Menispermaceae (botanical Latin: 'moonseed family' from Greek ''mene'' 'crescent moon' and ''sperma'' 'seed') is a

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

s. The

alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...

tubocurarine Tubocurarine (also known as ''d''-tubocurarine or DTC) is a toxic alkaloid historically known for its use as an arrow poison. In the mid-1900s, it was used in conjunction with an anesthetic to provide skeletal muscle relaxation during surgery or ...

, a neuromuscular blocker and the active ingredient in the 'tube curare' form of the dart poison

curare Curare ( /kʊˈrɑːri/ or /kjʊˈrɑːri/; ''koo-rah-ree'' or ''kyoo-rah-ree'') is a common name for various alkaloid arrow poisons originating from plant extracts. Used as a paralyzing agent by indigenous peoples in Central and South ...

, is derived from the South American liana ''

Chondrodendron tomentosum ''Chondrodendron tomentosum'' is one of six accepted species in the small genus Chondrodendron, belonging to the Moonseed family Menispermaceae. It is a large tropical liana native to Central and South America.It contains highly toxic alkaloids ...

''. Several other South American genera belonging to the family have been used to prepare the 'pot' and 'calabash' forms of curare. The family contains 68

genera Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nomenclat ...

with some 440

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

, which are distributed throughout low-lying tropical areas with some species present in temperate and arid regions.

Description

* Twining woody climbing plants, winding anti-clockwise (''

Stephania ''Stephania'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Menispermaceae, native to eastern and southern Asia and Australia. They are herbaceous perennial vines, growing to around four metres tall, with a large tuber. The leaves are arranged s ...

'' winds clockwise) or

vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas or runners. The word ''vine'' can also refer to such stems or runners themselv ...

s, rarely upright

shrub A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...

s or small

tree In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are ...

s, more rarely still

herbaceous plants Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

epiphyte An epiphyte is an organism that grows on the surface of a plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the air, rain, water (in marine environments) or from debris accumulating around it. The plants on which epiphytes grow are called phoroph ...

s (''Stephania cyanantha''), perennial or deciduous, with simple to uni-serrate hairs. * Alternate spiral

leaves A leaf (plural, : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant plant stem, stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", wh ...

, simple, whole, dentate, lobed to palmatifid (bi- o trifoliate in ''

Burasaia ''Burasaia'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae Menispermaceae (botanical Latin: 'moonseed family' from Greek ''mene'' 'crescent moon' and ''sperma'' 'seed') is a family of flowering plants. The alkaloid tub ...

''), frequently peltate, petiolated, petiole frequently pulvinate at both extremes, without

stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole). Stipules are considered part of the anatomy of the leaf of a typical flowering plant, although in many speci ...

s, sometimes with spines derived from the petioles (''

Antizoma ''Antizoma'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae Menispermaceae (botanical Latin: 'moonseed family' from Greek ''mene'' 'crescent moon' and ''sperma'' 'seed') is a family of flowering plants. The alkaloid tub ...

''),

venation Venation may refer to: * Venation (botany), the arrangement of veins in leaves * Wing venation, the arrangement of veins in insect wings See also * * Vernation Vernation (from ''vernal'' meaning ''spring'', since that is when leaves spring fort ...

, parallelodromous, penninerved or frequently palmatinerved, bifacial, rarely isofacial, in '' Angelisia'' and ''

Anamirta ''Anamirta'' is a genus of woody vines, native to southern Asia. Species *''Anamirta cocculus ''Anamirta cocculus'' ( mr, काकमारी) is a Southeast Asian and Indian climbing plant. Its fruit is the source of picrotoxin, a poiso ...

'' with

hydathode A hydathode is a type of pore, commonly found in angiosperms, that secretes water through pores in the epidermis or leaf margin, typically at the tip of a marginal tooth or serration. Hydathodes occur in the leaves of submerged aquatic plants s ...

s derived from

trichome Trichomes (); ) are fine outgrowths or appendages on plants, algae, lichens, and certain protists. They are of diverse structure and function. Examples are hairs, glandular hairs, scales, and papillae. A covering of any kind of hair on a pla ...

domatia A domatium (plural: domatia, from the Latin "domus", meaning home) is a tiny chamber that houses arthropods, produced by a plant. Ideally domatia differ from galls in that they are produced by the plant rather than being induced by their inhabi ...

present in 5 genera as pits or hair tufts. Various types of

stoma In botany, a stoma (from Greek ''στόμα'', "mouth", plural "stomata"), also called a stomate (plural "stomates"), is a pore found in the epidermis of leaves, stems, and other organs, that controls the rate of gas exchange. The pore is bor ...

ta, frequently cyclocytic. * Rapidly growing

stem Stem or STEM may refer to: Plant structures * Plant stem, a plant's aboveground axis, made of vascular tissue, off which leaves and flowers hang * Stipe (botany), a stalk to support some other structure * Stipe (mycology), the stem of a mushro ...

s with trilacunar nodes.

Phylloclade Phylloclades and cladodes are flattened, photosynthetic shoots, which are usually considered to be modified branches. The two terms are used either differently or interchangeably by different authors. ''Phyllocladus'', a genus of conifer, is name ...

s are present in ''Cocculus balfourii''. *

Dioecious Dioecy (; ; adj. dioecious , ) is a characteristic of a species, meaning that it has distinct individual organisms (unisexual) that produce male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproductio ...

plant Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi; however, all current definitions of Plantae exclud ...

s, sometimes perfect flowers in ''Tiliacora acuminata'' and ''Parabaena denudata''. *

Inflorescence An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed o ...

s in racemiform,

paniculate A panicle is a much-branched inflorescence. (softcover ). Some authors distinguish it from a compound spike inflorescence, by requiring that the flowers (and fruit) be pedicellate (having a single stem per flower). The branches of a panicle are of ...

or thyrse with partial inflorescences in a capituliform cyme or pseudo-umbel, multifloral, rarely single or paired flowers, axillary or on sharp branches or

cauliflorous Cauliflory is a botanical term referring to plants that flower and fruit from their main stems or woody trunks, rather than from new growth and shoots. This can allow trees to be pollinated or have their seeds dispersed by animals that climb ...

trunks, females frequently less branched. *

Flower A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (plants of the division Angiospermae). The biological function of a flower is to facilitate reproduction, usually by providing a mechani ...

s small, regular to zygomorphic (''

'', '' Cyclea'', '' Cissampelos''), cyclic to irregularly spiral, hypogynous, basically trimers. Receptacle sometimes with developed

gynophore A gynophore is the stalk of certain flowers which supports the gynoecium (the ovule-producing part of a flower), elevating it above the branching points of other floral parts. Plant genera that have flowers with gynophores include '' Telopea'', '' ...

Sepal A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 The term ''sepalum'' was coined b ...

s (1-)3-12 or more, usually in (1-)2(-many) whorls of 3, rarely 6, free to slightly fused, imbricate or valvate, sometimes less numerous in female flowers.

Petal Petals are modified Leaf, leaves that surround the reproductive parts of flowers. They are often advertising coloration, brightly colored or unusually shaped to attract pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are collectively known as the ''c ...

s 0–6, in 2 whorls of 3, rarely of 6, free or fused, frequently holding the opposite stamen, sometimes less numerous in female flowers. Androecium of (1-)3-6(-40)

stamen The stamen (plural ''stamina'' or ''stamens'') is the pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower. Collectively the stamens form the androecium., p. 10 Morphology and terminology A stamen typically consists of a stalk called the filame ...

s free of the perianth, free or fused together in 2–5, fasciculate or monadelphous, introrse, dehiscence along longitudinal, oblique or transversal slits. Female flowers sometimes with staminodes. Gynoecium apocarpous, superior, of (1-)3-6(-32)

carpel Gynoecium (; ) is most commonly used as a collective term for the parts of a flower that produce ovules and ultimately develop into the fruit and seeds. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl of a flower; it consists of (one or more) ''pistils'' ...

s, usually oppositipetalous, stigma apical, dry, papillous,

ovule In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the ''integument'', forming its outer layer, the ''nucellus'' (or remnant of the megasporangium), and the fe ...

s 2 per carpel, anatropous, hemianatropous to campilotropous, uni- or bitegmic, crassinucellate, the superior epitropous and fertile, the inferior apotropous and abortive,

placentation Placentation refers to the formation, type and structure, or arrangement of the placenta. The function of placentation is to transfer nutrients, respiratory gases, and water from maternal tissue to a growing embryo, and in some instances to remove ...

marginal ventral. Male flowers sometimes with carpelodes. *

Fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...

compound, each unit in a straight or flattened, asymmetric

drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is an indehiscent fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pit'', ''stone'', or '' pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed (''kernel'') ...

, more or less stipitate (rarely only one developed), not coalescing,

exocarp Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits, multiple fruits, and simple fruits. Aggr ...

sub-coriaceous or membranous,

mesocarp Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits, multiple fruits, and simple fruits. Agg ...

pulpy, fleshy or fibrous,

endocarp Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits, multiple fruits, and simple fruits. Agg ...

woody to petrous, rough, tuberous, echinate or ribbed, often with a recess in the placenta called a condyle. *

Seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...

s slightly curved or spiral ('' Limaciopsis'', '' Spirospermum''), with

endosperm The endosperm is a tissue produced inside the seeds of most of the flowering plants following double fertilization. It is triploid (meaning three chromosome sets per nucleus) in most species, which may be auxin-driven. It surrounds the embryo and ...

absent or present, totally or only ventrally ruminate or not ruminate, oleaginous,

embryo An embryo is an initial stage of development of a multicellular organism. In organisms that reproduce sexually, embryonic development is the part of the life cycle that begins just after fertilization of the female egg cell by the male spe ...

straight or curved, with two cotyledons flat or cylindrical, leafy or fleshy,

divaricate Divaricate means branching, or having separation or a degree of separation. The angle between branches is wide. In botany In botany, the term is often used to describe the branching pattern of plants. Plants are said to be divaricating when the ...

or applied. *

Pollen Pollen is a powdery substance produced by seed plants. It consists of pollen grains (highly reduced microgametophytes), which produce male gametes (sperm cells). Pollen grains have a hard coat made of sporopollenin that protects the gametophyt ...

tricolpate, without operculum nor ribs, tectum perreticulate columellate, endexine granular; or the pollen can be colporate (''

Abuta ''Abuta'' is a genus in the flowering plant family Menispermaceae, of about 32 species, native to tropical Central and South America. Description It consists in dioecious climbers or rarely erect trees or shrubs ('' Abuta concolor'') with ...

''), syncolporate (''

Tinospora ''Tinospora'' is a genus of succulent woody climbing shrubs. Thirty-four species are currently recognized. Species generally send down long aerial roots from host trees. They have corky or papery bark. They are found in tropical and sub-tropical ...

''), pororate or hexa-cryptoporate (with 6 apertures). * Chromosomal number: ''x'' = 11, 13, 19, 25. ''2n'' can be up to 52.

Ecology

It is thought that the cauliflorous species are pollinated by small bees,

beetle Beetles are insects that form the order Coleoptera (), in the superorder Endopterygota. Their front pair of wings are hardened into wing-cases, elytra, distinguishing them from most other insects. The Coleoptera, with about 400,000 describ ...

s or

flies Flies are insects of the order Diptera, the name being derived from the Greek δι- ''di-'' "two", and πτερόν ''pteron'' "wing". Insects of this order use only a single pair of wings to fly, the hindwings having evolved into advanced ...

although there are no direct observations of this. Birds disperse the purple or black drupes, for example '' Sayornis phoebe'' (a

tyrant flycatcher The tyrant flycatchers (Tyrannidae) are a family of passerine birds which occur throughout North and South America. They are considered the largest family of birds known to exist in the world, with more than 400 species. They are the most dive ...

) eats the fruit of ''

Cocculus ''Cocculus'' is a genus of 11 species of woody vines and shrubs, native to warm temperate to tropical regions of North America, Asia and Africa. The common name moonseed is also used for the closely related genus '' Menispermum''. Selected s ...

''. In ''Tinospora cordifolia'' a lapse of 6–8 weeks has been observed between fertilization and the first

zygotic A zygote (, ) is a eukaryote, eukaryotic cell (biology), cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes. The zygote's genome is a combination of the DNA in each gamete, and contains all of the genetic information of a new individual ...

cell division. The menispermaceae predominantly inhabit low altitude tropical forests (up to 2,100m), where they are climbers, but some genera and species have adapted to arid locations (''

'' species have adapted to the South African deserts or '' Cocculus balfouri'' and its

phylloclade Phylloclades and cladodes are flattened, photosynthetic shoots, which are usually considered to be modified branches. The two terms are used either differently or interchangeably by different authors. ''Phyllocladus'', a genus of conifer, is name ...

s have adapted to the climate on the island of

Socotra Socotra or Soqotra (; ar, سُقُطْرَىٰ ; so, Suqadara) is an island of the Republic of Yemen in the Indian Ocean, under the ''de facto'' control of the UAE-backed Southern Transitional Council, a secessionist participant in Yemen’s ...

) and other temperate climates.

C3 photosynthesis carbon fixation is the most common of three metabolic pathways for carbon fixation in photosynthesis, along with and CAM. This process converts carbon dioxide and ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP, a 5-carbon sugar) into two molecules of 3-phospho ...

has been recorded in ''

Menispermum ''Menispermum'' (moonseed) is a small genus of deciduous climbing woody vines in the moonseed family (Menispermaceae). Plants in this genus have small dioecious flowers, and clusters of small grape-like drupes. The name, moonseed, comes from the ...

''.

Phytochemistry

The family contains a wide range of benzylisoquinoline compounds (

s) and

lignan The lignans are a large group of low molecular weight polyphenols found in plants, particularly seeds, whole grains, and vegetables. The name derives from the Latin word for "wood". Lignans are precursors to phytoestrogens. They may play a role ...

s such as furofuran,

flavones Flavones (from Latin ''flavus'' "yellow") are a class of flavonoids based on the backbone of 2-phenylchromen-4-one (2-phenyl-1- benzopyran-4-one) (as shown in the first image of this article). Flavones are common in foods, mainly from spices, ...

and

flavonols Flavonols are a class of flavonoids that have the 3-hydroxyflavone backbone (IUPAC name : 3-hydroxy-2-phenylchromen-4-one). Their diversity stems from the different positions of the phenols, phenolic hydroxyl, -OH groups. They are distinct from f ...

and some

proanthocyanidin Proanthocyanidins are a class of polyphenols found in many plants, such as cranberry, blueberry, and grape seeds. Chemically, they are oligomeric flavonoids. Many are oligomers of catechin and epicatechin and their gallic acid esters. More complex ...

s. The most notable are the wide variety of alkaloids derived from benzyl

tetrahydroisoquinoline Tetrahydroisoquinoline (TIQ or THIQ) is an organic compound with the chemical formula C9H11N. Classified as a secondary amine, it is derived from isoquinoline by hydrogenation. It is a colorless viscous liquid that is miscible with most organic s ...

and

aporphine Aporphine is an alkaloid with the chemical formula . The IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) name of aporphine is ''6-methyl-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4H-dibenzo e,guinoline.'' It is the core chemical substructure of the aporphine ...

, which accumulate as dimers, as well as the alkaloids derived from

morphinan Morphinan is the prototype chemical structure of a large chemical class of psychoactive drugs, consisting of opiate analgesics, cough suppressants, and dissociative hallucinogens, among others. Structure Morphinan has a phenanthrene core stru ...

and from

hasubanan Hasubanan is an alkaloid with the chemical formula of C16H21N. It forms the central core of a class of alkaloids known collectively as hasubanans. The compound is derived from reticuline, as is morphinan Morphinan is the prototype chemical str ...

and other diverse types of alkaloid such as derivative of aza-fluoranthene. Sesquiterpenes such as

picrotoxin Picrotoxin, also known as cocculin, is a poisonous crystalline plant compound. It was first isolated by the French pharmacist and chemist Pierre François Guillaume Boullay (1777–1869) in 1812. The name "picrotoxin" is a combination of the Gree ...

and diterpenes such as clerodane diterpene are also present, while the

triterpenes Triterpenes are a class of chemical compounds composed of three terpene units with the molecular formula C30H48; they may also be thought of as consisting of six isoprene units. Animals, plants and fungi all produce triterpenes, including squal ...

are scarce and where present are similar to

oleanane Oleanane is a natural triterpenoid. It is commonly found in woody angiosperms and as a result is often used as an indicator of these plants in the fossil record. It is a member of the oleanoid series, which consists of pentacyclic triterpenoids ( ...

Ecdysone Ecdysone is a prohormone of the major insect molting hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone, which is secreted from the prothoracic glands. It is of steroidal structure. Insect molting hormones (ecdysone and its homologues) are generally called ecdysteroids. ...

steroids have also been found. Some species are cyanogenic.

Uses

The Menispermaceae have been used in traditional

pharmacopeia A pharmacopoeia, pharmacopeia, or pharmacopoea (from the obsolete typography ''pharmacopœia'', meaning "drug-making"), in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines, and published by ...

and drugs have been formulated from these plants that are of great use in modern medicine. These drugs are based on alkaloids and include

from

, a poison used by indigenous South American tribes on their poison darts, that is obtained from species of

Curarea ''Curarea'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Menispermaceae, found in tropical parts of Central and South America. They are dioecious lianas, with at least some species producing toxic compounds such as curare Curare ( /kʊˈ ...

, Chondrodendron, Sciadotenia and Telitoxicum. A similar poison was used in Asia (

ipos In demonology, Ipos is an Earl and powerful Prince of Hell (a Duke to some authors) who has thirty-six legions of demons under his command. He knows and can reveal all things, past, present and future (only the future to some authors, and past ...

) that was obtained from species of

, Coscinium and

. Tubocurarine and its synthetic derivatives are used to relax muscles during surgical interventions. The roots of "kalumba" or "colombo" (''

Jateorhiza palmata ''Jateorhiza palmata'' (calumba) is a perennial climbing plant from East Africa. It contains isoquinoline alkaloids and is used mainly as a bitter tonic especially in cases of anorexia nervosa. It contains no tannins, hence it can be safely use ...

'') are used in Africa for stomach problems and against

dysentery Dysentery (UK pronunciation: , US: ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications ...

. Species of ''

'' are used in Asia as antipyretics, the fruit of ''

Anamirta cocculus ''Anamirta cocculus'' ( mr, काकमारी) is a Southeast Asian and Indian climbing plant. Its fruit is the source of picrotoxin, a poisonous compound with stimulant properties. The plant is large-stemmed (up to 10 cm in diameter) ...

'' is used to poison fish and birds and the stems of '' Fibraurea'' are used to dye fabric yellow. The South East Asian species '' Coscinium fenestratum'', a local Thai remedy for stomach ailments ( which contains

berberine Berberine is a quaternary ammonium salt from the protoberberine group of benzylisoquinoline alkaloids found in such plants as ''Berberis vulgaris'' (barberry), '' Berberis aristata'' (tree turmeric), '' Mahonia aquifolium'' (Oregon grape), '' Hyd ...

and related alkaloids ) was recently implicated in mass harvesting operations to prepare extracts usable as precursors in the manufacture of the drug

MDMA 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), commonly seen in Tablet (pharmacy), tablet form (ecstasy) and crystal form (molly or mandy), is a potent empathogen–entactogen with stimulant properties primarily used for Recreational dru ...

Fossil record

The

Middle Cretaceous The Cretaceous ( ) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of t ...

genus '' Callicrypta'' from Siberia has been placed into Menispermaceae. The Paleocene fossil record for the family includes at least 11 genera identified from compression leaf fossils found in Alaska and 15 genera and approximately 22 different Menispermaceae species identified from the

Early Eocene In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age or lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between , is preceded by the Thanetian Age (part of the Paleocene) and is followed by the Eocene Lutetian Age. The Ypresian i ...

London Clay The London Clay Formation is a marine geological formation of Ypresian (early Eocene Epoch, c. 56–49 million years ago) age which crops out in the southeast of England. The London Clay is well known for its fossil content. The fossils from t ...

. The London Clay genera '' Eohypserpa'' and '' Tinomiscoidea'' named by

Reid Reid is a surname of Scottish origin. It means "red". People with the surname * Alan Reid (disambiguation) * Alex Reid (disambiguation), includes Alexander Reid * Amanda Reid, Australian Paralympic athlete * Amanda Reid (taxonomist), Australia ...

Chandler Chandler or The Chandler may refer to: * Chandler (occupation), originally head of the medieval household office responsible for candles, now a person who makes or sells candles * Ship chandler, a dealer in supplies or equipment for ships Arts ...

(1933) from mineralized nuts and an additional three genera '' Atriaecarpum'', '' Davisicarpum'', and '' Palaeosinomenium'' were later described by Chandler (1961, 1978). Additional species from those genera were identified in the Clarno nut beds by Scott and Manchester respectively. Menispermaceae is one of the most diverse families found in the

Middle Eocene The Eocene ( ) Epoch is a geological epoch that lasted from about 56 to 33.9 million years ago (mya). It is the second epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name ''Eocene'' comes from the Ancient Greek (''ēṓs'', "dawn ...

Clarno nut beds of central Oregon. Species belonging to thirteen different genera, most extinct, have been described based on cast or permineralized fruit and nut fossils from the beds, and four different foliage types are known from associated compression fossils. '' Chandlera'' and '' Odontocaryoideae'' were described by Scott (1954), while Manchester (1994) described '' Curvitinospora'' and '' Thanikaimonia''.

Phylogeny and internal classification

The

APG IV system The APG IV system of flowering plant classification is the fourth version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy for flowering plants (angiosperms) being developed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). It was publishe ...

(2016; unchanged from the prior systems of 1998,

2003 File:2003 Events Collage.png, From top left, clockwise: The crew of STS-107 perished when the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated during reentry into Earth's atmosphere; SARS became an epidemic in China, and was a precursor to SARS-CoV-2; A des ...

, and

2009 File:2009 Events Collage V2.png, From top left, clockwise: The vertical stabilizer of Air France Flight 447 is pulled out from the Atlantic Ocean; Barack Obama becomes the first African American to become President of the United States; 2009 Iran ...

) recognizes this family and places it with the

eudicots The eudicots, Eudicotidae, or eudicotyledons are a clade of flowering plants mainly characterized by having two seed leaves upon germination. The term derives from Dicotyledons. Traditionally they were called tricolpates or non-magnoliid dico ...

order

Ranunculales Ranunculales is an order of flowering plants. Of necessity it contains the family Ranunculaceae, the buttercup family, because the name of the order is based on the name of a genus in that family. Ranunculales belongs to a paraphyletic group kno ...

. Their trimerous flower structure is similar to the

Lardizabalaceae Lardizabalaceae is a family of flowering plants. The family has been universally recognized by taxonomists, including the APG II system (2003; unchanged from the APG system of 1998), which places it in the order Ranunculales, in the clade eudic ...

and

Berberidaceae The Berberidaceae are a family of 18 genera of flowering plants commonly called the barberry family. This family is in the order Ranunculales. The family contains about 700 known species, of which the majority are in ''Berberis''. The species i ...

, although they differ from them in other important characteristics. The APW (Angiosperm Phylogeny Website) considers that they form part of the Order

, and that they are a sister group on the branch formed by the

and

families in a reasonably advanced clade of the order. Kinship with the Berberidaceae is further borne out by similarities in phytochemistry e.g. in the presence of

and related alkaloids. It is a medium-sized family of 70

totaling 420 extant

, mostly of climbing plants. The great majority of the genera are

tropical The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...

, but with a few (notably ''

'' and ''

'') reaching temperate climates in eastern

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...

and eastern

Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an area ...

. The genetic factors within Menispermaceae are very narrow resulting in many genera with one or a few species. According to Kessler (1993) There wasn't sufficient data from genetic studies to evaluate subfamily and tribal division into five tribes (see Kessler, 1993, in the References section). As such division was fundamentally based on morphologic characteristics of the seeds with doubts as to whether the tribes are monophyletic. Further molecular research compiled and conducted by the

Angiosperm Phylogeny Group The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) is an informal international group of systematic botanists who collaborate to establish a consensus on the taxonomy of flowering plants (angiosperms) that reflects new knowledge about plant relationships disco ...

has clarified many of the interrelationships of the family. Chasmantheroideae Burasaieae *'' Aspidocarya'' J. D. Hooker & Thomson *'' Borismene'' Barneby *''

'' Thouars *'' Calycocarpum'' Torrey & A. Gray *'' Chasmanthera'' Hochst. *†'' Chandlera'' Scott *'' Chlaenandra'' Miquel *'' Dialytheca'' Exell & Mendonça *'' Dioscoreophyllum'' Engler *'' Diploclisia'' Miers *'' Disciphania'' Eichler *'' Fawcettia'' F. Mueller *'' Fibraurea'' Loureiro *''

Hyalosepalum ''Hyalosepalum'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae. Its native range is Tropical and Southern Africa, Madagascar. Species: *''Hyalosepalum caffrum'' *''Hyalosepalum mossambicense'' *''Hyalosepalum oblongif ...

'' Troupin *'' Jateorhiza'' Miers *'' Kolobopetalum'' Engler *'' Leptoterantha'' Troupin *'' Odontocarya'' Miers (including '' Synandropus'') *'' Orthogynium'' Baillon *'' Parabaena'' Miers *'' Paratinosopora'' Wei Wang *'' Penianthus'' Miers *'' Platytinospora'' (Engler) Diels *'' Rhigiocarya'' Miers *'' Sarcolophium'' Troupin *'' Sphenocentrum'' Pierre *''

Syntriandrium ''Syntriandrium'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae. Its native range is Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 m ...

'' Engler *'' Tinomiscium'' J. D. Hooker & Thomson *''

'' Miers Coscinieae *''

'' Colebrooke *'' Arcangelisia'' Beccari *'' Coscinium'' Colebrooke Menispermoideae Anomospermeae *''

'' Aublet *'' Anomospermum'' Miers (including '' Orthomene'') *'' Caryomene'' Barneby & Krukoff *'' Diploclisia'' Miers *'' Echinostephia'' (Diels) Domin *'' Elephantomene'' Barneby & Krukoff (including '' Cionomene'') *'' Elissarrhena'' Miers *''

Hypserpa ''Hypserpa'' is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae. Its native range is Tropical and Subtropical Asia and the Western Pacific. Species: *''Hypserpa ademae'' *''Hypserpa calcicola'' *''Hypserpa decumbens'' *' ...

'' Miers *'' Legnephora'' Miers *'' Parapachygone'' Forman *'' Pericampylus'' Miers *'' Rupertiella'' Wei Wang & R. Ortiz *'' Sarcopetalum'' F. Mueller *'' Telitoxicum'' Moldenke Cissampelidae *''

'' Miers *'' Cissampelos'' L. *'' Cyclea'' Wight *'' Perichasma'' Miers *''

'' Loureiro Limacieae *'' Limacia'' Loureiro Menispermeae *''

'' L. *'' Sinomenium'' Diels Pachygoneae *''

'' de Candolle *'' Haematocarpus'' Miers *'' Hyperbaena'' Bentham *'' Pachygone'' Miers Spirospermeae *'' Limaciopsis'' Engler *'' Rhaptonema'' Miers *'' Spirospermum'' Thouars *''

Strychnopsis ''Strychnopsis'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae. The only species is ''Strychnopsis thouarsii''. Its native range is Madagascar. References

{{Taxonbar, from1=Q9080137, from2=Q17796369 Meni ...

'' Baillon Tiliacoreae *'' Albertisia'' Beccari *''

Anisocycla ''Eulimella'' is a genus of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks in the family Pyramidellidae, the pyrams and their allies.Bouchet, P.; Gofas, S. (2011). ''Eulimella'' Forbes & M'Andrew, 1846. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species ...

'' Baillon *'' Beirnaertia'' Troupin *'' Carronia'' F. Mueller *'' Chondrodendron'' Ruiz & PavónRODRIGUES, Eliana; CARLINI, Elisaldo L. de Araújo. Plants with possible psychoactive actions used by the Krahô Indians, Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28(4): 277- 82, 2006. *''

'' Barneby & Krukoff *'' Eleutharrhena'' Forman *''

Macrococculus ''Macrococculus'' is a monotypic genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Menispermaceae. The only species is ''Macrococculus pomifer''. Its native range is Papuasia Papuasia is a Level 2 botanical region defined in the World Geogr ...

'' Beccari *'' Pleogyne'' Miers *'' Pycnarrhena'' J. D. Hooker & Thomson *'' Sciadotenia'' Miers *'' Synclisia'' Bentham & J. D. Hooker *'' Syrrheonema'' Miers *'' Tiliacora'' Colebrooke *'' Triclisia'' Bentham & J. D. Hooker *'' Ungulipetalum'' Moldenke Incertae sedis *†'' Callicrypta''

Gallery

File:Menispermum canadense, 2015-06-02, Frick Park, 02.jpg, ''

Menispermum canadense ''Menispermum canadense'', the Canadian moonseed, common moonseed, or yellow parilla, is a flowering plant in the family Menispermaceae, native to eastern North America, from southern Canada south to northern Florida, and from the Atlantic coas ...

'', foliage and flowers.

Frick Park Frick Park is the largest municipal park in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, covering . It is one of Pittsburgh's four historic large parks. History The park began when Henry Clay Frick, upon his death in 1919, bequeathed south of Clayto ...

Pittsburgh Pittsburgh ( ) is a city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, United States, and the county seat of Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, Allegheny County. It is the most populous city in both Allegheny County and Wester ...

. File:Moonseed fruit 1.jpg, ''

'' (Canada moonseed) : ripe fruit and crescent moon-shaped seeds. File:R. Bentley & H. Trimen, Medicinal Plants Wellcome L0019166.jpg, ''

'' : Coloured plate from

Bentley Bentley Motors Limited is a British designer, manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs. Headquartered in Crewe, England, the company was founded as Bentley Motors Limited by W. O. Bentley (1888–1971) in 1919 in Cricklewood, North ...

and Trimen's ''Medicinal Plants'' File:Abuta selloana.jpg, The ''

'' species ''A. selloana'' : line drawing from Engler's Das Pflanzenreich. File:Cocculus orbiculatus HRM.jpg, ''

Cocculus orbiculatus ''Cocculus orbiculatus'', the queen coralbead, is a species of woody vine A vine (Latin ''vīnea'' "grapevine", "vineyard", from ''vīnum'' "wine") is any plant with a growth habit of trailing or scandent (that is, climbing) stems, lianas ...

'' in fruit.

Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid ' ( Spanish for ''Royal Botanical Garden of Madrid'') is an botanical garden in Madrid (Spain). The public entrance is located at , next to the Prado Museum. History The garden was founded on October 17, 1755, by King Ferdinand VI, and ...

. File:Anamirta cocculus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-157.jpg, ''

'' : illustration from Köhler's Medizinal Pflanzen. File:Anomospermum schomburgkii.jpg, '' Anomospermum'' : ''A. schomburgkii'' : anatomical study from the ''Flora Brasiliensis'' of von Martius and Eichler. File:Cissampelos pareira Blanco2.432.jpg, ''

Cissampelos pareira ''Cissampelos pareira'' (velvetleaf) is a species of flowering plant in the family Menispermaceae. Morphology It is a slender tomentose climber. The leaves are peltate, 2.5–12 cm long, 2.5–11.5 cm broad, triangularly broad-ovate ...

'': illustration from Blanco's Flora de Filipinas. File:Coscinium fenestratum.jpg, '' Coscinium fenestratum'' 'yellow vine' : plate from

Curtis's Botanical Magazine ''The Botanical Magazine; or Flower-Garden Displayed'', is an illustrated publication which began in 1787. The longest running botanical magazine, it is widely referred to by the subsequent name ''Curtis's Botanical Magazine''. Each of the issue ...

. File:Stephania venosa GotBot 2015 003.jpg, The ''

'' species ''S. venosa'' in flower,

Gothenburg Botanical Garden The Gothenburg Botanical Garden ( sv, Göteborgs botaniska trädgård) is located in Gothenburg, Sweden, and is one of the larger botanical gardens in Europe. History The Gothenburg Botanical Garden is situated in a formerly completely rural ar ...

. File:Stephania venosa (Blume) Spreng.jpg,

Thai Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia ** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand ** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand *** Thai script *** Thai (Unicode block ...

villagers harvesting large, medicinal root tuber of ''Stephania venosa''. File:McKay Stephania japonica 32474252976 2f27eb34ce o.jpg, ''

Stephania japonica ''Stephania japonica'', known as snake vine, is a vine often seen in sheltered areas near the sea. Description A dioecious vine without prickles. Greenish small flowers form on compound umbels, growing from the leaf axils in the warmer months ...

'' in fruit, Mc.Kay Reserve, NSW, Australia. File:Jateorhiza palmata - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-080.jpg, ''

'' illustration from Köhler's Medizinal Pflanzen. File:Tinospora cordifolia.jpg, Foliage of ''

Tinospora cordifolia ''Tinospora cordifolia'' (common names gurjo, heart-leaved moonseed, guduchi or giloy) is a herbaceous vine of the family Menispermaceae indigenous to tropical regions of the Indian subcontinent. It has been used in Ayurveda to treat various diso ...

''.

References

External links

* *
links at CSDLMenispermaceae of Mongolia in FloraGREIFMap
{{Authority control Eudicot families Dioecious plants