officials and prestigious scholars in Chinese society, forming a distinct social class. Scholar-officials were politicians and governmen ...
who converted to Buddhism, and an imaginary dialogue of questions and answers about Buddhist practices.


Title

The ''Mouzi lihuolun'' is known under several names, including the abbreviated title ''Mouzi''. ''Mouzi'' compounds the uncommon
Chinese surname Chinese surnames are used by Han Chinese and Sinicized ethnic groups in China, Taiwan, Korea, Vietnam, and among overseas Chinese communities around the world such as Singapore and Malaysia. Written Chinese names begin with surnames, unlike the ...
Mou "seek; obtain" with the suffix ''-zi'' "Master" (compare
Laozi Laozi (), also known by numerous other names, was a semilegendary ancient Chinese Taoist philosopher. Laozi ( zh, ) is a Chinese honorific, generally translated as "the Old Master". Traditional accounts say he was born as in the state ...
). The Japanese title ''Bōshi riwakuron'' 牟氏理惑論 (Chinese ''Moushi lihuolun'') replaces ''shi'' (''zi'') "Master" with ''shi'' (''shi'')
Radical 83 or radical clan () meaning " clan" is one of the 34 Kangxi radicals (214 radicals in total) composed of 4 strokes. In the ''Kangxi Dictionary'', there are 10 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this radical. is also the 89 ...
"Mister; a certain person." ''Lihuolun'' combines ''li'' "manage; put in order; acknowledge"; ''huo'' "confusion; delusion; doubt; suspicion"; and ''lun'' "discourse; opinion; dissertation; essay." According to Yu Jiaxi 余嘉錫, the original title ''Mouzi jihuolun'' 牟子治惑論 – with ''zhi'' "rule; research; manage; cure; eliminate" instead of ''li'' – was changed to avoid the
naming taboo A naming taboo is a cultural taboo against speaking or writing the given names of exalted persons, notably in China and within the Chinese cultural sphere. It was enforced by several laws throughout Imperial China, but its cultural and possibly r ...
on
Emperor Gaozong of Tang Emperor Gaozong of Tang (21 July 628 – 27 December 683), personal name Li Zhi, was the third emperor of the Tang dynasty in China, ruling from 649 to 683; after January 665, he handed power over the empire to his second wife Empress Wu (the f ...
's personal name Zhi 治. English translations of ''Mouzi lihuolun'' include: *"Mou-tzu on the Settling of Doubts" *"Mou-tzu's Treatise on the Removal of Doubt" or "…Elimination of Delusion" *"Master Mou’s Treatise for the Removal of Doubts" *"Mouzi's Correction of Errors" Some renditions of shortened ''Lihuolun'' are: *"Disposing of Error" *"Dispelling Doubts" *"The Removal of Doubts"


Content

The received ''Mouzi Lihuolun'' text contains a supposedly autobiographical Introduction, thirty-seven articles of Dialogue between Mouzi and an unnamed Chinese critic (or critics) questioning Buddhist practices, and a Postscript in which the critic converts to Buddhism. The Introduction identifies the author as an
Eastern Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
Confucian scholar who is not mentioned in any Han-era historical records. (Later editions give the name of Mou Rong 牟融. Compare the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
scholar also named Mou Rong 牟融.) After the death of
Emperor Ling of Han Emperor Ling of Han (156 – 13 May 189), personal name Liu Hong, was the 12th and last powerful emperor of the Eastern Han dynasty. Born the son of a lesser marquis who descended directly from Emperor Zhang (the third Eastern Han emperor), L ...
in 189 CE, scholars, especially specialists of immortality fled the chaotic
Yellow Turban Rebellion The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a List of peasant revolts, peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in 184 CE during the reign of Emperor Ling of ...
and moved to the extreme south of the empire, where Mouzi argued with them. Although very admirative of the Laozi, Mouzi, as he appears in the autobiographical introduction, was very hostile to immortality practices. He himself was born in
Cangwu Cangwu County (; Zhuang: ') is a county in eastern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, China, bordering Guangdong province to the east. It is under the administration of Wuzhou Wuzhou (, postal: Wuchow; za, Ngouzcouh / Ŋouƨcouƅ), formerly N ...
in Jiaozhou (present day
Tonkin Tonkin, also spelled ''Tongkin'', ''Tonquin'' or ''Tongking'', is an exonym referring to the northern region of Vietnam. During the 17th and 18th centuries, this term referred to the domain ''Đàng Ngoài'' under Trịnh lords' control, includi ...
), where he studied the Confucian Classics, the Laozi and Buddhism. The 37 ''Mouzi'' Dialogues treat early Chinese objections to Buddhism, such as coming from a foreign "barbarian" culture, not being mentioned in the
Chinese classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...
, and the doctrine of
reincarnation Reincarnation, also known as rebirth or transmigration, is the philosophical or religious concept that the non-physical essence of a living being begins a new life in a different physical form or body after biological death. Resurrection is a ...
negating Daoist "immortality". Haircutting exemplified Chinese/Buddhist cultural problems. Buddhist tonsure required monks to shave their heads – but Confucian
filial piety In Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism, and Daoist ethics, filial piety (, ''xiào'') (Latin: pietas) is a virtue of respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. The Confucian ''Classic of Filial Piety'', thought to be written around the late W ...
prohibited Chinese adults from cutting their hair (because it was ultimately a gift from one's parents). In Article 9, "Filial Piety and Buddhist Practice", the interlocutor quotes the ''
Classic of Filial Piety The ''Classic of Filial Piety'', also known by its Chinese name as the ''Xiaojing'', is a Confucian classic treatise giving advice on filial piety: that is, how to behave towards a senior such as a father, an elder brother, or a ruler. The tex ...
'', as does Master Mou along with the ''
Analects The ''Analects'' (; ; Old Chinese: '' ŋ(r)aʔ''; meaning "Selected Sayings"), also known as the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Sayings of Confucius'', or the ''Lun Yu'', is an ancient Chinese book composed of a large collection of sayings a ...
''.
The questioner said, "The ''Classic of Filiality'' says, 'Our body, limbs, hair, and skin are all received from our fathers and mothers. We dare not injure them.' When
Zengzi Zeng Shen (505–435 BC), better known as Zengzi (Master Zeng), courtesy name Ziyu (), was a Chinese philosopher and disciple of Confucius. He later taught Zisi (Kong Ji), the grandson of Confucius, who was in turn the teacher of Mencius, thus be ...
was about to die, he bared his hands and feet
o show them intact from harm O, or o, is the fifteenth letter and the fourth vowel letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''o'' (pronounced ), plu ...
But now the monks shave their heads. How this violates the sayings of the sages and is out of keeping with the way of the filial! …"
Mouzi said, … "Confucius has said, 'There are those with whom one can pursue the Way … but with whom one cannot weigh ecisions' This is what is meant by doing what is best at the time. Furthermore, the ''Classic of Filiality'' says, 'The early kings ruled by surpassing virtue and the essential Way.'
Taibo Taibo () (circa 1150 BCE), or Wu Taibo, was the eldest son of King Tai of Zhou and the legendary founder of the State of Wu. His exact birth and death dates are unknown. Biography According to Sima Qian, Taibo was the founder of the State of ...
cut his hair short and tattooed his body, thus following of his own accord the oreigncustoms of Wu and Yue and going against the spirit of the 'body, limbs, hair, and skin' passage. And yet Confucius praised him, saying that his might well be called the ultimate virtue."
The ''Mouzi'' text frequently explains Buddhism in Daoist terms; for instance, it calls Buddhism the ''Fodao'' 佛道 "Buddha Dao". Keenan said the author's rhetorical strategy was "to graft the new branch of the Buddha Tao onto the trunk of classical Chinese culture, which is represented for him by the Confucian classics and the works of classical Taoism." To Mouzi, Daoism included the philosophical ''
Daodejing The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' and ''
Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to: * ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Daoism **Zhuang Zhou Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...
'' but excluded
Xuanxue Xuanxue (), sometimes called Neo-Daoism (Neo-Taoism), is a metaphysical post-classical Chinese philosophy from the Six Dynasties (222-589), bringing together Taoist and Confucian beliefs through revision and discussion. The movement found its scri ...
"Neo-Daoism" and ''
xian Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
'' "transcendent; immortal" practices. For example, Article 30, "Fasting: Buddhist and Daoist", dismisses '' bigu'' 辟穀 "abstention from grains (in order to gain immortality)".
A critic asked: Among the Taoists, some abstain from eating grain, yet they drink their wine and eat their meat. They claim that this is the method of Lao-tzu. But the Buddha Tao considers wine and meat to be absolutely prohibited, while it does allow one to eat grain. Why such a stark difference?
Mou-tzu said: Such doctrines are trivial and trifling. None of their ninety-six teachings surpasses the Buddha in tranquility and nonaction. I have inspected the two sections of the Lao Tzu and have heard of his prohibition against the five tastes, but I have never found any place where he says that we should stop eating the five grains. The sage .e., Confuciushas arranged the text of the Seven Classics, but they contain no method of abstaining from grains. Lao wrote the Five Thousand Words but there is no mention of avoiding grains. The sage says, "Those who eat grain are wise; those who eat grasses are fools. Those who eat meat are violent. Those who feed on the air are long-lived."
"Ninety-six teachings" refers to the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya's reckoning of heterodox teachings. The
Five Grains The Five Grains or Cereals () are a grouping (or set of groupings) of five farmed crops that were all important in ancient China. Sometimes the crops themselves were regarded as sacred; other times, their cultivation was regarded as a sacred boo ...
and Five Tastes are aspects of Wuxing "Five Phases" theory. In the Postscript ("The Thirty-seven Factors"), the interlocutory critic decides to take Buddhist lay vows because Mouzi's answers had resolved all doubts. The Postscript relates the 37 ''Mouzi'' articles with the 37 Buddhist
Bodhipakkhiyādhammā In Buddhism, the ''bodhipakkhiyā dhammā'' (Pali; variant spellings include ''bodhipakkhikā dhammā'' and ''bodhapakkhiyā dhammā''; Skt.: ''bodhipaka dharma'') are qualities (''dhammā'') conducive or related to (''pakkhiya'') awakening/unde ...
factors of enlightenment and Daoist chapters 1–37 of the ''
Daodejing The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...
'' (known as the ''Daojing'' section).
A critic asked: Your understanding is truly comprehensive, and assuredly we have never heard the like. But why do you limit yourself to these thirty-seven articIes? Do you have a model?
Mou-tzu said: Tumbleweeds drifted about and cartwheels were invented. Hollow wood floated and boats and oars were made. A spider spun his web and fine nets were woven. Bird prints were seen and written words were devised. Thus it is easy to complete a task with a model but difficult to do so without one. I have examined how the essence of the Buddha's scriptures have thirty-seven factors of awakening and how Lao-tzu's classic on the Tao also has thirty-seven chapters. These are my models.
When the doubters heard this, they became nervously deferential, paled, clasped their hands together, and backed away from their mats. Shrinking back in humility and prostrating themselves, they said, "We are really backward and blind persons, born into a benighted backwater. We have presumed to utter foolish words and have not distinguished happiness from sorrow. But now, upon hearing your pronouncements, as suddenly as hot water melts the snow, we beg to change our feelings, cleanse our minds, and reform ourselves. May we please receive the five precepts and become lay followers?"
Upāsaka and Upāsikā Upāsaka (masculine) or Upāsikā (feminine) are from the Sanskrit and Pāli words for "attendant". This is the title of followers of Buddhism (or, historically, of Gautama Buddha) who are not monks, nuns, or novice monastics in a Buddhist order, ...
male and female Buddhist lay devotees take vows to follow the
Five Precepts The Five precepts ( sa, pañcaśīla, italic=yes; pi, pañcasīla, italic=yes) or five rules of training ( sa, pañcaśikṣapada, italic=yes; pi, pañcasikkhapada, italic=yes) is the most important system of morality for Buddhist lay peo ...
code of ethics.


History

Scholars disagree over the historicity of Mouzi and the ''Lihuolun''. According to the Dutch sinologist
Erik Zürcher Erik Zürcher (13 September 1928, in Utrecht – 7 February 2008, in Warmond) was a Dutch Sinologist. From 1962 to 1993, Zürcher was a professor of history of East Asia at the Leiden University. He was also Director of the Sinological Institute, b ...
, "The early history of the text (if it had one) is wholly obscure; the treatise is neither mentioned nor quoted anywhere before the second half of the fifth century."See and for historical details. The earliest catalog of Buddhist literature,
Dao An Dao'an (; 312–385) was a Buddhist monk, author and bibliographer, during the Eastern Jin dynasty. He was from what is now Hebei. His main importance was that of overseer of translation of Buddhist texts into Chinese, organizer of the Chinese sa ...
's (374) ''Zongli zhongjing mulu'' 總理眾經目錄 "Bibliographical Catalog Comprehensively Arranging the Sutra", does not mention the ''Mouzi Lihuolun''. It was first recorded in the (c. 465) ''Falun'' 法論 "Dharma Discourse", Lu Cheng 陸澄's collection of Buddhist literature compiled for the devout
Emperor Ming of Liu Song Emperor Ming of (Liu) Song ((劉)宋明帝) (9 December 439 – 10 May 472), personal name Liu Yu (劉彧), courtesy name Xiubing (休炳), childhood name Rongqi (榮期), was an emperor of the Chinese Liu Song dynasty. He became emperor after h ...
. Although the ''Falun'' is lost, its table of contents is included in
Sengyou Sengyou (; 445–518 AD) was a Buddhist monk and early medieval Chinese bibliographer and noted chiefly for being the author of ''Collected Records concerning the Tripitaka'' (出三藏記集 ''Chu sanzang jìjí'', T2145), a catalogue of Buddhis ...
's (515) ''Chu sanzang jiji'' 出三藏記集 "Collection of Records on the Translated Tripitaka". Sengyou also edited the (517) ''Hongmingji'' 弘明集 "Collection Aggrandizing and Clarifying uddhism, which is the earliest source for the transmitted ''Mouzi'' text. Another early ''Mouzi Lihouhun'' reference is found in the ''
Shishuo Xinyu ''A New Account of the Tales of the World'', also known as ''Shishuo Xinyu'' (), was compiled and edited by Liu Yiqing (Liu I-ching; 劉義慶; 403–444) during the Liu Song dynasty (420–479) of the Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589 ...
'' commentary by Liu Chun 劉峻 (426–521). The text was later canonized as part of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. Scholars have expressed diverse opinions about the ''Mouzi lihuolun'' date of composition. Many considered the text authentic and accepted that Mouzi composed it sometime between the final years of the Later Han dynasty (25–220 CE) and the middle of the
Three Kingdoms The Three Kingdoms () from 220 to 280 AD was the tripartite division of China among the dynastic states of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu. The Three Kingdoms period was preceded by the Han dynasty#Eastern Han, Eastern Han dynasty and wa ...
period (220–280). They include eminent scholars such as
Sun Yirang Sun Yirang (; 1848–1908) was a Qing dynasty Chinese philologist. A native of Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, he retired from official employment early in his life to devote himself to scholarship. His most important works are ''Mozi Jiangu'' (墨 ...
,
Hu Shih Hu Shih (; 17 December 1891 – 24 February 1962), also known as Hu Suh in early references, was a Chinese diplomat, essayist, literary scholar, philosopher, and politician. Hu is widely recognized today as a key contributor to Chinese libera ...
,
Paul Pelliot Paul Eugène Pelliot (28 May 187826 October 1945) was a French Sinologist and Orientalist best known for his explorations of Central Asia and his discovery of many important Chinese texts such as the Dunhuang manuscripts. Early life and caree ...
, and
Henri Maspero Henri Paul Gaston Maspero (15 December 188317 March 1945) was a French sinologist and professor who contributed to a variety of topics relating to East Asia. Maspero is best known for his pioneering studies of Daoism. He was imprisoned by the Naz ...
. Maspero dated the ''Mouzi'' from around 250 because its story of the Buddha's life (Article 1) was probably copied from that of
Zhi Qian Zhi Qian (; fl. 222–252 CE) was a Chinese Buddhist layman of Yuezhi ancestry who translated a wide range of Indian Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. He was the grandson (or according to another source, the son) of an immigrant from the country ...
's (c. 229) ''Taizi ruiying benqi jing'' 太子瑞應本起經 translation. The Japanese scholar Fukui Kōjun 福井康順 (1898–1991) reexamined these various theories and concluded that the ''Mouzi lihuolun'' text was written around the middle of the 3rd century. Other scholars have rejected the ''Mouzi'' as a spurious work that was falsely attributed to Mouzi. Hu Yinglin 胡應麟 (1551–1602) was first to deny the textual authenticity, and suggested that a scholar forged it during the
Six Dynasties Six Dynasties (; 220–589 or 222–589) is a collective term for six Han-ruled Chinese dynasties that existed from the early 3rd century AD to the late 6th century AD. The Six Dynasties period overlapped with the era of the Sixteen Kingdoms, ...
period (222–589).
Liang Qichao Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啓超 ; Wade–Giles, Wade-Giles: ''Liang2 Chʻi3-chʻao1''; Yale romanization of Cantonese, Yale: ''Lèuhng Kái-chīu'') (February 23, 1873 – January 19, 1929) was a Chinese politician, social and political act ...
considered it a falsification dating from the
Eastern Jin dynasty Eastern may refer to: Transportation *China Eastern Airlines, a current Chinese airline based in Shanghai * Eastern Air, former name of Zambia Skyways * Eastern Air Lines, a defunct American airline that operated from 1926 to 1991 *Eastern Air ...
(317–420) or
Liu Song dynasty Song, known as Liu Song (), Former Song (前宋) or Song of (the) Southern Dynasty (南朝宋) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the first of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. ...
(420–479). The Japanese Buddhologist Tokiwa Daijō 常盤大定 (1929–1945) argued that the text was concocted by the monk Huitong 慧通 (c. 426-c. 478), who is mentioned in Gu Huan 顧歡's ''Yixia lun'' 夷夏論 Daoist criticism of Buddhism. Tokiwa believed that Huitong or another later author created "Mozi" as an imaginary figure with a historical background linking him with some events and personalities known from other sources. Zürcher supported Tokiwa's argument by pointing out that the Preface's tone was too eulogistic to be autobiographical. "Who could believe that a Chinese scholar would … claim that he 'has a complete understanding of civil as well as military affairs, and the talent to react independently (to any situation)'?" He concluded that the Preface is "an idealized description of the scholar-official who leads a retired life far from the bustle of the world." Most Chinese and foreign academics have interpreted the ''Mouzi lihuolun'' as an early Chinese Buddhist
apologetic Apologetics (from Greek , "speaking in defense") is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and ...
, for instance Maspero called Mouzi the "first apologist for Buddhism." Keenan controverted this apologistic assumption because the text focuses more upon reinterpreting Chinese traditions than upon defending Buddhist teachings.
The argument is not over Buddhism itself, but over the validity of a Buddhist interpretation of the Chinese classics. The ''Li-huo lun'' is not, then, a Buddhist apologetic arguing for the doctrinal truth of Buddhism over against the Chinese traditions, but rather a culturally Chinese hermeneutic about how to interpret China's classical tradition, about the validity of a Buddhist hermeneutic of its classics. It is hermeneutics, not apologetics.
Chan and Lo noted the treatise's ultimate reason for adhering to Buddhism "lies in a deliberate calculation of moral reward, rather than a genuine faith in Buddhist dharma per se." Western language translations of the ''Mouzi lihuolun'' include French by Paul Pelliot and English by John P. Keenan, who employed
reader-response criticism Reader-response criticism is a school of literary theory that focuses on the reader (or "audience An audience is a group of people who participate in a show or encounter a work of art, literature (in which they are called "readers"), theatre ...
.


See also

*
Filial piety in Buddhism Filial piety has been an important aspect of Buddhist ethics since early Buddhism, and was essential in the apologetics and texts of Chinese Buddhism. In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and ...
* ''
Milinda Pañha The ''Milinda Pañha'' () is a Buddhist texts, Buddhist text which dates from sometime between 100 BC and 200 AD. It purports to record a dialogue between the Indian Buddhist sage Nagasena, Nāgasena, and the 2nd century BC Indo-Greek Kingdom, In ...
''


References

* * * * * Footnotes


External links


Selections from Mouzi's Disposing of Error (Lihuo Lun)
Asia for Educators,
Weatherhead East Asian Institute The Weatherhead East Asian Institute (WEAI) at Columbia University is a community of scholars affiliated with Columbia's schools, bringing together over 50 full-time faculty, a diverse group of visiting scholars and professionals, and students from ...

''Mouzi lihuo lun'' 牟子理惑論 "Master Mou's Treatise Dispelling Doubts"
Chinaknowledge Chinaknowledge, with the subtitle "a universal guide for China studies", is an English-language hobbyist's web site that contains a wide variety of information on China and Chinese topics. The site was founded by and is maintained by Ulrich Theo ...

Mou-Tzu Li-Huo-Lun
Buddhanet
理惑論
''Lihuolun'' text in
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{{Buddhism topics History of Buddhism in China Chinese Buddhist texts Buddhist apologetic works 2nd-century Buddhism