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Mercery (from French , meaning "habderdashery" (goods) or "haberdashery" (a shop trading in
textiles Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
and notions) initially referred to
silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the co ...
,
linen Linen () is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant. Linen is very strong, absorbent, and dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. It also ...
and
fustian Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech, from at least the time of Shakespeare. This literary use is bec ...
textiles among various other
piece goods Piece goods were the textile materials sold in cut pieces as per the buyer's specification. The piece goods were either cut from a fabric roll or produced with a certain length, also called yard goods. Various textiles such as cotton, wool, silk, ...
imported to England in the 12th century. Eventually, the term evolved to refer to a merchant or trader of textile goods, especially imported textile goods, particularly in England. A merchant would be known as a ''
mercer Mercer may refer to: Business * Mercer (car), a defunct American automobile manufacturer (1909–1925) * Mercer (consulting firm), a large human resources consulting firm headquartered in New York City * Mercer (occupation), a merchant or trade ...
'', and the profession as ''
mercery Mercery (from French , meaning "habderdashery" (goods) or "haberdashery" (a shop trading in textiles and notions) initially referred to silk, linen and fustian textiles among various other piece goods imported to England in the 12th century. ...
''. The occupation of mercery has a rich and complex history dating back over 1,000 years in what is now the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Nor ...
.
London London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, with a population of just under 9 million. It stands on the River Thames in south-east England at the head of a estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major s ...
was the major trade centre in England for silk during the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
, and the trade enjoyed a special position in the economy amongst the wealthy. A typical mercery business was family-run, consisting of a mercer, wife, their family, servants, and apprentices. The husband would be tasked with the marketing and sale of the business' wares to the public in places such as a small storefront, at markets, and at public fairs. The wife would operate mainly in the workshop, using her skills to buy the business' stock and make various silk cloths and piece goods; she would also be in charge of the workshop alongside her husband, and would often be expected to train the apprentices and the family's children to contribute to the household income.


Terminology

The term ''mercer'' in reference to a cloth merchant (from the French , originally referring to a person importing fabric goods from the Eastern world) is now largely obsolete. Mercers were merchants or traders who dealt in cloth, typically fine cloth that was not produced locally. Inventories of mercers in small towns, however, suggest that many were shopkeepers who dealt in various dry commodities other than cloth. Related occupations include
haberdasher In British English, a haberdasher is a business or person who sells small articles for sewing, dressmaking and knitting, such as buttons, ribbons, and zippers; in the United States, the term refers instead to a retailer who sells men's clothing ...
,
draper Draper was originally a term for a retailer or wholesaler of cloth that was mainly for clothing. A draper may additionally operate as a cloth merchant or a haberdasher. History Drapers were an important trade guild during the medieval period, ...
and
cloth merchant In the Middle Ages or 16th and 17th centuries, a cloth merchant was one who owned or ran a cloth (often wool) manufacturing or wholesale import or export business. A cloth merchant might additionally own a number of draper's shops. Cloth was ext ...
, while clothier historically referred to someone who manufactured cloth, often under the
domestic system The putting-out system is a means of subcontracting work. Historically, it was also known as the workshop system and the domestic system. In putting-out, work is contracted by a central agent to subcontractors who complete the project via remote w ...
. In the 21st century, the word ''mercer'' is primarily used in connection with the
Worshipful Company of Mercers The Worshipful Company of Mercers is the premier Livery Company of the City of London and ranks first in the order of precedence of the Companies. It is the first of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies. Although of even older origin, the c ...
, the first in precedence of the twelve Great Livery Companies of the City of London.


Etymology

In earliest use, the term ''mercery'' was amorphous in nature, and described the sale of a wide range of goods, from small items like needles and thread, to expensive materials such as silk or brocade. The term can be dated to the early 11th century. The first reference to mercery was in use for foreign merchants from modern-day Germany, France and the
Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Neth ...
, who were well-placed geographically to transport luxuries from the East and their own manufactured goods into England. Only in the 12th century did the term mercery as an occupation become distinctly separate from the general merchant, who might only deal with
linen Linen () is a textile made from the fibers of the flax plant. Linen is very strong, absorbent, and dries faster than cotton. Because of these properties, linen is comfortable to wear in hot weather and is valued for use in garments. It also ...
. Mercery became associated with silk, linen, and various piece goods, especially high-quality products such as dress accessories, small luxuries and beddings—different from the simple everyday wear of the masses, which would typically be made of either linen or wool. The trade of silk and expensive clothes set apart the profession of a mercer from that of a general merchant, as was formally outlined under trading regulations in London; as a major trading hub of the time, the number of mercers was sufficiently extensive as to allow certain goods to be clearly defined as mercery, in laws specifically aimed to control prices and protect local mercers through supply and demand.


Mercery in London

Whilst London is closely intertwined as the prominent hub of the mercery trade in England throughout the Middle Ages, before the 12th century goods such as silk, linen and
fustian Fustian is a variety of heavy cloth woven from cotton, chiefly prepared for menswear. It is also used figuratively to refer to pompous, inflated or pretentious writing or speech, from at least the time of Shakespeare. This literary use is bec ...
in England primarily implied overseas trade; of these, only linen was produced and sold in England. The origins of the mercery trade's further development from just an import market in England are tied into the history of trading, manufacturing, and distribution standards in the Middle Ages. The establishment of recognised trade routes over time, and new financial systems such as credits for trade being available in the main cities for merchant and bankers alike, helped the expansion of the domestic mercer trade in London. Bundles of raw silk were brought from Italy into London for silkwomen to make into piece goods such as laces or braids and for embroidery. This mercery market continued all throughout the Middle Ages, during which Londoners who used silk relied heavily on Italians to bring silk into London. From the 12th century on, there was an avenue wherein they could establish direct contact with Italian and other foreign suppliers at major trade fairs in places such as northern France. Fustian reached London through the same trade routes, which were dominated by Italy in the 12th century. Originally an ancient cloth from the Middle East made from flax and cotton, it was replicated in Italy and became increasingly popular and a staple product for mercers to profit from. In addition to the increased cultivation of flax in Europe, linen became a symbol of wealth of the burgeoning middle class, among whom 11th-century innovations such as the treadle loom increased the supply of materials such as linen and flax and made them more popular than ever in London. Besides the trade and manufacture of expensive cloths, mercers were also concerned with a wide variety of piece goods which had a large market in London, as they were more affordable for commoners than supplies of the materials they were made from, such as silk, linen, and cheaper substitutes such as fustian and hemp.


History of the mercery in London


13-14th century: development of the mercery trade and The Black Death

The mercery trade in the 12th century was synonymous with the overseas trade of silk, linen, and fustian. In the first half of the twelfth century, most of the mercery textiles was brought over by foreigners. While silk cloth was only valuable to the nobility and the church, a wider variety of small piece goods made from silk and linen had a much wider and more valuable market for mercers—silk was used en masse for dress accessories and alike. The creation of the Livery company for general merchants in 1394 was soon supplanted by the economic and societal devastation of the
Black Death The Black Death (also known as the Pestilence, the Great Mortality or the Plague) was a bubonic plague pandemic occurring in Western Eurasia and North Africa from 1346 to 1353. It is the most fatal pandemic recorded in human history, causing ...
in the ranks of the company; over a third of its members died and the situation was bleak. However, the merchants' guild managed to not only survive the plague, but thrive in the oncoming economic revival that followed the Black Death only fifty years later. The groundwork for the mercers to thrive in a post-recession England economy was due to massive population losses, wherein wages rose due to lack of labour and with a considerably smaller populace, farmers could focus more on producing livestock and speciality crops instead of just grain—which improved people's diets and health as a result. The general population was engaging more into the market economy with higher living standards present and their immediate needs taken care of. The company capitalised on this opportunity to expand as a driving force of the new England economy, wherein provincial towns previously not visited by mercers soon became part of a complex and established market system of trade. In addition, to this the development of the mercery trade in the late 13th century was uniquely abetted by the Black Death, due to the drop in population—wherein post-recession ordinary men and women could afford to buy higher standards of clothing to dress themselves better.


Religious and social change: The livery company for general merchants

The merchant trade guild would form into a livery company, which comprises London's most ancient and trade associations. The
Worshipful Company of Mercers The Worshipful Company of Mercers is the premier Livery Company of the City of London and ranks first in the order of precedence of the Companies. It is the first of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies. Although of even older origin, the c ...
was formed by men and women of the same trade and functioned in a social and religious manner to benefit its members. The
English Reformation The English Reformation took place in 16th-century England when the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church. These events were part of the wider European Protestant Reformation, a religious and p ...
in the 15th century created great social and economic upheaval for the Worshipful Company of Mercers. The mercers sought to benefit from the turmoil of the period and acquired one of many religious buildings dissolved by
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disagr ...
and gave a plead of fealty to the Protestant cause of the head of the Church being led by the king. Before power held by the clergy was transferred over to the aristocratic class of society, wherein powerful mercers had bureaucratic power to ensure a monopoly on the trade of silk—effectively displacing merchants who sought to sell their wares independently from the company. These changes in religion were quickly adapted to by the mass of mercers, due to their nature of their trade—these young men would travel abroad to markets overseas and become more receptive to change and as a result easily influenced and accepting of new ideas.


Prosperity of the mercery in 15th century

The prosperity for a merchant during this period was high. Their overseas trade was expanding, and they controlled the distribution of their goods to England's provinces. A greater merchant could seek to break himself from the ranks of artisans and shopkeepers to serve to an exclusive class of customers. During this period more mercers ascended from mere 'merchants' to aristocracy as they ascended their class as their fortune grew—into influential positions such as aldermen and mayors, wherein municipalities had significant power in the Middle Ages. Although the livery company for mercers still had discriminatory policies that benefitted those more senior, prosperity was within reach for all ranks to strive towards now more so ever than any other period of the company. This success for the common mercer can be attributed to the flourishing overseas trade that the Worshipful Company of Mercers engaged in, particularly in regions such as
Northwestern Europe Northwestern Europe, or Northwest Europe, is a loosely defined subregion of Europe, overlapping Northern and Western Europe. The region can be defined both geographically and ethnographically. Geographic definitions Geographically, North ...
. The percentage of cloth exports of London mercers during that time was no less than 30%, and more importantly the company controlled the competition tightly—other merchants to attempted to sell materials such as silk, linen, fustian, wool and other piece goods independently.


Fall of the medieval mercery trade in the late 16th century

The mercery trade began to lose its esteemed status in its retail, due to a failure to control its market. Independent retailers who were not part of the mercery found success in undercutting the
Worshipful Company of Mercers The Worshipful Company of Mercers is the premier Livery Company of the City of London and ranks first in the order of precedence of the Companies. It is the first of the Great Twelve City Livery Companies. Although of even older origin, the c ...
(or "the Mercery Company"), compounded with the fact that recruitment had fallen due to fewer and fewer men partaking in the wealth held by the company. The downfall of the mercery trade as a once highly sought avenue to bridge the gap from the lower class to upper-middle class was due to the negligence of the Mercery Company, who disrespected the common artisan and retailer, disregarding the foundations of their success in the working mercer and his wife, the average mercery unit of the mass. The company stopped promoting the importance of silk piece goods in favor of more expensive opportunities. They stopped the focus on monopolizing linen as a primary form of revenue. The lack of introspection by the wealthy mercers into the struggle of the merchants who did not profit from the silk trade like the elite did caused the rapid loss of control of the textiles market.


Examples of mercery piecegoods

The majority of piecegoods sold by mercers used silk as the basis to make a wide variety of dress accessories such as
lace Lace is a delicate fabric made of yarn or thread in an open weblike pattern, made by machine or by hand. Generally, lace is divided into two main categories, needlelace and bobbin lace, although there are other types of lace, such as knitted ...
s, loops and
tassel A tassel is a finishing feature in fabric and clothing decoration. It is a universal ornament that is seen in varying versions in many cultures around the globe. History and use In the Hebrew Bible, the Lord spoke to Moses instructing him to ...
s. Dress embellishments could range from simple designs on the edge of sleeves to more extravagant designs made on bands called
orphrey An orphrey, also spelt orfrey or orfray, is a form of often highly detailed embroidery, in which typically simple materials are made into complex patterns. Orphreys are broad bands used on priests' albs and knights' robes. In 1182 and 1183 Henry ...
—commonly used by the aristocracy and church. Linen was used for shirts and underwear; silk and linen were made into headwear, from the ubiquitous
coif A coif () is a close fitting cap worn by both men and women that covers the top, back, and sides of the head. History Coifs date from the 10th century, but fell out of popularity with men in the 14th century."A New Look for Women." Arts and H ...
worn by both sexes to women's
wimple A wimple is a medieval form of female headcovering, formed of a large piece of cloth worn draped around the neck and chin, covering the top of the head; it was usually made from white linen or silk. Its use developed in early medieval Europe; i ...
s, and every variety of
kerchief A kerchief (from the Old French ''couvrechief'', "cover head"), also known as a bandana, bandanna, or "Wild Rag" (in cowboy culture), is a triangular or square piece of cloth tied around the head, face or neck for protective or decorative purpo ...
. Headwear such as kerchief and wimples worn by women and the coif worn by both genders was also popular employment for a mercer's services; silk and linen were primarily used for headwear. An accessory that was ubiquitous for all classes was the pouch, which mercers sold in many different designs. Other piece goods that mercers dealt with were manufactured from other materials; they ranged from pins and needles to bells and knives, which were bought less frequently when people had money to spare for useful trinkets. The inventory of these items, although not made of a fabric, was increasingly popular between the 11th and 13th centuries as mercers rich or poor could afford to produce them.


Prominent mercers

*
Wynne Ellis Wynne Ellis (also Wynn Ellis) (1790–1875) was a wealthy British haberdasher, politician and art collector. Biography Ellis, son of Thomas Ellis, by Elizabeth Ordway of Barkway, Hertfordshire, was born at Oundle, Northamptonshire, in July 1790, ...
, 19th-century British mercer *
Robert Large Robert Large (died 1441) was a London merchant, a member of the Worshipful Company of Mercers, who was Mayor of London and a Member of Parliament. He was served as one of the Mercers' four yearly wardens in 1427 and was Sheriff of London in 1 ...
, died 1441 *
Geoffrey Boleyn Sir Geoffrey Boleyn (1406–1463; also Jeffray Bulleyn, Bullen, etc) was an English merchant and politician who served as Lord Mayor of London from 1457 to 1458. He purchased the manor of Blickling, near Aylsham, in Norfolk from Sir John Fast ...
, 15th-century English mercer * Richard le Lacer, 14th-century English mercer * Charles Woodmason


See also

*
Haberdasher In British English, a haberdasher is a business or person who sells small articles for sewing, dressmaking and knitting, such as buttons, ribbons, and zippers; in the United States, the term refers instead to a retailer who sells men's clothing ...
*
Mercerised cotton Mercerisation is a textile finishing treatment for cellulose fabric and yarn, mainly cotton and flax, which improves dye uptake and tear strength, reduces fabric shrinkage, and imparts a silk-like luster. Development The process was devi ...


References


External links

* * {{Authority control Textiles British clothing Clothing industry Sales occupations Economy of medieval England