Mahan () was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 1st century BC to 5th century AD in the southern

Korean peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

in the

Chungcheong Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...

and

Jeolla Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as w ...

provinces. Gina Lee Barnes, 《State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives》, Psychology Press, 2001, , p.29-33 Arising out of the confluence of

Gojoseon Gojoseon () also called Joseon (), was the first kingdom on the Korean Peninsula. According to Korean mythology, the kingdom was established by the legendary founder named Dangun. Gojoseon possessed the most advanced culture in the Korean P ...

migration and the Jin state federation, Mahan was one of the Samhan ("Three Hans"), along with Byeonhan and

Jinhan Jinhan () was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD in the southern Korean Peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong River valley, Gyeongsang Province. Jinhan was one of the Samhan (or "T ...

Baekje Baekje or Paekche (, ) was a Korean kingdom located in southwestern Korea from 18 BC to 660 AD. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo and Silla. Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeo's founder Jum ...

began as a member statelet, but later overtook all of Mahan and became one of the

Three Kingdoms of Korea Samhan or the Three Kingdoms of Korea () refers to the three kingdoms of Goguryeo (고구려, 高句麗), Baekje (백제, 百濟), and Silla (신라, 新羅). Goguryeo was later known as Goryeo (고려, 高麗), from which the modern name ''Kor ...

History

Mahan probably developed from the existing bronze society of third to second centuries BC, continuing to absorb migration from the north in subsequent centuries. King Jun of the kingdom of

Gija Joseon Gija Joseon (1120–194 BC) was a dynasty of Gojoseon allegedly founded by the sage Jizi (Gija), a member of the Shang dynasty royal house. Concrete evidence for Jizi's role in the history of Gojoseon is lacking, and the narrative has been c ...

in northern Korea, having lost the throne to

Wiman Wi Man (in Korean) or Wei Man (in Chinese) was originally a military leader of the Chinese Kingdom of Yan. * :"The term was used again by a refugee from the Han dynasty named Wiman, who about 200 B.C.E. set up a kingdom in Korea called Wiman ...

, fled to the state of Jin in southern Korea around 194 - 180 BC. He and his followers are thought to have established a base within Jin territory. It is not certain whether Mahan conquered or arose out of this entity, but Mahan was certainly influenced by this influx of northern culture. Further migration followed the fall of

Wiman Joseon Wiman Joseon (194–108 BC) was a dynasty of Gojoseon. It began with Wiman's (Wei Man) seizure of the throne from Gija Joseon's King Jun and ended with the death of King Ugeo who was a grandson of Wiman. Apart from archaeological data, the ...

and establishment of the Chinese commanderies in the

Korean Peninsula Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...

region in 108 BC. It is described in the Chinese chronicle ''

San Guo Zhi The ''Records or History of the Three Kingdoms'', also known by its Chinese name as the Sanguo Zhi, is a Chinese historical text which covers the history of the late Eastern Han dynasty (c. 184–220 AD) and the Three Kingdoms period (220� ...

'' and the much later Korean chronicles '' Samguk Yusa'' and ''

Samguk Sagi ''Samguk Sagi'' (, ''History of the Three Kingdoms'') is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla. The ''Samguk Sagi'' is written in Classical Chinese, the written language of the literati of ancient Korea, ...

''. In the 1st century AD, the Wolji/Mokji (月支/目支) state, that formed and led Mahan confederacy, was defeated in struggles with

, another member of Mahan, and consequently losing whole region of present-day Han River basin. But the San Guo Zhi recorded the Han state fallen in struggles with the

Lelang Commandery The Lelang Commandery was a commandery of the Han dynasty established after it had conquered Wiman Joseon in 108 BC and lasted until Goguryeo conquered it in 313. The Lelang Commandery extended the rule of the Four Commanderies of Han as far so ...

and

Daifang Commandery The Daifang Commandery was an administrative division established by the Chinese Han dynasty on the Korean Peninsula between 204 and 314. History Gongsun Kang, a warlord in Liaodong, separated the southern half from the Lelang commandery and ...

in the 246. Under continuous pressure from Baekje, only 20 statelets of Mahan confederacy survived until the late 3rd century. Baekje eventually absorbed or conquered all of Mahan by the 5th century, growing into one of the

, along with

Silla Silla or Shilla (57 BCE – 935 CE) ( , Old Korean: Syera, Old Japanese: Siraki2) was a Korean kingdom located on the southern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula. Silla, along with Baekje and Goguryeo, formed the Three Kingdoms ...

and

Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD) ( ) also called Goryeo (), was a Korean kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled mos ...

Politics

Kings of Mahan occasionally called themselves "King of Jin," referring to the earlier Jin state and asserting nominal sovereignty over all of Samhan. A wealth of bronze artifacts and production facilities indicate that Mahan was probably the earliest developed of the three Hans. Sarah M. Nelson,《The Archaeology of Korea》, p.197, Cambridge University Press, 1993 At its height, Mahan covered much of the Han River Basin and the modern-day provinces of

Gyeonggi Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...

, and

, although political unity was strongest led by Mokji state (목지국, 目支國) in Cheonan,

Culture

Legacy

Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean kingdom founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392. Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unificat ...

historians identified Mahan with

, which was supported by their works like ''

'', '' Samguk Yusa'' and '' Jewang Ungi''. That historical view was previously given by

Choe Chiwon Choe Chiwon (; 857–10th century) was a Korean philosopher and poet of the late medieval Unified Silla period (668-935). He studied for many years in Tang China, passed the Tang imperial examination, and rose to the high office there before r ...

, a noted Confucian scholar and historian in the late

period. Apart from the geographical location of Mahan, the Chinese historical record ''History of Song'' defines the ethnical origin of the

Jeong-an kingdom Jeongan or Ding'an (; ko, 정안국; 938–986) was a successor state of Balhae (Bohai) founded by Yeol Man-hwa (Lie Wanhua). Establishment and Downfall The early history of Jeongan is mostly unknown. Large number of rebels emerged on the f ...

, a successor state of

Balhae Balhae ( ko, 발해, zh, c=渤海, p=Bóhǎi, russian: Бохай, translit=Bokhay, ), also rendered as Bohai, was a multi-ethnic kingdom whose land extends to what is today Northeast China, the Korean Peninsula and the Russian Far East. It ...

, as Mahan. In the late Joseon period, that historical notion came under criticism by early

Silhak Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. ''Sil'' means "actual" or "practical", and ''hak'' means "studies" or "learning". It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism ( ...

scholar Han Baek-gyeom, who emphasized the linkage between Mahan and Baekje in terms of the geographical location.

Monarchs of Mahan confederacy

Statelets

According to the ''San Guo Zhi'', Mahan consisted of 54 statelets of up to ten thousand families each: * Gamhae (감해국, 感奚國), present-day

Iksan Iksan ( ko, 익산; ) is a city and major railway junction in North Jeolla Province, (commonly transliterated as Jeollabuk-do or Chollabuk-do) South Korea. The city center and railway junction was formerly called "Iri" (), but merged with Iksan ...

. * Gamhaebiri (감해비리국, 監奚卑離國), present-day

Hongseong Hongseong (''Hongseong-gun'') is a county in South Korea, and the capital of South Chungcheong Province. The current governor is Yeoung Lock Lee. The original name of the city is ''Hongju''. Symbols * The flag represents the Joyang Gate along w ...

. * Geonma (건마국, 乾馬國), present-day

. * Gorap (고랍국, 古臘國), present-day

Namwon Namwon (; ''Namwon-si'') is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 50 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is almost three hours away from Seoul. The official city flower is Royal Azalea () while the city tr ...

. * Gori (고리국, 古離國), present-day

. * Gobiri (고비리국, 古卑離國), present-day

Yangpyeong Yangpyeong County (''Yangpyeong-gun'') is a county in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Climate Yangpyeong has a monsoon-influenced humid continental climate ( Köppen: ''Dwa'') with cold, dry winters and hot, rainy summers. Korean War Yangpy ...

Yeoju Yeoju () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Yeoju was a county but was raised to the status of a city in September 2013. Together with the neighboring city of Icheon, it is known as a major center of contemporary South Korean ceramics, ...

. * Gowon (고원국, 古爰國) * Gotanja (고탄자국, 古誕者國) * Gopo (고포국, 古蒲國), present-day

Buyeo County Buyeo County (''Buyeo-gun'') is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Buyeo-eup, the county's capital, was the site of the capital of Baekje from 538-660 AD, during which it was called Sabi Fortress. Famous people associated with B ...

. * Guro (구로국, 狗盧國), present-day Cheongyang. * Gusaodan (구사오단국, 臼斯烏旦國), present-day

Jangseong Jangseong County (''Jangseong-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Jangseong is in the southern region of the Korean peninsula and Gwangju and Naju is the nearest city from Jangseong. In South Jeolla, it near the northern bor ...

. * Guso (구소국, 狗素國), present-day

Jeongeup Jeongeup (), also known as Jeongeup-si, is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. The city limits include Naejang-san National Park, a popular destination particularly in autumn due to its foliage. Jeongeup is on the Honam Expressway an ...

. * Guhae (구해국, 狗奚國), present-day

Gangjin Gangjin County (''Gangjin-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gangjin county proper was established in 1895. The county office is located in Gangjin-eup. The Gangjin Kiln Sites are a noted area for the production of tradi ...

. * Naebiri (내비리국, 內卑離國) * Noram (노람국, 怒藍國) * Daeseoksak (대석삭국, 大石索國), present-day

Yangju Yangju () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Yangju is located south of Dongducheon and north of Uijeongbu, not far from Seoul. History * 1395 - Renamed to Yangju. * January 1, 1963 - Uijeongbu is separated and becomes a city. * Apri ...

Ganghwa Island Ganghwa Island (Hangul ; Hanja ), also known by its native name Ganghwado, is a South Korean island in the estuary of the Han River. It is in the Yellow Sea, off Korea's west coast. The island is separated from Gimpo (on the South Korean mainlan ...

. * Mangno (막로국, 莫盧國) * Mallo (만로국, 萬盧國), present-day

Boryeong Boryeong (), commonly known as Daecheon, is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located on the coast of the Yellow Sea. It lies on the Janghang Line railroad, which connects it to Seoul via the Gyeongbu Line. It is also conne ...

Gunsan Gunsan (), also romanized as Kunsan, is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is on the south bank of the Geum River just upstream from its exit into the Yellow Sea. It has emerged as a high-tech manufacturing industrial city and an i ...

. * Morobiri (모로비리국, 牟盧卑離國), present-day

Gochang Gochang County (''Gochang-gun'') is a county in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is a rural area, and is home to only one institution of higher education: Gochang Polytechnic College. Notable people from Gochang include the 20th-centur ...

. * Mosu (모수국, 牟水國), present-day Suwon. * Mokji (목지국, 目支國), present-day Cheonan. *

(백제국, 百濟國), present-day

Seoul Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...

. * Byeokbiri (벽비리국, 辟卑離國), present-day

Gimje Gimje () (''Gimje-si'') is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. History The Gimje area is located on the "great plains" of Korea and has been cultivated since ancient times. Nations of early date ascended in the year 200. The Baekje Kingd ...

. * Bulmi (불미국, 不彌國), present-day

Naju Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of Na ...

. * Bulsabunsa (불사분사국, 不斯濆邪國), present-day

Jeonju Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonj ...

. * Burun (불운국, 不雲國), present-day

Gongju Gongju ([]; Gongju-si) is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea. History Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538. In this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo. Goguryeo had overrun ...

or Boseong. * Biri (비리국, 卑離國), present-day

. * Bimi (비미국, 卑彌國), present-day

Seocheon Seocheon County () is a county in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. It is famous for its seafood and location near the mouth of the Geum River. Administrative divisions Seocheon county has two major centers, Janghang-eup and Seocheon-eup. Seocheon- ...

. * Saro (사로국, 駟盧國), present-day

.Not to be confused with Saro in

Jinhan confederacy Jinhan () was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BC to the 4th century AD in the southern Korean Peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong River valley, Gyeongsang Province. Jinhan was one of the Samhan (or ...

; it different with

Hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, ...

. * Sangoe (상외국, 桑外國), present-day Hwaseong. * Soseoksak (소석삭국, 小石索國), present-day Gyodong Island. * Sowigeon (소위건국, 素謂乾國), present-day

. * Songnobulsa (속로불사국, 速盧不斯國), present-day Gimpo. * Sinbunhwal (신분활국, 臣濆活國), present-day

Anseong Anseong () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea, south of Seoul. Its geographical location is . Anseong promotes itself as "The City of Masters". It is known for producing brassware and arts and crafts. From late spring to fall, Anseong h ...

Gapyeong Gapyeong County is a county in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. It was the scene of the Battle of Kapyong, a major battle of the Korean War. Administrative Region and Language Gapyeong County has one eup and five myeon, and its population is ...

. * Sinsodo (신소도국, 臣蘇塗國), present-day

Taean Taean County () is a county in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. Taean Haean National Park is located within Taean County, and is known for its clear seas, unpolluted soils, coastal flora, tidal flats, coasts, and white sand. It includes thirty di ...

. * Sinunsin (신운신국, 臣雲新國), present-day Cheonan. * Sinheun (신흔국, 臣釁國), present-day

Daejeon Daejeon () is South Korea's fifth-largest metropolis, with a population of 1.5 million as of 2019. Located in the central-west region of South Korea alongside forested hills and the Geum River, the city is known both for its technology an ...

Asan Asan () is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It borders the Seoul Capital Area to the north. Asan has a population of approximately 300,000. Asan is known for its many hot springs and is a city of spas. Asan has grown into th ...

. * Arim (아림국, 兒林國), present-day

Yesan Yesan () is a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. Famous people from Yesan include independence fighter Yoon Bong-Gil. Sudeoksa, a head temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism, is located on the southern slopes of Deoksung ...

. * Yeoraebiri (여래비리국, 如來卑離國), present-day

. * Yeomno (염로국, 冉路國), present-day

. * Uhyumotak (우휴모탁국, 優休牟涿國), present-day Bucheon. * Wonyang (원양국, 爰襄國), present-day Hwaseong or

Paju Paju () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Paju was made a city in 1997; it had previously been a county (''gun''). The city area of Paju is ,"Paju (Gyeonggi-do Province)." ''Naver Encyclopedia of Knowledge''. Naver, 2015. 4 Mar. 2016. ...

. * Wonji (원지국, 爰池國), present-day

Yeosu Yeosu (; ''Yeosu-si''), historically also Yosu, and known to the Japanese as Reisui during the period when Korea was under Japanese rule, is a city located on the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula in South Jeolla Province, South Korea an ...

. * Illan (일난국, 一難國) * Illi (일리국, 一離國) * Irhwa (일화국, 日華國) * Imsoban (임소반국, 臨素半國), present-day

. * Jarimoro (자리모로국, 咨離牟盧國), present-day

Icheon Icheon () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Together with Yeoju, Icheon is known as a center of South Korean ceramic manufacturing and is a UNESCO City of Crafts and Folk Art. Other famous local products include peaches and rice. Loc ...

. * Jiban (지반국, 支半國), present-day Buan. * Jichim (지침국, 支侵國), present-day

Eumseong Eumseong County (''Eumseong-gun'') is a county in North Chungcheong Province, South Korea, best known for being the birthplace of former UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Eumseong Clean Peppers Festival is held in Eumseong-gun, Chungbuk every S ...

. * Cheomno (첩로국, 捷盧國), present-day

. * Chori (초리국, 楚離國), present-day

Goheung Goheung County (''Goheung-gun'') is a county in Jeollanam-do Province, South Korea. Naro Space Center The Naro Space Center was completed during 2008 in southern Goheung and is operated by the state-run Korea Aerospace Research Institute. The sp ...

. * Chosandobiri (초산도비리국, 楚山塗卑離國), present-day

Jindo County Jindo County (''Jindo-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. It consists of the island of Jindo and several smaller nearby islands. Jindo Bridge connects Jindo county with Haenam county. Together with Jindo Island, Jindo Coun ...

. * Chiriguk (치리국국, 致利鞠國), present-day

References

{{Authority control Ancient peoples Baekje Early Korean history Former countries in Korean history 1st-century BC establishments 3rd-century disestablishments Former confederations