The Alawi dynasty ( ar, سلالة العلويين الفيلاليين, translit=sulālat al-ʿalawiyyīn al-fīlāliyyīn) – also rendered in English as Alaouite, Alawid,
or Alawite
– is the current
Moroccan royal family and reigning
dynasty
A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family,''Oxford English Dictionary'', "dynasty, ''n''." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897. usually in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics. A ...
. They are an
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
sharifian dynasty and claim descent from the Islamic prophet
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
through his grandson,
Hasan ibn Ali
Hasan ibn Ali ( ar, الحسن بن علي, translit=Al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī; ) was a prominent early Islamic figure. He was the eldest son of Ali and Fatima and a grandson of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. He ...
.
Their ancestors originally migrated to the
Tafilalt
Tafilalt or Tafilet (; ar, تافيلالت), historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco.
Etymology
The word "Tafilalt" is an Amazigh word and it means "Jug", which is specifically a pottery jar used to store water.
H ...
region, in present-day Morocco, from
Yanbu
Yanbu ( ar, ينبع, lit=Spring, translit=Yanbu'), also known simply as Yambu or Yenbo, is a city in the Al Madinah Province of western Saudi Arabia. It is approximately 300 kilometers northwest of Jeddah (at ). The population is 222,360 (2 ...
on the coast of the
Hejaz
The Hejaz (, also ; ar, ٱلْحِجَاز, al-Ḥijāz, lit=the Barrier, ) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif, and Baljurashi. It is also known as the "Western Provin ...
in the 12th or 13th century.
The dynasty rose to power in the 17th century, beginning with
Mawlay al-Sharif who was declared
sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
of the Tafilalt in 1631. His son
Al-Rashid, ruling from 1664 to 1672, was able to unite and pacify the country after a long period of regional divisions caused by the weakening of the
Saadi Dynasty
The Saadi Sultanate (also rendered in English as Sa'di, Sa'did, Sa'dian, or Saadian; ar, السعديون, translit=as-saʿdiyyūn) was a state which ruled present-day Morocco and parts of West Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was l ...
. His brother
Isma'il
Ismail ( ar, إِسْمَاعِيْل, ʾIsmāʿīl) is regarded as a prophet and messenger and the ancestor to the Ishmaelites in Islam. He is the son of Ibrahim (Abraham), born to Hajar (Hagar). Ismail is also associated with Mecca and th ...
presided over a period of strong central rule between 1672 and 1727, one of the longest reigns of any Moroccan sultan. After Isma'il's death the country was plunged into disarray as his sons fought over his succession, but order was re-established under the long reign of
Muhammad ibn Abdallah in the second half of the 18th century. The 19th century was marked by the growing influence of European powers.
The 'Alawis ruled as sovereign
sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
s up until 1912, when the
French protectorate and
Spanish protectorate were imposed on Morocco. They were retained as symbolic sultans under
colonial
Colonial or The Colonial may refer to:
* Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology)
Architecture
* American colonial architecture
* French Colonial
* Spanish Colonial architecture
Automobiles
* Colonial (1920 au ...
rule. When the country regained its independence in 1956,
Mohammed V, who had supported the nationalist cause, resumed the 'Alawi role as independent head of state. Shortly afterwards, in 1957, he adopted the title of "King" instead of "Sultan". His successors,
Hassan II Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to:
People
* Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name
*Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scotti ...
and
Mohammed VI Muhammad VI may refer to:
* Muhammad Imaaduddeen VI (1868–1932), sultan of the Maldives from 1893 to 1902
* Mehmed VI (1861–1926), sultan of Ottoman Empire, from 1918 to 1922
* Mohammed VI of Morocco
Mohammed VI ( ar, محمد الساد ...
(the current reigning monarch), have continued the dynasty's rule under the same title. Today, the
Moroccan government
Politics of Morocco take place in a framework of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy, whereby the prime minister of Morocco is the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative ...
is officially a
constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
,
but the king retains strong
authoritarian
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic votin ...
power over the state and public affairs, despite some political reforms in recent decades.
Name
The dynasty claims descent from
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
via
Hasan, the son of
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...
. The name Alawi'' () stems either from the name of Ali (the father of Hasan), from which the dynasty ultimately traces its descent, or from the name of the dynasty's early founder
Ali al-Sharif of the
Tafilalt
Tafilalt or Tafilet (; ar, تافيلالت), historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco.
Etymology
The word "Tafilalt" is an Amazigh word and it means "Jug", which is specifically a pottery jar used to store water.
H ...
.
The honorific title ''mawlay'' (also transliterated as ''mulay'' or ''moulay''), meaning "my lord", was also commonly used in conjunction with the names of sultans.
The state and empire ruled by the 'Alawis was also known in some periods as the "Sharifian Empire" (الإيالة الشريفة in Arabic) or ''Empire Chérifien'' in
French according to the
Treaty of Fes
The Treaty of Fes ( ar, معاهدة فاس, ), officially the Treaty Concluded Between France and Morocco on 30 March 1912, for the Organization of the French Protectorate in the Sherifien Empire (), was a treaty signed by Sultan Abd al-Hafid o ...
). This name was still in official usage until 1956 (when
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to ...
regained its independence from colonial rule), and is also used by historians to refer to the preceding
Saadian state, which was also ruled by a sharifian dynasty.
History
Origins
The 'Alawis were a family of
sharif
Sharīf ( ar, شريف, 'noble', 'highborn'), also spelled shareef or sherif, feminine sharīfa (), plural ashrāf (), shurafāʾ (), or (in the Maghreb) shurfāʾ, is a title used to designate a person descended, or claiming to be descended, fr ...
ian religious notables (or ''shurafa'') who claimed descent from
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
via his grandson
Hasan, the son of
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...
and of Muhammad's daughter
Fatimah
Fāṭima bint Muḥammad ( ar, فَاطِمَة ٱبْنَت مُحَمَّد}, 605/15–632 CE), commonly known as Fāṭima al-Zahrāʾ (), was the daughter of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his wife Khadija. Fatima's husband was Ali, th ...
.
Like the Sa'di dynasty before them, the 'Alawis originally came from the village of
Yanbu al-Nakhil in the
Hejaz
The Hejaz (, also ; ar, ٱلْحِجَاز, al-Ḥijāz, lit=the Barrier, ) is a region in the west of Saudi Arabia. It includes the cities of Mecca, Medina, Jeddah, Tabuk, Yanbu, Taif, and Baljurashi. It is also known as the "Western Provin ...
region of
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula, (; ar, شِبْهُ الْجَزِيرَةِ الْعَرَبِيَّة, , "Arabian Peninsula" or , , "Island of the Arabs") or Arabia, is a peninsula of Western Asia, situated northeast of Africa on the Arabian Plate. ...
.
According to the dynasty's official historians, the family migrated from the Hijaz to the Tafilalt during the 12th or 13th century at the request of the locals who hoped that the presence of a sharifian family would benefit the region. It is possible that the 'Alawis were merely one of many
Arab
The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
families who moved westwards to Morocco during this period. The Tafilalt was an
oasis region in the
Ziz Valley in eastern Morocco and the site of
Sijilmasa, historically an important terminus of the
trans-Saharan trade
Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century.
The Sahara once had a very d ...
routes.
Little is known of 'Alawi history prior to the 17th century.
In the early 15th century they appear to have had a reputation as holy warriors, but did not yet have a political status. This was the example of one family member, Ali al-Sharif (not to be confused with the later 'Alawi by the same name below), who participated in battles against the
Portuguese
Portuguese may refer to:
* anything of, from, or related to the country and nation of Portugal
** Portuguese cuisine, traditional foods
** Portuguese language, a Romance language
*** Portuguese dialects, variants of the Portuguese language
** Portu ...
and Spanish in
Ceuta
Ceuta (, , ; ar, سَبْتَة, Sabtah) is a Spanish autonomous city on the north coast of Africa.
Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of several Spanish territorie ...
(Sebta) and
Tangier
Tangier ( ; ; ar, طنجة, Ṭanja) is a city in northwestern Morocco. It is on the Moroccan coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. The town is the cap ...
and who was also invited by the
Nasrids of
Granada
Granada (,, DIN 31635, DIN: ; grc, Ἐλιβύργη, Elibýrgē; la, Illiberis or . ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the fo ...
to fight against
Castile on the
Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (),
**
* Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica''
**
**
* french: Péninsule Ibérique
* mwl, Península Eibérica
* eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...
.
By the 17th century, however, they had evidently become the main leaders of the Tafilalt.
Their status as ''shurafa'' (descendants of Muhammad) was part of the reason for their success, as in this era many communities in Morocco increasingly saw sharifian status as the best claim to political legitimacy. The Saadian dynasty, which ruled Morocco in the 16th century and early 17th century prior to the rise of the 'Alawis, was also a sharifian dynasty and played an important role in establishing this model of political-religious legitimacy.
Rise to power
The family's rise to power took place in the context of early-to-mid-17th century Morocco, when the power of the Saadian sultans of
Marrakesh
Marrakesh or Marrakech ( or ; ar, مراكش, murrākuš, ; ber, ⵎⵕⵕⴰⴽⵛ, translit=mṛṛakc}) is the fourth largest city in the Kingdom of Morocco. It is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakes ...
was in serious decline and multiple regional factions fought for control of the country. Among the most powerful of these factions were the
Dala'iyya (also spelled Dila'iyya or Dilaites), a federation of
Amazigh
, image = File:Berber_flag.svg
, caption = The Berber ethnic flag
, population = 36 million
, region1 = Morocco
, pop1 = 14 million to 18 million
, region2 = Algeria
, pop2 ...
(Berbers) in the
Middle Atlas
The Middle Atlas (Amazigh: ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ''Atlas Anammas'', Arabic: الأطلس المتوسط, ''al-Aṭlas al-Mutawassiṭ'') is a mountain range in Morocco. It is part of the Atlas mountain range, a mountainous region ...
who increasingly dominated central Morocco at this time, reaching the peak of their power in the 1640s. Another, was 'Ali Abu Hassun al-Semlali (or Abu Hassun), who had become leader of the
Sous valley
The Sous region (also spelt Sus, Suss, Souss or Sousse) ( ar, سوس, sūs, shi, ⵙⵓⵙ, sus) is an area in mid-southern Morocco. Geologically, it is the alluvial basin of the Sous River (''Asif n Sus''), separated from the Sahara desert ...
since 1614.
When Abu Hassun extended his control to the
Tafilalt
Tafilalt or Tafilet (; ar, تافيلالت), historically Sijilmasa, is a region and the largest oasis in Morocco.
Etymology
The word "Tafilalt" is an Amazigh word and it means "Jug", which is specifically a pottery jar used to store water.
H ...
region in 1631, the Dala'iyya in turn sent forces to enforce their own influence in the area. The local inhabitants chose as their leader the 'Alawi family head,
Muhammad al-Sharif – known as Mawlay Ali al-Sharif,
Mawlay al-Sharif, or Muhammad I
– recognizing him as
emir
Emir (; ar, أمير ' ), sometimes transliterated amir, amier, or ameer, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or cerem ...
.
Mawlay al-Sharif led an attack against Abu Hassun's garrison at Tabu'samt in 1635 or 1636 (1045 AH) but failed to expel them. Abu Hassun forced him to go into exile to the Sous valley, but also treated him well; among other things, Abu Hassun gifted him a slave concubine who later gave birth to one of his sons,
Mawlay Isma'il.
While their father remained in exile, al-Sharif's sons took up the struggle. His son
Sidi Mohammed
Sidi Mohammed was the Garad (chief) of the Hadiya people in the beginning of the seventeenth century.
He is considered a descendant of some of the Silt'e clan originators as well as the founder of Halaba ethnic group. Garad Sidi is known for ...
(or Muhammad II
), became the leader after 1635 and successfully led another rebellion which expelled Abu Hassun's forces in 1640 or 1641 (1050 AH). With this success, he was proclaimed
sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
in place of his father who relinquished the throne to him.
However, the Dala'iyya invaded the region again in 1646 and following their victory at Al Qa'a forced him to acknowledge their control over all the territory west and south of Sijilmasa. Unable to oppose them, Sidi Mohammed instead decided to expand in the opposite direction, to the northeast.
In 1647, he won the loyalty of several Arab tribes of the
Banu Ma'qil in this region, and conquered
Oujda
Oujda ( ar, وجدة; ber, ⵡⵓⵊⴷⴰ, Wujda) is a major Moroccan city in its northeast near the border with Algeria. Oujda is the capital city of the Oriental region of northeastern Morocco and has a population of about 558,000 people. It ...
. As Oujda was an imperial city, he became Sultan of Tafilalt upon his conquest. He advanced as far as
al-Aghwat and
Tlemcen
Tlemcen (; ar, تلمسان, translit=Tilimsān) is the second-largest city in northwestern Algeria after Oran, and capital of the Tlemcen Province. The city has developed leather, carpet, and textile industries, which it exports through the p ...
in
Algeria
)
, image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Algiers
, coordinates =
, largest_city = capital
, relig ...
(which was part of the
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...
at the time) in 1650. His forays into
Ottoman Algeria provoked a response from the
Ottomans, who sent an army that chased him back to Sijilmasa. In negotiations with an Ottoman legation from Algiers, Sidi Mohammed agreed not to cross into Ottoman territory again and the
Tafna River was set as their northern border.
In 1645 and again in 1652, Sidi Mohammed annexed the Emirate of
Tuat
Tuat, or Touat, is a natural region of desert in central Algeria that contains a string of small oases. In the past, the oases were important for caravans crossing the Sahara.
Geography
Tuat lies to the south of the Grand Erg Occidental, to ...
to his Sultanate.
Despite some territorial setbacks, the 'Alawis' influence slowly grew, partly thanks to their continued alliance with certain Arab tribes of the region. In June 1650, the leaders of
Fez
Fez most often refers to:
* Fez (hat), a type of felt hat commonly worn in the Ottoman Empire
* Fez, Morocco (or Fes), the second largest city of Morocco
Fez or FEZ may also refer to:
Media
* ''Fez'' (Frank Stella), a 1964 painting by the moder ...
(or more specifically
Fes el-Bali, the old city), with the support of the local Arab tribes, rejected the authority of the Dala'iyya and invited Sidi Mohammed to join them. Soon after he arrived, however, the Dala'iyya army approached the city and the local leaders, realizing they did not have enough strength to oppose them, stopped their uprising and asked Sidi Mohmmed to leave.
Mawlay Sharif died in 1659, and Sidi Mohammed was once again proclaimed sovereign. However, this provoked a succession clash between Sidi Mohammed and one of his younger half-brothers,
Al-Rashid. Details of this conflict are lengthy, but ultimately Al-Rashid appears to have fled Sijilmasa in fear of his brother and took refuge with the Dala'iyya in the Middle Atlas. He then moved around northern Morocco, spending time in Fez, before settling in
Angad (northeastern Morocco today). He managed to secure an alliance with the same
Banu Ma'qil Arab tribes who had previously supported his brother and also with the Ait Yaznasin (Beni Snassen), a
Zenata
The Zenata (Berber language: Iznaten) are a group of Amazigh (Berber) tribes, historically one of the largest Berber confederations along with the Sanhaja and Masmuda. Their lifestyle was either nomadic or semi-nomadic.
Etymology
''Iznaten (ⵉ ...
Amazigh tribe. These groups recognized him as sultan in 1664, while around the same time Sidi Mohammed made a new base for himself as far west as
Azrou
Azrou (Berber: Aẓro, ⴰⵥⵔⵓ, Arabic: أزرو) (meaning “rock” or “stone”) is a Moroccan town 89 kilometres south of Fez in Ifrane Province of the Fès-Meknès region.
Geography
The market town of Azrou is located at a strategi ...
. The power of the Dala'iyya was in decline, and both brothers sought to take advantage of this, but both stood in each other's way. When Sidi Mohammed attacked
Angad to force his rebellious brother's submission on August 2, 1664, he was instead unexpectedly killed and his armies defeated.
![Kasbah Cherarda](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Kasbah_Cherarda.jpg)
By this time, the Dala'iyya's realm, which once extended over Fez and most of central Morocco, had largely receded to their original home in the Middle Atlas. Al-Rashid was left in control of the 'Alawi forces and in less than a decade he managed to extend 'Alawi control over almost all of Morocco, reuniting the country under a new sharifian dynasty.
Early on, he won over more rural Arab tribes to his side and integrated them into his military system. Also known as ''
guich
''Guich'' tribes, ''Gish'' tribes, or ''Jaysh'' tribes ( jaysh, literally "Army"), or sometimes ''Makhzen'' tribes, were tribes of Arab origin organized by the sultans of Moroccan dynasties to serve as troops and military garrisons, as well as t ...
'' tribes ("Army" tribes, also transliterated as ''gish''
), they became one of his most important means of imposing control over regions and cities. In 1664 he had taken control of
Taza, but Fez rejected his authority and a siege of the city in 1665 failed. After further campaigning in the
Rif
The Rif or Riff (, ), also called Rif Mountains, is a geographic region in northern Morocco. This mountainous and fertile area is bordered by Cape Spartel and Tangier to the west, by Berkane and the Moulouya River to the east, by the Mediterrane ...
region, where he won more support, Al-Rashid returned and secured the city's surrender in June 1666.
He made the city his capital, but settled his military tribes in other lands and in a new
kasbah
A kasbah (, also ; ar, قَـصَـبَـة, qaṣaba, lit=fortress, , Maghrebi Arabic: ), also spelled qasba, qasaba, or casbah, is a fortress, most commonly the citadel or fortified quarter of a city. It is also equivalent to the term ''alca ...
outside the city (
Kasbah Cherarda
Kasbah Cherarda () is a kasbah in the city of Fez, Morocco, located on the northern outskirts of Fes el-Jdid. It was initially referred to as Kasbah el-Khemis, the "Thursday Fort" ( ar, قصبة الخمس) as there was an open market held every ...
today) to head off complaints from the city's inhabitants about their behaviour. He then defeated the remnants of the Dala'iyya by invading and destroying their capital in the
Middle Atlas
The Middle Atlas (Amazigh: ⴰⵟⵍⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ''Atlas Anammas'', Arabic: الأطلس المتوسط, ''al-Aṭlas al-Mutawassiṭ'') is a mountain range in Morocco. It is part of the Atlas mountain range, a mountainous region ...
in June 1668. In July he captured Marrakesh from Abu Bakr ben Abdul Karim Al-Shabani, the son of the
usurper
A usurper is an illegitimate or controversial claimant to power, often but not always in a monarchy. In other words, one who takes the power of a country, city, or established region for oneself, without any formal or legal right to claim it as ...
who had ruled the city since assassinating his nephew
Ahmad al-Abbas
Ahmad al-Abbas ( ar, أحمد العباس) (? – 1659) was the last Sultan of the Saadi dynasty in present-day Morocco. He was proclaimed Sultan in Marrakesh in the year H.1064 ( B.C. November 22, 1653 - November 11, 1654) after the death of h ...
, the last Saadian sultan.
Al-Rashid's forces took the Sous valley and the
Anti-Atlas in the south, forced
Salé
Salé ( ar, سلا, salā, ; ber, ⵙⵍⴰ, sla) is a city in northwestern Morocco, on the right bank of the Bou Regreg river, opposite the national capital Rabat, for which it serves as a commuter town. Founded in about 1030 by the Banu Ifran ...
and its
pirate republic to acknowledge his authority, while in the north, except for the European enclaves, he was in control of all the Rif comprising
Ksar al-Kebir,
Tetouan and Oujda in the northeast. Al-Rashid had thus succeeded in reuniting the country under one rule. He was not able to enjoy this success for very long, however, and died young in 1672 while in Marrakesh.
The reign of Mawlay Isma'il
Upon Al-Rashid's death his younger half-brother Mawlay Isma'il became sultan. As sultan, Isma'il's 55-year reign was one of longest in Moroccan history.
He distinguished himself as a ruler who wished to establish a unified Moroccan state as the absolute authority in the land, independent of any particular group within Morocco – in contrast to previous dynasties which relied on certain tribes or regions as the base of their power.
He succeeded in part by creating a new army composed of
Black
Black is a color which results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white ...
slaves (the ''
Abid al-Bukhari'') from
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These include West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the List of sov ...
(or descendants of previously imported slaves), many of them Muslims, whose loyalty was to him alone. Mawlay Isma'il himself was half Black, his mother having been a Black slave concubine of
Mawlay Sharif.
This standing army also made effective use of modern artillery.
He continuously led military campaigns against rebels, rivals, and European positions along the Moroccan coast. In practice, he still had to rely on various groups to control outlying areas, but he nonetheless succeeded in retaking many coastal cities occupied by England and Spain and managed to enforce direct order and heavy
tax
A tax is a compulsory financial charge or some other type of levy imposed on a taxpayer (an individual or legal entity) by a governmental organization in order to fund government spending and various public expenditures (regional, local, or n ...
ation throughout his territories. He put a definitive end to Ottoman attempts to gain influence in Morocco and established Morocco on more equal diplomatic footing with European powers in part by forcing them to
ransom
Ransom is the practice of holding a prisoner or item to extort money or property to secure their release, or the sum of money involved in such a practice.
When ransom means "payment", the word comes via Old French ''rançon'' from Latin ''red ...
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
captives at his court. These Christians were mostly captured by Moroccan
pirate
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
fleets which he heavily sponsored as a means of both revenue and warfare. While in captivity, prisoners were often
forced into labour on his construction projects. All of these activities and policies gave him a reputation for ruthlessness and cruelty among European writers and a mixed reputation among Moroccan historians as well, though he is credited with unifying Morocco under strong (but brutal) leadership.
![Bab mansour DSCF5811](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/Bab_mansour_DSCF5811.jpg)
He also moved the capital from Fez to
Meknes
Meknes ( ar, مكناس, maknās, ; ber, ⴰⵎⴽⵏⴰⵙ, amknas; french: Meknès) is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco, located in northern central Morocco and the sixth largest city by population in the kingdom. Founded in the 11th c ...
, where he built a vast
imperial kasbah, a fortified palace-city whose construction continued throughout his reign.
He also built fortifications across the country, especially along its eastern frontier, which many of his ''Abid'' troops garrisoned. This was partly a response to continued Ottoman interference in Morocco, which Isma'il managed to stop after many difficulties and rebellions.
Al-Khadr Ghaylan, a former leader in northern Morocco who fled to Ottoman Algiers during Al-Rashid's advance, returned to Tetouan at the beginning of Isma'il's reign with Ottoman help and led a rebellion in the north which was joined by the people of Fez. He recognized Isma'il's nephew, Ahmad ibn Mahriz, as sultan, who in turn had managed to take control of Marrakesh and was recognized also by the tribes of the Sous valley. Ghaylan was defeated and killed in 1673, and a month later Fez was brought back under control. Ahmad ibn Mahriz was only defeated and killed in 1686 near
Taroudant
Taroudant (; ar, تارودانت, Latn, ar, tārūdānt, ) is a city in the Sous Valley in south western Morocco. It is situated east of Agadir on the road to Ouarzazate and the Sahara desert and south of Marrakesh. The town is known as the "Gr ...
.
Meanwhile, the Ottomans supported further dissidents via Ahmad al-Dala'i, the grandson of
Muhammad al-Hajj who had led the Dala'iyya to dominion over a large part of Morocco earlier that century, prior to Al-Rashid's rise. The Dala'is had been expelled to Tlemcen but and they returned to the Middle Atlas at the instigation of the Ottomans and under Ahmad's leadership in 1677. They managed to defeat Isma'il's forces and control Tadla for a time, but were defeated in April 1678 near Wadi al-'Abid. Ahmad al-Dala'i escaped and eventually died in early 1680.
After the defeat of the Dala'is and of his nephew, Isma'il was finally able to impose his rule without serious challenge over all of Morocco and was able to push back against Ottoman influence. After Ghaylan's defeat he sent raids and military expeditions into Ottoman Algeria in 1679, 1682, and 1695–96. A final expedition in 1701 ended poorly. Afterwards, peace was re-established and the Ottomans agreed to recognize Morocco's eastern frontier near Oujda.
Isma'il also sought to project renewed Moroccan power abroad and in former territories. Following the decline of central rule in the late Saadian period earlier that century, the
Pashalik of Timbuktu
The Pashalik of Timbuktu was a West African political entity that existed between the 16th and the 19th century. It was formed after the Battle of Tondibi, when a military expedition sent by Saadian sultan Ahmad al-Mansur of Morocco defeated t ...
, created after
Ahmad al-Mansur
Ahmad al-Mansur ( ar, أبو العباس أحمد المنصور, Ahmad Abu al-Abbas al-Mansur, also al-Mansur al-Dahabbi (the Golden), ar, أحمد المنصور الذهبي; and Ahmed al-Mansour; 1549 in Fes – 25 August 1603, Fes) was t ...
's
invasion
An invasion is a Offensive (military), military offensive in which large numbers of combatants of one geopolitics, geopolitical Legal entity, entity aggressively enter territory (country subdivision), territory owned by another such entity, gen ...
of the
Songhay Empire
The Songhai Empire (also transliterated as Songhay) was a state that dominated the western Sahel/Sudan in the 15th and 16th century. At its peak, it was one of the largest states in African history. The state is known by its historiographical ...
, had become de facto independent and the
trans-Saharan trade routes
Trans-Saharan trade requires travel across the Sahara between sub-Saharan Africa and North Africa. While existing from prehistoric times, the peak of trade extended from the 8th century until the early 17th century.
The Sahara once had a very ...
fell into decline. The 'Alawis became masters over Tuat (oasis in present-day Algeria) in 1645, they rebelled many times after this initial conquest but Isma'il established direct control there from 1676 onwards.
In 1678–79 he organized a major military expedition to the south, forcing the Emirates of Trarza and Brakna to become his vassals and extending his overlordship up to the
Senegal River.
In 1694 he appointed a ''
qadi
A qāḍī ( ar, قاضي, Qāḍī; otherwise transliterated as qazi, cadi, kadi, or kazi) is the magistrate or judge of a '' sharīʿa'' court, who also exercises extrajudicial functions such as mediation, guardianship over orphans and mino ...
'' to control in
Taghaza
, nickname =
, settlement_type =
, total_type =
, motto =
, translit_lang1 = , translit_lang1_
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, ...
(present-day northern
Mali
Mali (; ), officially the Republic of Mali,, , ff, 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞥆𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 𞤃𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭, Renndaandi Maali, italics=no, ar, جمهورية مالي, Jumhūriyyāt Mālī is a landlocked country in West Africa. Mali ...
) on behalf of Morocco.
Later, in 1724, he sent an army to support the amir of Trarza (present-day
Mauritania
Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...
) against the French presence in
Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
and also used the opportunity to appoint his own governor in
Shinqit (Chinguetti).
Despite this reassertion of control, trans-Saharan trade did not resume in the long-term on the same levels it existed before the 17th century.
In 1662 Portuguese-controlled Tangier was transferred to English control as part of
Catherine of Braganza
Catherine of Braganza ( pt, Catarina de Bragança; 25 November 1638 – 31 December 1705) was List of English royal consorts, Queen of England, List of Scottish royal consorts, Scotland and Ireland during her marriage to Charles II of England, ...
's dowry to
Charles II. Mawlay Isma'il besieged the city unsuccessfully in 1679, but this pressure, along with attacks from local Muslim ''
mujahidin
''Mujahideen'', or ''Mujahidin'' ( ar, مُجَاهِدِين, mujāhidīn), is the plural form of ''mujahid'' ( ar, مجاهد, mujāhid, strugglers or strivers or justice, right conduct, Godly rule, etc.
Or or OR may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Film and television
* "O.R.", a 1974 episode of List of M*A*S*H episodes (Season 3), M*A*S*H
* Or (My Treasure), a 2004 movie from Israel (''Or'' means "light" in Hebrew)
Music
* Or (album), ''Or ...
doers of jihād), an Arabic ter ...
'' (also known as the "
Army of the Rif"
), persuaded the English to evacuate Tangier in 1684. Mawlay Isma'il immediately claimed the city and sponsored its Muslim resettlement, but granted local authority to 'Ali ar-Rifi, the governor of Tetouan who had played an active part in besieging the city and became the chieftain of northern Morocco around this time.
Isma'il also conquered Spanish-controlled
Mahdiya
Mahdia ( ar, المهدية ') is a Tunisian coastal city with 62,189 inhabitants, south of Monastir, Tunisia, Monastir and southeast of Sousse.
Mahdia is a provincial centre north of Sfax. It is important for the associated fish-processing indu ...
in 1681,
Al-Ara'ish (Larache) in 1689, and
Asilah
Asilah (; ar, أزيلا or أصيلة; pt, Arzila; es, Arcila) is a fortified town on the northwest tip of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, about south of Tangier. Its ramparts and gateworks remain fully intact.
History
The town's history da ...
in 1691.
Moreover, he sponsored Moroccan pirates which preyed on European merchant ships. Despite this, he also allowed Europeans merchants to trade inside Morocco, but he strictly regulated their activities and forced them to negotiate with his government for permission, allowing him to efficiently collect taxes on trade. Isma'il also allowed European countries, often through the proxy of Spanish
Franciscan
The Franciscans are a group of related Mendicant orders, mendicant Christianity, Christian Catholic religious order, religious orders within the Catholic Church. Founded in 1209 by Italian Catholic friar Francis of Assisi, these orders include t ...
friars, to negotiate ransoms for the release of Christians captured by pirates or in battle. He also pursued relations with
Louis XIV
, house = Bourbon
, father = Louis XIII
, mother = Anne of Austria
, birth_date =
, birth_place = Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France
, death_date =
, death_place = Palace of Vers ...
of France starting in 1682, hoping to secure an alliance against Spain, but France was less interested in this idea and relations eventually collapsed after 1718.
Disorder and civil war under Isma'il's sons
After Mawlay Isma'il's death, Morocco was plunged into one of its greatest periods of turmoil between 1727 and 1757, with Isma'il's sons fighting for control of the sultanate and never holding onto power for long.
Isma'il had left hundreds of sons who were theoretically eligible for the throne.
Conflict between his sons was compounded by rebellions against the heavily taxing and autocratic government which Isma'il had previously imposed.
Furthermore, the ''Abid'' of Isma'il's reign came to wield enormous power and were able to install or depose sultans according to their interests throughout this period, though they also had to compete with the ''guich'' tribes and some of the Amazigh (Berber) tribes.
Meknes remained the capital and the scene of most of these political changes, but Fez was also a key player.
Ahmad adh-Dhahabi was the first to succeed his father but was immediately contested and ruled twice only briefly before his death in 1729, with his brother
Abd al-Malik ruling in between his reigns in 1728. After this his brother
Abdallah ruled for most of the period between 1729 and 1757 but was deposed four times.
Abdallah was initially supported by the ''Abid'' but eventually made enemies of them after 1733. Eventually he was able to gain advantage over them by forming an alliance with the Amazigh tribe of Ait Idrasin, the Oudaya ''guich'' tribe, and the leaders of Fez (whom he alienated early on but later reconciled with).
This alliance steadily wore down the ''Abid''s power and paved the way for their submission in the later part of the 18th century.
In this period, the north of Morocco also became virtually independent of the central government, being ruled instead by Ahmad ibn 'Ali ar-Rifi, the son of 'Ali al-Hamami ar-Rifi whom Mawlay Isma'il had granted local authority in the region of
Tangier
Tangier ( ; ; ar, طنجة, Ṭanja) is a city in northwestern Morocco. It is on the Moroccan coast at the western entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic Ocean off Cape Spartel. The town is the cap ...
.
Ahmad al-Hamami ar-Rifi used Tangier as the capital of his territory and profited from an arms trade with the English at Gibraltar, with whom he also established diplomatic relations. Sultan
Ahmad al-Dahabi had tried to appoint his own governor in Tetouan to undermine Ar-Rifi's power in 1727, but without success. Ahmad ar-Rifi was initially uninterested in the politics playing out in Meknes, but became embroiled due to an alliance he formed with al-Mustadi', one of the ephemeral sultans installed by the 'Abid installed in May 1738. When Al-Mustadi' was in turn deposed in January 1740 to accommodate
Mawlay Abdallah's return to power, Ar-Rifi opposed the latter and invaded Fez in 1741. Mawlay Abdallah's alliance of factions was able to finally defeat and kill him on the battlefield in 1743, and soon after the sultan's authority was re-established along the coastal cities of Morocco.
In 1647, Sultan
Mawlay Abdallah strategically established his two sons ''Khalifa'' (
Viceroy
A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory. The term derives from the Latin prefix ''vice-'', meaning "in the place of" and the French word ''roy'', meaning "k ...
) in politically important cities. His eldest Mawlay Ahmed was appointed ''Khalifa'' of
Rabat
Rabat (, also , ; ar, الرِّبَاط, er-Ribât; ber, ⵕⵕⴱⴰⵟ, ṛṛbaṭ) is the capital city of Morocco and the country's seventh largest city with an urban population of approximately 580,000 (2014) and a metropolitan populati ...
and his youngest Sidi Mohammed, ''Khalifa'' of Marrakesh.
His eldest son would die before him in 1750.
After 9 years of uninterrupted reign,
Mawlay Abdallah died at
Dar Dbibegh November 10, 1757.
His only surviving son, Sidi Mohammed, succeeded him.
Restoration of authority under Muhammad ibn Abdallah
Order and control was firmly re-established only under Abdallah's son,
Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah (Mohammed III), who became
Sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
in 1757 after a decade as viceroy in Marrakesh.
Many of the 'Abid had by then deserted their contingents and joined the common population of the country, and Sidi Mohammed III was able to reorganize those who remained into his own elite military corps.
The Oudaya, who had supported his father but had been a burden on the population of Fez where they lived, became the main challenge to the new sultan's power. In 1760 he was forced to march with an army to Fez where he arrested their leaders and destroyed their contingents, killing many of their soldiers. In the aftermath the sultan created a new, much smaller, Oudaya regiment which was given new commanders and garrisoned in Meknes instead.
Later, in 1775, he tried to distance the ''Abid'' from power by ordering their transfer from Meknes to Tangier in the north. The ''Abid'' resisted him and attempted to proclaim his son Yazid (the later
Mawlay Yazid) as sultan, but the latter soon changed his mind and was reconciled with his father. After this, Sidi Mohammed III dispersed the ''Abid'' contingents to garrisons in Tangier, Larache, Rabat, Marrakesh and the Sous, where they continued to cause trouble until 1782. These disturbances were compounded by
drought
A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
and severe famine between 1776 and 1782 and an outbreak of plague in 1779–1780, which killed many Moroccans and forced the sultan to import wheat, reduce taxes, and distribute food and funds to locals and tribal leaders in order to alleviate the suffering. By now, however, the improved authority of the sultan allowed the central government to weather these difficulties and crises.
![Essaouira, Morocco - panoramio (125)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Essaouira%2C_Morocco_-_panoramio_%28125%29.jpg)
Sidi Mohammed ibn Abdallah maintained the peace in part through a relatively more decentralized regime and lighter taxes, relying instead on greater trade with Europe to make up the revenues.
In line with this policy, in 1764 he founded
Essaouira, a new port city through which he funnelled European trade with Marrakesh.
The last Portuguese outpost on the Moroccan coast, Mazagan (al-Jadida today), was taken by Morocco in 1729, leaving only the Spanish enclaves of
Ceuta
Ceuta (, , ; ar, سَبْتَة, Sabtah) is a Spanish autonomous city on the north coast of Africa.
Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It is one of several Spanish territorie ...
and
Melilla
Melilla ( , ; ; rif, Mřič ; ar, مليلية ) is an autonomous city of Spain located in north Africa. It lies on the eastern side of the Cape Three Forks, bordering Morocco and facing the Mediterranean Sea. It has an area of . It was par ...
as the remaining European outposts in Morocco.
Muhammad also signed a
Treaty of Friendship with the United States in 1787 after becoming the first head of state to recognize the new country. He was interested in scholarly pursuits and also cultivated a productive relationship with the ''
ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' (; ar, علماء ', singular ', "scholar", literally "the learned ones", also spelled ''ulema''; feminine: ''alimah'' ingularand ''aalimath'' lural are the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious ...
'', or Muslim religious scholars, who supported some of his initiatives and reforms.
Sidi Mohammed's opening of Morocco to international trade was not welcomed by some, however. After his death in 1790, his son and successor Mawlay Yazid ruled with more xenophobia and violence, punished Jewish communities, and launched an ill-fated attack against Spanish-held Ceuta in 1792 in which he was mortally wounded.
After his death, he was succeeded by his brother Suleyman (or Mawlay Slimane), though the latter had to defeat two more brothers who contested the throne: Maslama in the north and Hisham in Marrakesh to the south.
Suleyman brought trade with Europe nearly to a halt.
Although less violent and bigoted than Yazid, was still portrayed by European sources as xenophobic.
Some of this lack of engagement with Europe was likely a consequence of the
Napoleonic Wars
The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, during which England blockaded parts of Europe and both France and Spain threatened Morocco into not taking any side.
After 1811 Suleyman also pushed a fundamentalist
Wahhabist
Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, and ...
ideology at home and attempted to suppress local
Sufi
Sufism ( ar, ''aṣ-ṣūfiyya''), also known as Tasawwuf ( ''at-taṣawwuf''), is a mystic body of religious practice, found mainly within Sunni Islam but also within Shia Islam, which is characterized by a focus on Islamic spirituality, ...
orders and brotherhoods, in spite of their popularity and despite his own membership in the
Tijaniyya order.
European influence and confrontation in the 19th century
![Hassan I of Morocco](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Hassan_I_of_Morocco.jpg)
Suleyman's successor,
Abd al-Rahman
Abd al-Rahman ( ar, عبد الرحمن, translit=ʿAbd al-Raḥmān or occasionally ; DMG ''ʿAbd ar-Raḥman''; also Abdul Rahman) is a male Arabic Muslim given name, and in modern usage, surname. It is built from the Arabic words '' Abd'', '' ...
(or Abderrahmane; ruled 1822–1859), tried to reinforce national unity by recruiting local elites of the country and orchestrating military campaigns designed to bolster his image as a defender of Islam against encroaching European powers. The
French conquest of Algeria in 1830, however, destabilized the region and put the sultan in a very difficult position. Wide popular support for the Algerians against the French led Morocco to allow the flow of aid and arms to the resistance movement led by
Emir Abd al-Qadir, while the Moroccan ''ulama'' delivered a fatwa for a supporting jihad in 1837. On the other hand, Abd al-Rahman was reluctant to provide the French with a clear reason to attack Morocco if he ever intervened. He managed to maintain the appearance of neutrality until 1844, when he was compelled to provide refuge to Abd al-Qadir in Morocco. The French, led by the marshall
Bugeaud, pursued him and thoroughly routed the Moroccan army at the
Battle of Isly
The Battle of Isly () was fought on August 14, 1844 between France and Morocco, near the . French forces under Marshal Thomas Robert Bugeaud routed a much larger, but poorly organized, Moroccan force, mainly fighters from the tribes of , but als ...
, near Oujda, on August 14. At the same time, the French navy
bombarded Tangiers on August 6 and
bombarded Mogador (Essaouira) on August 16. In the aftermath, Morocco signed the Convention of
Lalla Maghnia on March 18, 1845. The treaty made the superior power of France clear and forced the sultan to recognize French authority over Algeria. Abd al-Qadir turned rebel against the sultan and took refuge in the Rif region until his surrender to the French in 1848.
The next confrontation, the
Hispano-Moroccan War, took place from 1859 to 1860, and the subsequent
Treaty of Wad Ras
The Treaty of Wad Ras (, ) was a treaty signed between Morocco and Spain at the conclusion of the War of Tetuan on April 26, 1860 at Wad Ras, located between Tetuan and Tangier. The conditions of the treaty exacerbated Morocco's defeat in the ...
led the Moroccan government to take a massive British loan larger than its national reserves to pay off its
war debt
War reparations are compensation payments made after a war by one side to the other. They are intended to cover damage or injury inflicted during a war.
History
Making one party pay a war indemnity is a common practice with a long history.
R ...
to Spain.
In the latter part of the 19th century Morocco's instability resulted in European countries intervening to protect investments and to demand economic concessions. Sultan
Hassan I
''Mawlay'' Hassan bin Mohammed ( ar, الحسن بن محمد, translit=al-Ḥassan bin Muḥammad), known as Hassan I ( ar, الحسن الأول, translit=al-Ḥassan al-Awwal), born in 1836 in Fes and died on 9 June 1894 in Tadla, was a sulta ...
called for the
Madrid Conference
The Madrid Conference of 1991 was a peace conference, held from 30 October to 1 November 1991 in Madrid, hosted by Spain and co-sponsored by the United States and the Soviet Union. It was an attempt by the international community to revive the ...
of 1880 in response to France and Spain's abuse of the
''protégé'' system, but the result was an increased European presence in Morocco—in the form of advisors, doctors, businessmen, adventurers, and even missionaries.
Crisis and installation of French and Spanish Protectorates
After Sultan
Abdelaziz appointed his brother
Abdelhafid as viceroy of Marrakesh, the latter sought to have him overthrown by fomenting distrust over Abdelaziz's European ties.
Abdelhafid was aided by
Madani el-Glaoui, older brother of
T'hami, one of the
Caids of the Atlas. He was assisted in the training of his troops by
Andrew Belton
Andrew Belton (17 April 1882 – 1970) was a British Army officer and veteran of campaigns in South Africa and Morocco. He was an early exponent of the use of aircraft for military purposes, enrolling at the Chicago School of Aviation in Apr ...
, a British officer and veteran of the
Second Boer War
The Second Boer War ( af, Tweede Vryheidsoorlog, , 11 October 189931 May 1902), also known as the Boer War, the Anglo–Boer War, or the South African War, was a conflict fought between the British Empire and the two Boer Republics (the Sout ...
. For a brief period, Abdelaziz reigned from Rabat while Abdelhafid reigned in Marrakesh and Fez and a conflict known as the
Hafidiya
The Hafidiya () was a coup d'état in Morocco between 1907 and 1908 in which Abd al-Hafid seized power from his brother Abdelaziz. Abd al-Hafid started his movement in Marrakesh in the aftermath of the Algeciras Conference, the French occupation ...
(1907–1908) ensued. In 1908 Abdelaziz was defeated in battle. In 1909, Abdelhafid became the recognized leader of
Morocco
Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to ...
.
![Abdication_of_Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco_(1912,_Le_Petit_Journal)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Abdication_of_Abd_al-Hafid_of_Morocco_%281912%2C_Le_Petit_Journal%29.jpg)
In 1911, rebellion broke out against the sultan. This led to the
Agadir Crisis
The Agadir Crisis, Agadir Incident, or Second Moroccan Crisis was a brief crisis sparked by the deployment of a substantial force of French troops in the interior of Morocco in April 1911 and the deployment of the German gunboat to Agadir, a ...
, also known as the Second Moroccan Crisis. These events led Abdelhafid to
abdicate
Abdication is the act of formally relinquishing monarchical authority. Abdications have played various roles in the succession procedures of monarchies. While some cultures have viewed abdication as an extreme abandonment of duty, in other societ ...
after signing the
Treaty of Fes
The Treaty of Fes ( ar, معاهدة فاس, ), officially the Treaty Concluded Between France and Morocco on 30 March 1912, for the Organization of the French Protectorate in the Sherifien Empire (), was a treaty signed by Sultan Abd al-Hafid o ...
on 30 March 1912,
which made Morocco a
French protectorate.
He signed his abdication only when on the quay in Rabat, with the ship that would take him to France already waiting. When news of the treaty finally leaked to the Moroccan populace, it was met with immediate and violent backlash in the
Intifada of Fez. His brother
Youssef was proclaimed Sultan by the French administration several months later (13 August 1912).
At the same time a large part of northern Morocco was placed under
Spanish control.
Colonial rule, Mohammed V, and independence
Under colonial rule the institution of the sultan was formally preserved as part of a French policy of indirect rule, or at least the appearance of indirect rule. Under the French Protectorate, the 'Alawi sultans still had some prerogatives such as the power to sign or veto ''dahirs'' (decrees). In the Spanish zone, a
Khalifa
Khalifa or Khalifah (Arabic: خليفة) is a name or title which means "successor", "ruler" or "leader". It most commonly refers to the leader of a Caliphate, but is also used as a title among various Islamic religious groups and others. Khalif ...
("deputy") was appointed who acted as a representative of the sultan. In practice, however, the sultan was a puppet of the new regime and many parts of the population saw the dynasty as collaborators with the French. The French colonial administration was headed by the French
resident-general
A resident minister, or resident for short, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indi ...
, the first of whom was
Hubert Lyautey
Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey (17 November 1854 – 27 July 1934) was a French Army general and colonial administrator. After serving in Indochina and Madagascar, he became the first French Resident-General in Morocco from 1912 to 1925. Early in ...
, who enacted many of the policies that set the tone for France's colonial regime in Morocco.
Mawlay Youssef died unexpectedly in 1927 and his youngest son,
Muhammad
Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد; 570 – 8 June 632 Common Era, CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Muhammad in Islam, Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet Divine inspiration, di ...
(Mohammed ben Youssef or Mohammed V), was acclaimed as the new sultan, at the age of 18. By the guidance of the French regime, he had spent most of his life growing up in relative isolation inside the royal palace in Meknes and Rabat. These restrictions on his interactions with the outside world continued in large part even after he ascended to the throne. However, over the course of his reign he became increasingly associated with the Moroccan nationalist movement, eventually becoming a strong symbol in the cause for independence. The nationalists, for their part, and in contrast with other anti-colonial movements like the
Salafis
The Salafi movement or Salafism () is a reform branch movement within Sunni Islam that originated during the nineteenth century. The name refers to advocacy of a return to the traditions of the "pious predecessors" (), the first three generati ...
, saw the sultan as a potentially useful tool in the struggle against French rule.
![Muhammad V](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/Muhammad_V.jpg)
Some of Mohammed V's initial interactions with nationalists came during the crisis caused by the so-called "
Berber Dahir The document known as the Berber Dahir (, , formally: ) is a ''dhahir'' (decree) created by the French protectorate in Morocco on May 16, 1930. This ''Dahir'' changed the legal system in parts of Morocco where Amazigh languages were primarily spo ...
". Among other things at this time, the sultan received a delegation from Fez which presented a list of grievances about the new French policy, and had discussions with
Allal al-Fassi
Muhammad Allal al-Fassi (ⵄⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵍⴼⴰⵙⵉ) (January 10, 1910 – May 13, 1974), was a Moroccan politician, writer, poet and Islamic scholar.
Politics
He was born in Fes, Morocco. He studied at the University of Al-Qarawiyyin. F ...
where he apparently expressed that he had been misled by the French residency when signing it and vowed to cede no further rights of his country.
The sultan refrained from openly associating with the nationalist movement in the 1930s, but nonetheless resisted French attempts to shift the terms of the Protectorate during the
interwar
In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days), the end of the First World War to the beginning of the Second World War. The interwar period was relativel ...
years. He reaffirmed Morocco's loyalty to France in 1939, at the beginning of the
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
. After the
fall of France to the Germans and the advent of the
Vichy regime
Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its ter ...
, however, the sultan increasingly charted his own course, successfully pushing some reform initiatives related to education, even as the Vichy regime encouraged him to make several well-publicized trips abroad to bolster his legitimacy and that of the colonial system. In 1942 the
Allies landed on the Moroccan Atlantic coast as part of their invasion of North Africa against
Axis
An axis (plural ''axes'') is an imaginary line around which an object rotates or is symmetrical. Axis may also refer to:
Mathematics
* Axis of rotation: see rotation around a fixed axis
* Axis (mathematics), a designator for a Cartesian-coordinat ...
occupation. This momentous change also allowed the sultan more political manoeuvring room, and during the
Anfa Conference in 1943, which Allied leaders attended, Mohammed V was left alone at one time with
President Roosevelt, who expressed support for Moroccan independence after the war. The encounter was the sultan's first face-to-face interaction with another head of state without the mediating presence of the French officials. In the fall of the same year, the sultan encouraged the formation of the official
Istiqlal ("Independence") Party and the drafting of the
Manifesto of Independence that called for a
constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
with
democratic institutions.
These moves were strongly opposed by the French, but the sultan continued to steadily defy them. Another watershed event was the
Tangier Speech
The Tangier Speech (, ) was a momentous speech appealing for the independence and territorial unity of Morocco, delivered by Sultan Muhammad V of Morocco on April 9, 1947 at the Mendoubia in what was then the Tangier International Zone, compleme ...
of 1947, delivered in the
Mendoubia Gardens
The Mendoubia or Mandubiyya ( es, Mendubía) refers to the former residence and office of the Mendoub, the representative of the Sultan of Morocco in the Tangier International Zone from 1924 to 1956 (with interruption during World War II). It no ...
of Tangier during the first visit of a Moroccan sultan to the city since Mawlay Hassan I in 1889.
The speech made a number of significant points including support for
Arab nationalism
Arab nationalism ( ar, القومية العربية, al-Qawmīya al-ʿArabīya) is a nationalist ideology that asserts the Arabs are a nation and promotes the unity of Arab people, celebrating the glories of Arab civilization, the language an ...
, a generally anti-colonial ideology, and an expression of gratitude for American support of Moroccan aspirations while omitting the usual statements of support for the French Protectorate. In the following years the tensions increased, with French officials slowly acknowledging the need for Moroccan independence but stressing for slower reforms rather than rapid sovereignty. The French enlisted many powerful collaborators such
Thami el-Glaoui to organize a campaign of public opposition to the sultan and demands for his abdication – also known as the "''
Qa'id'' Affair" – in the spring of 1953. The political confrontation came to a head in August of that year. On August 13 the
royal palace in Rabat was surrounded and closed off by Protectorate military forces and police, and on August 16 Thami and allied Moroccan leaders formally declared
Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, a little-known member of the 'Alawi family, as sultan. On August 20 the French resident-general, Auguste Guillaume, presented demands to the sultan for his abdication and his agreement to go into exile. The sultan refused to abdicate, and that afternoon he and his sons were escorted at gunpoint from the palace and onto a plane. He and his family were eventually exiled to
Madagascar
Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...
.
The exile of the sultan did not alleviate French difficulties in Morocco, and an insurgency broke out which targeted both the regime and its collaborators with boycott campaigns as well as acts of violence. Several assassination attempts were made against the new puppet sultan, Mohammed Ben 'Arafa, and one of the boycott campaigns was aimed at the country's mosques due to prayers being said in the new sultan's name. Eventually, with the
decolonialization process under way in
Tunisia
)
, image_map = Tunisia location (orthographic projection).svg
, map_caption = Location of Tunisia in northern Africa
, image_map2 =
, capital = Tunis
, largest_city = capital
, ...
and the
independence war in Algeria, the French agreed to negotiate Morocco's independence at a conference on August 23, 1955. By October 1 Mohammed Ben 'Arafa had abdicated and later that month even Thami el-Glaoui supported Mohammed V's return. The sultan landed at Rabat-Salé Airport at 11:42 am on November 16, greeted by cheering crowds.
The French-Moroccan Declaration of Independence was formally signed on March 2, 1956, and Tangier was reintegrated to Morocco later that year. In 1957 Mohammed V adopted the official title of "King", which has since been used by his successors,
Hassan II Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to:
People
* Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name
*Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scotti ...
and
Mohammed VI Muhammad VI may refer to:
* Muhammad Imaaduddeen VI (1868–1932), sultan of the Maldives from 1893 to 1902
* Mehmed VI (1861–1926), sultan of Ottoman Empire, from 1918 to 1922
* Mohammed VI of Morocco
Mohammed VI ( ar, محمد الساد ...
.
From 1957 to present day
![King Hassan II with Mohammed VI, Lalla Asmaa, and Lalla Meriem](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/King_Hassan_II_with_Mohammed_VI%2C_Lalla_Asmaa%2C_and_Lalla_Meriem.jpg)
At independence, the Moroccan ''
makhzen
Makhzen (Arabic: , Berber: ''Lmexzen'') is the governing institution in Morocco and in pre-1957 Tunisia, centered on the monarch and consisting of royal notables, top-ranking military personnel, landowners, security service bosses, civil servants ...
'' (royal government) remained underdeveloped and urgent reforms were needed to resolve problems arising from decades of colonial rule.
Political friction existed between the nationalist Istiqlal Party, which pushed for more democratic institutions, and the king, Mohammed V, who now hesitated on endorsing radical political changes. By the end of the decade in 1960, the Istiqlal Party was weakened by splinter factions and the growing number of political parties were unable to act together as an effective counterbalance to the king. A formal constitution also remained lacking. As a result, the monarch emerged as the main pillar of political stability in the state and there was a revival of
absolutism under royal rule.
Mohammed V died in 1961 and was succeeded by his son, Hassan II.
Hassan was soon compelled to promulgate a
constitution
A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of Legal entity, entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed.
When ...
, which was approved by popular
referendum in 1962. The constitution had been written by officials appointed by the king and in practice it cemented the monarchy's rule by granting it far-reaching executive powers.
Hassan II worked to improve relations with France and position Morocco as an ally of the West, but relations with neighboring Algeria deteriorated over border issues and resulted in the
Sand War
The Sand War or the Sands War () was a border conflict between Algeria and Morocco in October 1963. It resulted largely from the Moroccan government's claim to portions of Algeria's Tindouf and Béchar provinces. The Sand War led to heighten ...
in 1963.
Tensions also rose internally during the 1960s and 1970s, with leftist opposition mounting against the conservative monarchy. This in turn was met with increased political repression and Hassan II largely relied on the army and police as instruments of power. The period from roughly 1975 to 1990 is known as the "
Years of Lead", as state violence was regularly deployed against dissenters and political opponents were jailed or
disappeared
An enforced disappearance (or forced disappearance) is the secret abduction or imprisonment of a person by a state or political organization, or by a third party with the authorization, support, or acquiescence of a state or political organi ...
.
Two attempted ''
coups d'état'' against the king failed in
1971 *
The year 1971 had three partial solar eclipses ( February 25, July 22 and August 20) and two total lunar eclipses (February 10, and August 6).
The world population increased by 2.1% this year, the highest increase in history.
Events
Ja ...
and
1972
Within the context of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) it was the longest year ever, as two leap seconds were added during this 366-day year, an event which has not since been repeated. (If its start and end are defined using Solar time, me ...
.
Upon the withdrawal of the Spanish occupation of the
Western Sahara
Western Sahara ( '; ; ) is a disputed territory on the northwest coast and in the Maghreb region of North and West Africa. About 20% of the territory is controlled by the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR), while the r ...
in 1975, Hassan II used the opportunity to publicly galvanize nationalist sentiment by pressing Morocco's claims to the territory, over the objections of the local
Sahrawi people
The Sahrawi, or Saharawi people ( ar, صحراويون '; es, Saharaui), are an ethnic group and nation native to the western part of the Sahara desert, which includes the Western Sahara, southern Morocco, much of Mauritania, and along the s ...
and of the Algerian and
Mauritania
Mauritania (; ar, موريتانيا, ', french: Mauritanie; Berber: ''Agawej'' or ''Cengit''; Pulaar: ''Moritani''; Wolof: ''Gànnaar''; Soninke:), officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania ( ar, الجمهورية الإسلامية ...
n governments. He organized the
Green March
The Green March was a strategic mass demonstration in November 1975, coordinated by the Moroccan government, to force Spain to hand over the disputed, autonomous semi-metropolitan province of Spanish Sahara to Morocco. At that time, the Span ...
, which saw around 350,000 Moroccans crossing the southern border to settle inside the territory, triggering
a war
''A War'' () is a 2015 Danish war drama film written and directed by Tobias Lindholm, and starring Pilou Asbæk and Søren Malling. It tells the story of a Danish military company in Afghanistan that is fighting the Taliban while trying to pro ...
with the
Polisario, the armed front of the Sahrawi people.
A ceasefire was negotiated in 1989,
but
the conflict
''The Conflict'' is a 1916 American silent drama film directed by Ralph Ince and starring Lucille Lee Stewart, Huntley Gordon and Wilfred Lytell.Connelly p.51
Cast
* Lucille Lee Stewart as Madeleine Turner
* Jessie Miller as Jeanette Harcour ...
remains unresolved today, with most of the territory under ''de facto'' Moroccan control while the
Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
The Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (; SADR; also romanized with Saharawi; ar, الجمهورية العربية الصحراوية الديمقراطية ' es, República Árabe Saharaui Democrática), also known as Western Sahara, is a ...
controls the
easternmost zones.
During the 1990s Hassan II change course in domestic politics and publicly promoted an agenda of reform. A new constitutional reform, approved by
referendum
A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...
, was enacted in 1993. Another amendment to the constitution was passed in 1996 to create a
bi-cameral legislature, with the lower house elected directly by voters and an upper house chosen indirectly by regional assemblies and professional organizations.
Hassan II died in 1999 and was succeeded by his son, Mohammed VI, the current reigning king. The new monarch's reign began with promises of further liberalization and reform; however, the extent of political reforms has been limited and popular engagement with electoral politics has been inconsistent.
Another constitutional reform was passed by a
referendum in 2011 in response to
protests
A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one.
Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...
inside the country, in the wider context of the
Arab Spring
The Arab Spring ( ar, الربيع العربي) was a series of Nonviolent resistance, anti-government protests, Rebellion, uprisings and Insurgency, armed rebellions that spread across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. It began in T ...
.
Today, the 'Alawis remain the only monarchy in North Africa.
They officially rule in a parliamentary
constitutional monarchy
A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies dif ...
,
but
authoritarian
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by the rejection of political plurality, the use of strong central power to preserve the political ''status quo'', and reductions in the rule of law, separation of powers, and democratic votin ...
and absolutist characteristics are still noted by scholars and observers, with effective power largely remaining in the hands of the king,
a situation that has been compared to the pattern of
Hashemite
The Hashemites ( ar, الهاشميون, al-Hāshimīyūn), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921 ...
monarchy in
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
.
List of 'Alawi rulers
Sultans of the Tafilalt and early expansion:
*
Sharif ibn Ali
Abul Amlak Moulay Sharif ibn 'Ali ( ar, مولايَ الشَّرِيف بْن عَلِيّ بْن مُحَمَّد بْن عَلِيّ بْن يوسف بْن عَلِيّ) – also known as Moulay Ali al-Sharif or Moulay Mohammed Cherif, Moulay ...
(1631–1635)
*
Muhammad ibn Sharif
Sultan Sidi Muhammad ibn Sharif ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ( ar, سيدي محمد بن شريف بن علي بن محمد) (? – 2 August 1664) was an Arab ruler of Tafilalt, Morocco between 1636 and 1664. He was the eldest son of Moulay Sharif ibn ...
(1635–1664)
*
Al-Rashid (1664–1668)
After capture of Marrakesh in 1668, Sultans of Morocco:
*
Al-Rashid (1668–1672)
*
Mawlay Ismail Ibn Sharif (1672–1727)
*
Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II (1727–1728) (''first time'')
*
Abdalmalik (1728)
*
Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II (1728–1729) (''second time'')
*
Abdallah (1729–1734) (''first time'')
*
Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...
(1734–1736)
*
Abdallah (1736) (''second time'')
*
Mohammed II (1736–1738)
*
Al-Mustadi
Abu Muhammad Hassan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid ( ar, أبو محمد حسن بن يوسف المستنجد; 1142 – 27 March 1180) usually known by his Laqab, regnal title Al-Mustadi ( ar, المستضيء بأمر الله) was the Abbasid dynasty, ...
(1738–1740) (''first time'')
*
Abdallah (1740–1741) (''third time'')
*
Zin al-Abidin (1741)
*
Abdallah (1741–1742) (''fourth time'')
*
Al-Mustadi
Abu Muhammad Hassan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid ( ar, أبو محمد حسن بن يوسف المستنجد; 1142 – 27 March 1180) usually known by his Laqab, regnal title Al-Mustadi ( ar, المستضيء بأمر الله) was the Abbasid dynasty, ...
(1742–1743) (''second time'')
*
Abdallah (1743–1747) (''fifth time'')
*
Al-Mustadi
Abu Muhammad Hassan ibn Yusuf al-Mustanjid ( ar, أبو محمد حسن بن يوسف المستنجد; 1142 – 27 March 1180) usually known by his Laqab, regnal title Al-Mustadi ( ar, المستضيء بأمر الله) was the Abbasid dynasty, ...
(1747–1748) (''third time'')
*
Abdallah (1748–1757) (''sixth time'')
*
Mohammed III (1757–1790)
*
Yazid (1790–1792)
*
Mulay Suleiman (1792–1822)
*
Abderrahmane (1822–1859)
*
Mohammed IV (1859–1873)
*
Hassan I
''Mawlay'' Hassan bin Mohammed ( ar, الحسن بن محمد, translit=al-Ḥassan bin Muḥammad), known as Hassan I ( ar, الحسن الأول, translit=al-Ḥassan al-Awwal), born in 1836 in Fes and died on 9 June 1894 in Tadla, was a sulta ...
(1873–1894)
*
Abdelaziz (1894–1908)
*
Abdelhafid (1908–1912)
Under the
French protectorate (1912–1956):
*
Yusef
Yusuf ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ( ar, يوسف ٱبن يعقوب ٱبن إسحاق ٱبن إبراهيم, Yūsuf ibn Yaʿqūb ibn ʾIsḥāq ibn ʾIbrāhīm, ) is a Prophets and messengers in Islam, prophet mentioned in the Quran, and ...
(1912–1927)
*King
Mohammed V (1927–1961), changed title of ruler from
Sultan
Sultan (; ar, سلطان ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it ...
to
King
King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king.
*In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the tit ...
in 1957. Deposed and exiled to
Corsica
Corsica ( , Upper , Southern ; it, Corsica; ; french: Corse ; lij, Còrsega; sc, Còssiga) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of ...
and
Madagascar
Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Africa ...
(1953–1955).
*
Mohammed Ben Aarafa
Mohammed Ben Aarafa ( ar, محمد بن عرفة), or Ben Arafa (1886 – 17 July 1976), was a paternal first cousin once removed of Sultan Mohammed V of Morocco; he was put in Mohammed V's place by the French after they exiled Mohammed V to Madag ...
, installed by France (1953–1955)
From
Independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
(1955 onwards):
*King
Mohammed V (1955–1961)
*King
Hassan II Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to:
People
* Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name
*Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scotti ...
(1961–1999)
*King
Mohammed VI Muhammad VI may refer to:
* Muhammad Imaaduddeen VI (1868–1932), sultan of the Maldives from 1893 to 1902
* Mehmed VI (1861–1926), sultan of Ottoman Empire, from 1918 to 1922
* Mohammed VI of Morocco
Mohammed VI ( ar, محمد الساد ...
(1999–present)
Timeline
ImageSize = width:1000 height:auto barincrement:12
PlotArea = top:10 bottom:30 right:130 left:20
AlignBars = justify
DateFormat = yyyy
Period = from:1600 till:2013
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
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ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:25 start:1625
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id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,1)
id:m value:rgb(0.4,0.8,0.4)
id:w value:rgb(1,0.5,0.5)
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id:a value:rgb(1,0.8,0.8)
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id:cw value:rgb(0.8,0.8,0.8)
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Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas
BarData =
barset:Rulers
bar:eon
PlotData=
align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:none width:20 shift:(0,-5)
bar:eon color:eon
from: 1631 till: 1664 color: a text: Pr. of Tafilalt
from: 1664 till: 1957 color: w text: Sultans of Morocco
from: 1957 till: end color: s text: Kings of Morocco
width:5 align:left fontsize:S shift:(5,-4) anchor:till
barset:Rulers
from:1631 till: 1635 color:a text:" Moulay Ali Cherif"
from:1635 till: 1664 color:a text:"Muhammad ibn Sharif
Sultan Sidi Muhammad ibn Sharif ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ( ar, سيدي محمد بن شريف بن علي بن محمد) (? – 2 August 1664) was an Arab ruler of Tafilalt, Morocco between 1636 and 1664. He was the eldest son of Moulay Sharif ibn ...
"
from:1664 till: 1672 color:w text:" Al-Rashid"
from:1672 till: 1727 color:w text:"Ismail
Ishmael ''Ismaḗl''; Classical/Qur'anic Arabic: إِسْمَٰعِيْل; Modern Standard Arabic: إِسْمَاعِيْل ''ʾIsmāʿīl''; la, Ismael was the first son of Abraham, the common patriarch of the Abrahamic religions; and is cons ...
"
from:1727 till: 1757 color:n text:" Alaouite Succession Crisis"
from:1727 till: 1728 color:w text:" Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II"
from:1728 till: 1728 color:w text:" Abdalmalik"
from:1728 till: 1729 color:w text:" Abu'l Abbas Ahmad II"
from:1729 till: 1734 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1734 till: 1736 color:w text:"Ali
ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib ( ar, عَلِيّ بْن أَبِي طَالِب; 600 – 661 CE) was the last of four Rightly Guided Caliphs to rule Islam (r. 656 – 661) immediately after the death of Muhammad, and he was the first Shia Imam ...
"
from:1736 till: 1736 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1736 till: 1738 color:w text:" Muhammad II"
from:1738 till: 1740 color:w text:" Al-Mostadi"
from:1740 till: 1741 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1741 till: 1741 color:w text:" Zin al-Abidin"
from:1741 till: 1742 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1742 till: 1743 color:w text:" Al-Mostadi"
from:1743 till: 1747 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1747 till: 1748 color:w text:" Al-Mostadi"
from:1748 till: 1757 color:w text:" Abdallah"
from:1757 till: 1790 color:w text:" Mohammed III"
from:1790 till: 1792 color:w text:" Yazid"
from:1792 till: 1822 color:w text:"Slimane
Slimane or Sliman is an alternative of Suleiman (in Arabic name ) being the Arabic version of the name Solomon. The name means "man of peace". It is also a common given name and surname. It may refer to
Given name
;Sliman
* Sliman Mansour (bor ...
"
from:1822 till: 1859 color:w text:" Abderrahmane"
from:1859 till: 1873 color:w text:" Mohammed IV"
from:1873 till: 1894 color:w text:"Hassan I
''Mawlay'' Hassan bin Mohammed ( ar, الحسن بن محمد, translit=al-Ḥassan bin Muḥammad), known as Hassan I ( ar, الحسن الأول, translit=al-Ḥassan al-Awwal), born in 1836 in Fes and died on 9 June 1894 in Tadla, was a sulta ...
"
from:1894 till: 1908 color:w text:" Abdelaziz"
from:1908 till: 1912 color:w text:" Abdelhafid"
from:1912 till: 1956 color:eon text:" French-Spanish Protectorate"
from:1912 till: 1927 color:w text:"Yusef
Yusuf ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq ibn Ibrahim ( ar, يوسف ٱبن يعقوب ٱبن إسحاق ٱبن إبراهيم, Yūsuf ibn Yaʿqūb ibn ʾIsḥāq ibn ʾIbrāhīm, ) is a Prophets and messengers in Islam, prophet mentioned in the Quran, and ...
"
from:1927 till: 1953 color:w text:" Mohammed V"
from:1953 till: 1955 color:n text:" M. Ben Aarafa (French Puppet)"
from:1955 till: 1961 color:s text:" Mohammed V"
from:1961 till: 1999 color:s text:"Hassan II Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to:
People
* Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name
*Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scotti ...
"
from:1999 till: end color:s text:"Mohammed VI Muhammad VI may refer to:
* Muhammad Imaaduddeen VI (1868–1932), sultan of the Maldives from 1893 to 1902
* Mehmed VI (1861–1926), sultan of Ottoman Empire, from 1918 to 1922
* Mohammed VI of Morocco
Mohammed VI ( ar, محمد الساد ...
"
barset:skip
Family tree
See also
*
Conflicts between the Regency of Algiers and Morocco
The conflicts between the regency of Algiers and the Cherifian dynasties or Algerian-Sherifian conflicts are, within the framework of the conflicts opposing Morocco to the Ottoman Empire and its dependencies, a series of wars between, on the one ...
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History of Morocco
History (derived ) is the systematic study and the documentation of the human activity. The time period of event before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory. "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well ...
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Order of Ouissam Alaouite
Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to:
* Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood
* Heterarchy, a system of organization wherein the elements have the potential to be ranked a number of d ...
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List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
The following is a list of Sunni Muslim dynasties.
Asia
Middle East Arabian Peninsula
* Banu Wajih (926–965)
*Sharif of Mecca (967–1925)
* Al Uyuniyun (1076–1253)
*Sulaymanids (1063–1174)
*Mahdids (1159–1174)
*Kathiri (Hadhramaut) ( ...
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Hashemites
The Hashemites ( ar, الهاشميون, al-Hāshimīyūn), also House of Hashim, are the royal family of Jordan, which they have ruled since 1921, and were the royal family of the kingdoms of Hejaz (1916–1925), Syria (1920), and Iraq (1921 ...
,
Jordan
Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Rive ...
’s ruling family that also claims descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad
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Succession to the Moroccan throne
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List of rulers of Morocco
This is the list of rulers of Morocco, since the establishment of the state in 789. The common and formal titles of these rulers has varied, depending on the time period. Since 1957, the designation King has been used.
The present King of Moroc ...
References
Further reading
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Waterbury, John. ''Commander of the Faithful''
External links
Morocco Alaoui dynasty
{{DEFAULTSORT:Alawi Dynasty
Moroccan royalty
House of Hashim
Moroccan people of Arab descent
States and territories established in 1666
Articles which contain graphical timelines
1666 establishments in Africa
Arab dynasties
16th-century Arabs
17th-century Arabs
18th-century Arabs
19th-century Arabs
20th-century Arabs
21st-century Arabs