Mirrors for princes ( la, specula principum) or mirrors of princes, are an educational literary

genre Genre () is any form or type of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially-agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other ...

, in a loose sense of the word, of

political Politics (from , ) is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status. The branch of social science that studi ...

writings during the

Early Middle Ages The Early Middle Ages (or early medieval period), sometimes controversially referred to as the Dark Ages, is typically regarded by historians as lasting from the late 5th or early 6th century to the 10th century. They marked the start of the M ...

, the

High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the period of European history that lasted from AD 1000 to 1300. The High Middle Ages were preceded by the Early Middle Ages and were followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended around AD ...

, the

late middle ages The Late Middle Ages or Late Medieval Period was the period of European history lasting from AD 1300 to 1500. The Late Middle Ages followed the High Middle Ages and preceded the onset of the early modern period (and in much of Europe, the Ren ...

and the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass id ...

. They are part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre. The term itself is medieval, as it appears as early as the 12th century, under the words ''speculum regum'', and may have been used earlier than that. The genre concept may have come from the popular speculum literature that was popular between the 12th through 16th centuries, which focused on knowledge of a particular subject matter. These texts most frequently take the form of textbooks which directly instruct kings, princes or lesser rulers on certain aspects of

governance Governance is the process of interactions through the laws, norms, power or language of an organized society over a social system ( family, tribe, formal or informal organization, a territory or across territories). It is done by the ...

and

behaviour Behavior (American English) or behaviour ( British English) is the range of actions and mannerisms made by individuals, organisms, systems or artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or organisms as w ...

. But in a broader sense the term is also used to cover histories or literary works aimed at creating images of kings for imitation or avoidance. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to power. One could view them as a species of prototypical

self-help Self-help or self-improvement is a self-guided improvement''APA Dictionary of Physicology'', 1st ed., Gary R. VandenBos, ed., Washington: American Psychological Association, 2007.—economically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with a subst ...

book or study of

leadership Leadership, both as a research area and as a practical skill, encompasses the ability of an individual, group or organization to "lead", influence or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The word "leadership" often gets v ...

before the concept of a "leader" became more generalised than the concept of a monarchical

head-of-state A head of state (or chief of state) is the public persona who officially embodies a state Foakes, pp. 110–11 "he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representatitve of its international persona." in its unity and le ...

. One of the earliest works was written by Sedulius Scottus ( 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem ( 9th century). Possibly the best known European "mirror" is ''

The Prince ''The Prince'' ( it, Il Principe ; la, De Principatibus) is a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals. The general theme of ''Th ...

'' ( 1513) by Niccolo Machiavelli, although this was not the most typical example.

Antiquity

Greek and Roman

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; grc, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies of ...

, '' The Education of Cyrus'' (c. 370BC) *

Isocrates Isocrates (; grc, Ἰσοκράτης ; 436–338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, one of the ten Attic orators. Among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time, Isocrates made many contributions to rhetoric and education thro ...

, ''To Nicocles'' and ''Evagoras'' *

Philodemus Philodemus of Gadara ( grc-gre, Φιλόδημος ὁ Γαδαρεύς, ''Philodēmos'', "love of the people"; c. 110 – prob. c. 40 or 35 BC) was an Arabic Epicurean philosopher and poet. He studied under Zeno of Sidon in Athens, before movi ...

, ''The Good King According to Homer'' * Dio Chrysostom, ''The First Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Second Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Third Discourse on Kingship'' and ''The Fourth Discourse on Kingship'' *

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the est ...

, ''

De Officiis ''De Officiis'' (''On Duties'' or ''On Obligations'') is a political and ethical treatise by the Roman orator, philosopher, and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero written in 44 BC. The treatise is divided into three books, in which Cicero expounds ...

'' (44BC) * Seneca, ''

De Clementia ''De Clementia'' (frequently translated as ''On Mercy'' in English) is a two volume (incomplete) hortatory essay written in AD 55–56 by Seneca the Younger, a Roman Stoic philosopher, to the emperor Nero in the first five years of his reign. D ...

'' (55-56AD) *

Plutarch Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ...

, ''

Moralia The ''Moralia'' ( grc, Ἠθικά ''Ethika''; loosely translated as "Morals" or "Matters relating to customs and mores") is a group of manuscripts dating from the 10th–13th centuries, traditionally ascribed to the 1st-century Greek scholar Plu ...

'' (c.100AD) * Eusebius of Caesarea's ''

Life of Constantine ''Life of Constantine the Great'' ( grc-gre, Βίος Μεγάλου Κωνσταντίνου; la, Vita Constantini) is a panegyric written in Greek in honor of Constantine the Great by Eusebius of Caesarea in the 4th century AD. It was never c ...

'' may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy. (c. 339AD) *

Ambrose Ambrose of Milan ( la, Aurelius Ambrosius; ), venerated as Saint Ambrose, ; lmo, Sant Ambroeus . was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promo ...

, ''De officiis ministrorum'' (c. 391AD) although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original. *

Augustine of Hippo Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North A ...

The City of God ''On the City of God Against the Pagans'' ( la, De civitate Dei contra paganos), often called ''The City of God'', is a book of Christian philosophy written in Latin by Augustine of Hippo in the early 5th century AD. The book was in response ...

, Book V, chapter 24, "The true felicity of Christian Emperors." (c.413-426AD)

Indian

Vishnu Sharma Sharma (Sanskrit: विष्णुशर्मन् / विष्णुशर्मा) was an Indian scholar and author who wrote the '' Panchatantra'', a collection of fables. Works Panchatantra is one of the most widely translated non-r ...

, ''

Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' ( IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, sa, पञ्चतन्त्र, "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame stor ...

'' (Between 200 BC - 300AD) *

Chanakya Chanakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य; IAST: ', ; 375–283 BCE) was an ancient Indian polymath who was active as a teacher, author, strategist, philosopher, economist, jurist, and royal advisor. He is traditionally identified as Kauṭilya ...

, ''

Arthashastra The ''Arthashastra'' ( sa, अर्थशास्त्रम्, ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, political science, economic policy and military strategy. Kautilya, also identified as Vishnugupta and Chanakya, is ...

'' (Between 200BC - 300AD) *

Narayan Pandit Narayan Pandit ( Hindi: नारायण पण्डित), or Narayana, was the Brāhmaṇa author of the '' Sanskrit'' treatise called '' Hitopadesha'' — a work based primarily on the ''Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' (IAST: ...

, '' Hitopdesha'' (c. 770 - 860AD)

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

Gregory of Tours Gregory of Tours (30 November 538 – 17 November 594 AD) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours, which made him a leading prelate of the area that had been previously referred to as Gaul by the Romans. He was born Georgius Florent ...

' ''History of the Franks'' (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife. *''

De duodecim abusivis saeculi (“On the Twelve Abuses of the World”), also titled simply ''De duodecim abusivis'', is a Hiberno-Latin treatise on social and political morality written by an anonymous Irish author between 630 and 700, or between 630 and 650. During the Middl ...

'', 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a

Hiberno-Latin Hiberno-Latin, also called Hisperic Latin, was a learned style of literary Latin first used and subsequently spread by Irish monks during the period from the sixth century to the tenth century. Vocabulary and influence Hiberno-Latin was notab ...

treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent. *

Bede Bede ( ; ang, Bǣda , ; 672/326 May 735), also known as Saint Bede, The Venerable Bede, and Bede the Venerable ( la, Beda Venerabilis), was an English monk at the monastery of St Peter and its companion monastery of St Paul in the Kingdom ...

's ''

Ecclesiastical History of the English People The ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People'' ( la, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum), written by Bede in about AD 731, is a history of the Christian Churches in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict be ...

'' (731AD) specifically states that the purpose of the study of history is to present examples for either imitation or avoidance. Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include: *

Cathwulf Cathwulf ( la, Cathuulfus) was an Anglo-Saxon learned man active in Francia.: "probably not an Irishman, as has sometimes been thought, but an Anglo-Saxon active on the Continent"; : "generally assumed to be Anglo-Saxon, but given the Irish leanin ...

, ''Epistolae'' (775) written for

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( , ) or Charles the Great ( la, Carolus Magnus; german: Karl der Große; 2 April 747 – 28 January 814), a member of the Carolingian dynasty, was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and the first Em ...

. * Paulinus of Aquileia, ''Liber exhortationis'' (795), for Count Heiric of Friuli. *

Alcuin Alcuin of York (; la, Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus; 735 – 19 May 804) – also called Ealhwine, Alhwin, or Alchoin – was a scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student o ...

, ''De virtutibus et vitiis'' (c. 799–800), written for Count Wido of Brittany. *

Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel< OSB ( 770 – c. 840) was a

Benedictine

monk of

, ''Via regia'' (813), arguably the first true European mirror for princes, dedicated to

Louis the Pious Louis the Pious (german: Ludwig der Fromme; french: Louis le Pieux; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair, and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aqui ...

, when king of Aquitania. * Einhard's ''

Vita Karoli Magni ''Vita Karoli Magni'' (''Life of Charlemagne'') is a biography of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, written by Einhard.Ogg, p. 109 The ''Life of Charlemagne'' is a 33 chapter long account starting with the full of the Merovi ...

'' (c. 814) which idolises

's reign as something for other rulers to aspire to. *

Jonas of Orléans Jonas (c. 760–843) was Bishop of Orléans and played a major political role during the reign of Emperor Louis the Pious. Jonas was born in Aquitaine. Probably a cleric by the 780s, he served at the court of Louis the Pious, who ruled as K ...

, ''De Institutione Laicali'' (818-828), (originally) written for Count

Matfrid of Orléans Matfrid (died 836) was the Frankish count of Orléans in the reign of Emperor Louis the Pious. He is usually thought to have been the first of the lineage known to historians as the Matfridings (German ''Matfridinger'' or ''Matfriede''). Matfrid wa ...

. *

, ''De Institutione Regia'' (c. 831), written for

Pepin I of Aquitaine Pepin I or Pepin I of Aquitaine (French: ''Pépin''; 797 – 13 December 838) was King of Aquitaine and Duke of Maine. Pepin was the second son of Emperor Louis the Pious and his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye. When his father assigned ...

, apparently on the basis of a council at Orléans. * Dhuoda, (841-843) ''Liber manualis'', written for her son William. *

Agobard of Lyons Agobard of Lyon (–840) was a Spanish-born priest and archbishop of Lyon, during the Carolingian Renaissance. The author of multiple treatises, ranging in subject matter from the iconoclast controversy to Spanish Adoptionism to critiques of t ...

, his letters, ''A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires'' and the ''Liber Apologeticus''. * Sedulius Scottus, ''De rectoribus christianis'' 'On Christian rulers' (c. 855-9), addressed to King Lothar II of Lotharingia. *

Hincmar of Reims Hincmar (; ; la, Hincmarus; 806 – 21 December 882), archbishop of Reims, was a Frankish jurist and theologian, as well as the friend, advisor and propagandist of Charles the Bald. He belonged to a noble family of northern Francia. Biography Ea ...

, ''De regis persona'' 'The Person of the King' *

, '' De ordine palatii'' 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace. Irish texts *see ''De duodecim abusivis saeculi'' above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures. *''Audacht Morainn'' ('The Testament of Morand'), written c. 700, an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'. The legendary wise judge Morand is said to have sent advice to Feradach Find Fechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara. *''Tecosca Cormaic'', 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son

Cairbre Lifechair Cairbre Lifechair ("lover of the Liffey"), son of Cormac mac Airt, was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland. He came to the throne after the death of Eochaid Gonnat. During his time Bresal Belach was ...

about a variety of matters. *''Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn'' 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in ''

Serglige Con Culainn ''Serglige Con Culainn'' ( en, The Sick-Bed of Cú Chulainn or The Wasting Sickness of Cúchulainn), also known as ''Oenét Emire'' ( en, The Only Jealousy of Emer) is a narrative from the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. It tells of a curse th ...

''), addressed to

Lugaid Réoderg Lugaid Riab nDerg ("the red-striped") or Réoderg ("Red Sky"), son of the three ''findemna'', triplet sons of Eochu Feidlech, and their sister Clothru was, according to medieval Irish legend and historical tradition, a High King of Ireland. Con ...

. *''Tecosc Cuscraid'' 'The instruction of Cuscraid' *''Senbríathra Fithail'' 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal' *''Briathra Flainn Fína'' 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'

High and Late Middle Ages

Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen ( hu, Szent István király ; la, Sanctus Stephanus; sk, Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký; 975 – 15 August 1038), was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the ...

, ''

Admonitions The ''Admonitions'' ( hu, Intelmek; la, Libellus de institutione morum) is a mirror for princesa literary work summarizing the principles of governmentcompleted in the 1010s or 1020s for King Stephen I of Hungary's son and heir, Emeric. About a ...

'' (1010s), written for his son and

heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an heir apparent or a new heir presumptive with a better claim to the position in question. ...

Saint Emeric. *

John of Salisbury John of Salisbury (late 1110s – 25 October 1180), who described himself as Johannes Parvus ("John the Little"), was an English author, philosopher, educationalist, diplomat and bishop of Chartres. Early life and education Born at Salisbury, ...

, ''Policraticus ='' 'The Statesman's Book' (1159). *

Godfrey of Viterbo Godfrey of ViterboAlso called Geoffrey of Viterbo, in Italian ''Goffredo da Viterbo'' and in German ''Gottfried von Viterbo'', from Latin ''Gaufridus'', ''Godefridus'' or ''Gotefredus Viterbensis''. (c. 1120 – c. 1196) was a Roman Catholic chroni ...

, ''Speculum regum'' (c. 1183), dedicated to his Staufian imperial patrons, father

Frederick Barbarossa Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (german: link=no, Friedrich I, it, Federico I), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death 35 years later. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt ...

and son Henry VI. *

Pseudo-Plutarch Pseudo-Plutarch is the conventional name given to the actual, but unknown, authors of a number of pseudepigrapha (falsely attributed works) attributed to Plutarch but now known to have not been written by him. Some of these works were included in s ...

, ''Institutio Traiani'' (first quoted in John of Salisbury's ''Policraticus''). *

Gerald of Wales Gerald of Wales ( la, Giraldus Cambrensis; cy, Gerallt Gymro; french: Gerald de Barri; ) was a Cambro-Norman priest and historian. As a royal clerk to the king and two archbishops, he travelled widely and wrote extensively. He studied and taugh ...

, ''

De instructione principis ''De principis instructione'' (''Instruction for a Ruler'') is a Latin work by Gerald of Wales. It is divided into three "Distinctions". The first contains moral precepts and reflections; the second and third deal with the history of the later 12th ...

'' (c. 1193) *

Jean de Limoges Jean may refer to: People * Jean (female given name) * Jean (male given name) * Jean (surname) Fictional characters * Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character * Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations * Jean ...

, '' Somnium morale Pharaonis'' (c. 1234-60), written for

Thibaut IV Theobald I (french: Thibaut, es, Teobaldo; 30 May 1201 – 8 July 1253), also called the Troubadour and the Posthumous, was Count of Champagne (as Theobald IV) from birth and King of Navarre from 1234. He initiated the Barons' Crusade, was famous ...

Thibaut V Thibaut is a name of French origin, a form of Theobald. Surname * Anton Friedrich Justus Thibaut (17721840), German jurist * Bernhard Friedrich Thibaut (17751832), German mathematician * François Thibaut (born 1948), American educator * George ...

*'' Konungs skuggsjá'' or '' Speculum regale'', (c. 1250) Norwegian treatise originally written for King

Magnús lagabœtir Magnus Haakonsson ( non, Magnús Hákonarson, no, Magnus Håkonsson, label=Modern Norwegian; 1 (or 3) May 1238 – 9 May 1280) was King of Norway (as Magnus VI) from 1263 to 1280 (junior king from 1257). One of his greatest achievements was the m ...

. *

Vincent of Beauvais Vincent of Beauvais ( la, Vincentius Bellovacensis or ''Vincentius Burgundus''; c. 1264) was a Dominican friar at the Cistercian monastery of Royaumont Abbey, France. He is known mostly for his '' Speculum Maius'' (''Great mirror''), a major wor ...

, ''De eruditione filiorum nobilium'' = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (c. 1250). *

Guibert of Tournai Guibert of Tournai (Latin: ''Guibertus'' or ''Gilbertus Tournacensis''; c. 1200 – 1284) was a French Franciscan friar, known for his sermons and other writings. Life Guibert was born near Tournai around 1200. He attended the University of Par ...

, ''Eruditio regum et principum = The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for

Louis IX Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), commonly known as Saint Louis or Louis the Saint, was King of France from 1226 to 1270, and the most illustrious of the Direct Capetians. He was crowned in Reims at the age of 12, following the ...

. *

, ''De modo addiscendi'' = 'On the Method of Learning' (c. 1260) written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of

Guy of Flanders Guy of Dampierre (french: Gui de Dampierre; nl, Gwijde van Dampierre) ( – 7 March 1305, Compiègne) was the Count of Flanders (1251–1305) and Marquis of Namur (1264–1305). He was a prisoner of the French when his Flemings defeated the ...

. *

Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas, OP (; it, Tommaso d'Aquino, lit=Thomas of Aquino; 1225 – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican friar and priest who was an influential philosopher, theologian and jurist in the tradition of scholasticism; he is known wi ...

, ''De regno'' (c. 1260), often conflated with the ''De regimine principum'' of Ptolemy of Lucca * Vincent de Beauvais, ''De morali principis institutione ='' 'On the Moral Instruction of the Prince' (c. 1262), probably written for Louis IX. *

William Peraldus William Perault, (c. 1190 – 1271), also spelled Perauld; Latinized Peraldus or Peraltus, was a Dominican writer and preacher. Life He was born at Peyraud, France. He studied at the Sorbonne University of Paris, and there, being drawn to th ...

, ''De eruditione principum'' = 'On the Education of Princes' (c. 1265), formerly attributed to

. *

Brunetto Latini Brunetto Latini (who signed his name ''Burnectus Latinus'' in Latin and ''Burnecto Latino'' in Italian; –1294) was an Italian philosopher, scholar, notary, politician and statesman. Life Brunetto Latini was born in Florence in 1220 to a Tusc ...

, ''Li livres dou trésor'' (1266), written for

Charles of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou, was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the second House of Anjou. He was Count of Provence (1246–85) and Forcalquier (1246–48, 1256–85) ...

. *

Giles of Rome Giles of Rome O.S.A. ( Latin: ''Aegidius Romanus''; Italian: ''Egidio Colonna''; c. 1243 – 22 December 1316), was a Medieval philosopher and Scholastic theologian and a friar of the Order of St Augustine, who was also appointed to the ...

, ''De regimine principum'' = 'On the Rule of Princes' (c. 1278), written for

Philip the Fair Philip IV (April–June 1268 – 29 November 1314), called Philip the Fair (french: Philippe le Bel), was King of France from 1285 to 1314. By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also King of Navarre as Philip I from 1 ...

. * Engelbert of Admont, ''Speculum virtutum moralium'' (c. 1310), written for

Otto, Duke of Austria Otto, ''the Merry'' (german: der Fröhliche; 23 July 1301 – 17 February 1339), a member of the House of Habsburg, was Duke of Austria and Styria from 1330, as well as Duke of Carinthia from 1335 until his death. He ruled jointly with his elde ...

and

Albert II, Duke of Austria Albert II (12 December 1298 – 16 August 1358), known as ''the Wise'' or ''the Lame'', a member of the House of Habsburg, was duke of Austria and Styria from 1330, as well as duke of Carinthia and margrave of Carniola from 1335 until his de ...

* Paolino Veneto, ''Trattato de regimine rectoris'' (1313×1315), written for the Marino Badoer,

duke of Crete This is a list of the rulers and governors of the island of Crete throughout its history. Antiquity Crete was conquered for the Roman Republic by Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus in 69 BC and united with the Cyrenaica in the province of Cre ...

* William of Pagula, ''Speculum regis'', written for

Edward III of England Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring r ...

(c. 1331). * Don Juan Manuel, '' Tales of Count Lucanor'' (1335). * Alvarus Pelagius, ''Speculum regum'' (1340s), written for

Alfonso XI of Castile Alfonso XI (13 August 131126 March 1350), called the Avenger (''el Justiciero''), was King of Castile and León. He was the son of Ferdinand IV of Castile and his wife Constance of Portugal. Upon his father's death in 1312, several disputes ...

. *''

Um styrilsi kununga ok höfþinga UM or um may refer to: Universities * U of M (disambiguation) or UM, abbreviation for various universities Businesses * Universal McCann, a global advertising and media agency * United Motors Company, a former name of American automotive parts s ...

'' (1350s), Old Swedish treatise *''The III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince'' (c. 1350), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King

John II of France John II (french: Jean II; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: ''Jean le Bon''), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which kille ...

. * Philip of Leyden, ''De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler")'' (c. 1355), dedicated to William V of Holland * Evrart de Trémaugon, ''Le songe du verger'' (1376). *''Der Fürsten reget'', (c. 1370-1380) dedicated to

William, Duke of Austria William ( – 15 July 1406), known as William the Courteous (german: Wilhelm der Freundliche), a member of the House of Habsburg and Wilhelm, was Duke of Austria from 1386. As head of the Leopoldian line, he ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies ...

Christine de Pizan Christine de Pizan or Pisan (), born Cristina da Pizzano (September 1364 – c. 1430), was an Italian poet and court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French dukes. Christine de Pizan served as a court writer in medieval Franc ...

, ''Epistre Othea a Hector'' (c. 1400), ''Livre du corps de policie'' (1407), ''Livre de la paix'' (between 1412 and 1414). * Pierre Salmon, ''Dialogues'' (1409, rev. 1412/15), dedicated to

Charles VI of France Charles VI (3 December 136821 October 1422), nicknamed the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé) and later the Mad (french: le Fol or ''le Fou''), was King of France from 1380 until his death in 1422. He is known for his mental illness and psychotic ...

* Thomas Hoccleve, ''De regimine principum'' (early 1410s) written for

Henry V of England Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1413 until his death in 1422. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the H ...

. *

Duarte of Portugal Edward ( pt, Duarte (; 31 October 1391 – 9 September 1438), also called Edward the King Philosopher (''Duarte o Rei-Filósofo'') or the Eloquent (''o Eloquente''), was the King of Portugal from 1433 until his death. He was born in Viseu, the son ...

, ''Leal Conselheiro'' (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal. * John Ireland, ''The Meroure of Wysedome'', (1490) written for

James IV of Scotland James IV (17 March 1473 – 9 September 1513) was King of Scotland from 11 June 1488 until his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. He inherited the throne at the age of fifteen on the death of his father, James III, at the Battle of Sauc ...

. *

Phillipus de Bergamo __NOTOC__ This is a list of Roman cognomen, cognomina. A Abercius (disambiguation), Abercius, Abito, Abundantius (consul), Abundantius, Abundius (given name), Abundius, Abundus, Aburianus, Acacius (disambiguation), Acacius, Acaunus, Acceptu ...

, ''Spiegel der regyrunge'' (15th century) translated into middle German *''Eyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede'', (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or city *''Von der regeronge der stede'', (15th century) text written on how to govern a city

Renaissance

* John Skelton, ''

Speculum principis Mirrors for princes ( la, specula principum) or mirrors of princes, are an educational literary genre, in a loose sense of the word, of political writings during the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, the late middle ages and the Renais ...

'' (1501), lost work written for the then future

Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is best known for his six marriages, and for his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. His disagr ...

. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum. *

Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (; ; English: Erasmus of Rotterdam or Erasmus;''Erasmus'' was his baptismal name, given after St. Erasmus of Formiae. ''Desiderius'' was an adopted additional name, which he used from 1496. The ''Roterodamus'' w ...

, ''

Institutio principis Christiani ''The Education of a Christian Prince'' ( la, Institutio principis Christiani) is a Renaissance "how-to" book for princes, by Desiderius Erasmus, which advises the reader on how to be a good Christian prince. The book was dedicated to Princ ...

'' 'Education of a Christian Prince' (1516), written as advice to King Charles of Spain (the later

Charles V Charles V may refer to: * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise * Charles V, Duke of Lorraine (1643–1690) * Infant ...

). *

Martin Luther Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Protestant Reformation and the namesake of Luther ...

. '' On Secular Authority'' (1523), a letter dedicated to

John, Elector of Saxony Johann (30 June 146816 August 1532), known as Johann the Steadfast or Johann the Constant (''Johann, der Beständige''), was Elector of Saxony from 1525 until 1532 from the House of Wettin. He is notable for organising the Lutheran Church in the ...

* Baldassare Castiglione's '' The Book of the Courtier'' (1528), based on experiences of the courts of Urbino. *

Antonio de Guevara Antonio de Guevara (c. 1481 – 3 April 1545) was a Spanish bishop and author. In 1527 he was named royal chronicler to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. His first book ''Libro áureo'' first appeared in pirated editions the following year. This pse ...

, ''Relox de príncipes'' (1529), inspired by and dedicated to

, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th Century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch. * Justus Menius, '' Oeconomia christiana'' (1529), dedicated to Sibylle of Cleves for a right ordering of a Christian ''Lutheran'' household * Machiavelli, ''

Il Principe ''The Prince'' ( it, Il Principe ; la, De Principatibus) is a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals. The general theme of ''T ...

'' (c. 1513, published in 1532). *

George Buchanan George Buchanan ( gd, Seòras Bochanan; February 1506 – 28 September 1582) was a Scottish historian and humanist scholar. According to historian Keith Brown, Buchanan was "the most profound intellectual sixteenth century Scotland produced. ...

, '' De iure regni apud Scotos'' (1579), a work in the form of a Socratic dialogue on ideal kingship dedicated to the young

James VI James is a common English language surname and given name: *James (name), the typically masculine first name James * James (surname), various people with the last name James James or James City may also refer to: People * King James (disambiguat ...

of Scotland * Giovanni Botero, ''

The Reason of State ''The Reason of State'' (Italian: ''Della Ragion di Stato'') is a work of political philosophy by Italian Jesuit Giovanni Botero. The book first popularised the term '' Reason of State'' and became a political 'bestseller', going through sever ...

'' (1589), a criticism of Machiavelli's Prince. *Johann Damgaard, ''Alithia'' (1597), written for the young Danish monarch King Christian IV. * Juan de Mariana, '' De rege et regis institutione'' (Toledo, 1598); ''The King and the Education of the King'' *

James VI of Scotland James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until h ...

, '' Basilikon Doron'' (1599) written as a gift to his eldest son. *

Francisco de Quevedo Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Santibáñez Villegas, Knight of the Order of Santiago (; 14 September 1580 – 8 September 1645) was a Spanish nobleman, politician and writer of the Baroque era. Along with his lifelong rival, Luis de Góngora, ...

La política de Dios, y gobierno de Cristo LA most frequently refers to Los Angeles, the second largest city in the United States. La, LA, or L.A. may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Music * La (musical note), or A, the sixth note * "L.A.", a song by Elliott Smith on ''Figure ...

(1617–1626) ''The Politics of God and the Government of Christ'' *

Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius (; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Huig de Groot () and Hugo de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, poet and playwright. A teenage intellectual prodigy, he was born in Delf ...

, '' De jure belli ac pacis'' (1625) dedicated to

Louis XIII of France Louis XIII (; sometimes called the Just; 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 until his death in 1643 and King of Navarre (as Louis II) from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. ...

* John Gauden, '' Eikon Basilike'' (1649) published after

Charles I of England Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. He was born into the House of Stuart as the second son of King James VI of Scotland, but after ...

was beheaded.

Enlightenment

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet Jacques-Bénigne Lignel Bossuet (; 27 September 1627 – 12 April 1704) was a French bishop and theologian, renowned for his sermons and other addresses. He has been considered by many to be one of the most brilliant orators of all time and a ma ...

, ''

Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture ''Politique tirée des propres paroles de l'Écriture sainte'' (English ''Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture'') is a work of political theory composed by Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet as part of his duties as tutor for Louis XIV's h ...

'' (1709) dedicated to the future

Louis XV of France Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (french: le Bien-Aimé), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached ...

. *

Frederick II of Prussia Frederick II (german: Friedrich II.; 24 January 171217 August 1786) was King in Prussia from 1740 until 1772, and King of Prussia from 1772 until his death in 1786. His most significant accomplishments include his military successes in the S ...

, '' Anti-Machiavel'' (1740) a critique of Machiavelli's Prince. *

, ''Letter addressed to his nephew,

Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg Charles Eugene (German: ''Carl Eugen''; 11 February 1728 – 24 October 1793), Duke of Württemberg, was the eldest son, and successor, of Charles Alexander; his mother was Princess Marie Auguste of Thurn and Taxis. Life Born in Brussels, he ...

'' (6 February 1744)

Modern

Walter Bagehot Walter Bagehot ( ; 3 February 1826 – 24 March 1877) was an English journalist, businessman, and essayist, who wrote extensively about government, economics, literature and race. He is known for co-founding the ''National Review'' in 1855 ...

, ''

The English Constitution ''The English Constitution'' is a book by Walter Bagehot. First serialised in '' The Fortnightly Review'' between 15 May 1865 and 1 January 1867, and later published in book form in 1867, it explores the constitution of the United Kingdom—s ...

'' (1867) studied by generations of British monarchs for its insight on their role in a constitutional monarchy.

Byzantine texts

Synesius Synesius (; el, Συνέσιος; c. 373 – c. 414), was a Greek bishop of Ptolemais in ancient Libya, a part of the Western Pentapolis of Cyrenaica after 410. He was born of wealthy parents at Balagrae (now Bayda, Libya) near Cyrene betwe ...

, Bishop of Cyrene, ''De regno'', speech delivered to emperor

Arcadius Arcadius ( grc-gre, Ἀρκάδιος ; 377 – 1 May 408) was Roman emperor from 383 to 408. He was the eldest son of the ''Augustus'' Theodosius I () and his first wife Aelia Flaccilla, and the brother of Honorius (). Arcadius ruled the e ...

. * Agapetus the deacon, speech delivered to emperor

Justinian I Justinian I (; la, Iustinianus, ; grc-gre, Ἰουστινιανός ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was the Byzantine emperor from 527 to 565. His reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovat ...

. (c. 530s) * Basil I the Macedonian, Admonitory chapters I and II to his son emperor

Leo VI the Wise Leo VI, called the Wise ( gr, Λέων ὁ Σοφός, Léōn ho Sophós, 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well r ...

Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (; 17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe K ...

, '' De Administrando Imperio'', a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantine's son and successor, the Emperor

Romanos II Romanos II Porphyrogenitus ( gr, Ρωμανός, 938 – 15 March 963) was Byzantine Emperor from 959 to 963. He succeeded his father Constantine VII at the age of twenty-one and died suddenly and mysteriously four years later. His son Bas ...

. (948 - 952) *

Kekaumenos Kekaumenos ( el, Κεκαυμένος) is the family name of the otherwise unidentified Byzantine author of the '' Strategikon'', a manual on military and household affairs composed c. 1078. He was apparently of Georgian-Armenian origin and the gra ...

, '' Strategikon'' (1075/1078), chapters 77 - 91. *Archbishop

Theophylact of Ohrid Theophylact ( gr, Θεοφύλακτος, bg, Теофилакт; around 1055after 1107) was a Byzantine archbishop of Ohrid and commentator on the Bible. Life Theophylact was born in the mid-11th century at Euripus (Chalcis) in Euboea, at t ...

, ''Paideia Basilike'' (Lat. ''Institutio Regia'') (c. 1088), addressed to his pupil Constantine Doukas, son of Emperor

Michael VII Doukas Michael VII Doukas or Ducas ( gr, Μιχαήλ Δούκας), nicknamed Parapinakes ( gr, Παραπινάκης, lit. "minus a quarter", with reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine e ...

. *''Spaneas'' or ''Didaskalia Parainetike'', modelled on the Isocratean ''Ad Demonicum'' (12th century) * Nikephoros Blemmydes, ''Andrias Basilikos'' (Lat. ''Regia statua'', "Statue of a King"), written for

Theodore II Laskaris Theodore II Doukas Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris ( gr, Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις, Theodōros Doukas Laskaris; 1221/1222 – 16 August 1258) was Emperor of Nicaea from 1254 to 1258. He was the only child of Emperor John I ...

, the future

Nicaean emperor The Empire of Nicaea or the Nicene Empire is the conventional historiographic name for the largest of the three Byzantine Greek''A Short history of Greece from early times to 1964'' by W. A. Heurtley, H. C. Darby, C. W. Crawley, C. M. Woodhouse ...

(c. 1250) *

Thomas Magistros Thomas, surnamed Magister or Magistros ( el, Θωμάς Μάγιστρος), also known by the monastic name Theodoulos Monachos, was a native of Thessalonica, a Byzantine scholar and grammarian and confidential adviser of Andronikos II Palaiologos ...

, ''La '' addressed to Andronikos II Palaiologos. (14th century) *

Manuel II Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos or Palaeologus ( gr, Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος, Manouēl Palaiológos; 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425) was Byzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. Shortly before his death he was tonsured a monk and received the na ...

, ''Paideia Regia'' dedicated to his son, John VIII Palaiologos. (15th century)

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Ewen-Nāmag
(“Book of Rules”): On the Sasanian manners, customs, skills, and arts, sciences, etc. (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)
Andarz
literature. (Between 3rd - 7th century AD)

Islamic texts

Abd al-Hamid al-Katib Abd al-Hamid ibn Yahya al-Katib ( ar, عبد الحميد بن يحيى الكاتب) was the secretary to the last Umayyad Caliph, Marwan II, and a supreme stylist of early Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken pri ...

, letter to

Abdallah Abd Allah ( ar, عبدالله, translit=ʻAbd Allāh), also spelled Abdallah, Abdellah, Abdollah, Abdullah and many others, is an Arabic name meaning "Servant of God". It is built from the Arabic words '' abd'' () and '' Allāh'' (). Although the ...

son of the Umayyad caliph

Marwan II Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan ibn al-Hakam ( ar, مروان بن محمد بن مروان بن الحكم, Marwān ibn Muḥammad ibn Marwān ibn al-Ḥakam; – 6 August 750), commonly known as Marwan II, was the fourteenth and last caliph of ...

(c. 750) * Ibn al-Muqaffa, '' Kalila wa Dimna'' (c. 750) * Abu Yahya ibn al-Batriq (d. 815) ''Sirr al-Asrar'' () '

Secretum Secretorum The or (from Latin: "The Secret of Secrets"), also known as the ( ar, كتاب سر الأسرار, lit=The Secret Book of Secrets), is a pseudo-Aristotelian treatise which purports to be a letter from Aristotle to his student Alexander ...

' *

Al-Farabi Abu Nasr Muhammad Al-Farabi ( fa, ابونصر محمد فارابی), ( ar, أبو نصر محمد الفارابي), known in the West as Alpharabius; (c. 872 – between 14 December, 950 and 12 January, 951)PDF version was a renowned early Is ...

(c. 872–950), ''Fusul al-Madani'' 'Aphorisms of a Statesman' * Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi (981–1027), ''Kitab fi'l-si'yasa'' * Al-Tha'alibi (d. 1038), ''Ādāb al-mulūk'' *

Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik Abu al-Wafa' al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik ( ar, ابو الوفاء المبشّر بن فاتك ) was an Arab philosopher and scholar well versed in the mathematical sciences and also wrote on logic and medicine. He was born in Damascus but lived mai ...

(fl.1053, Damascus), ''Mukhtār al-Hikam wa-Maḥāsin al-Kalim'' () 'Selected Maxims and Aphorisms' *''

Qabus nama ''Qabus-nama'' or ''Qabus-nameh'' (variations: ''Qabusnamah'', ''Qabousnameh'', ''Ghabousnameh'', or ''Ghaboosnameh'', in Persian: or , "Book of Kavus"), ''Mirror of Princes'', is a major work of Persian literature, from the eleventh century ( ...

'' (1082) – a Persian example of the genre *

Nizam al-Mulk Abu Ali Hasan ibn Ali Tusi (April 10, 1018 – October 14, 1092), better known by his honorific title of Nizam al-Mulk ( fa, , , Order of the Realm) was a Persian scholar, jurist, political philosopher and Vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising ...

, '' Siyāset-nāmeh'' 'Book of Government' (c. 1090) (Persian) * Al-Imam al-Hadrami (d. 1095) - '' Kitâb al-Ishâra'' *

Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111; ), full name (), and known in Persian-speaking countries as Imam Muhammad-i Ghazali (Persian: امام محمد غزالی) or in Medieval Europe by the Latinized as Algazelus or Algazel, was a Persian polym ...

(1058–1111), ''Nasihat al-muluk'' 'Counsel to Princes' (Persian) * Yusuf Balasaghuni, ''

Kutadgu Bilig The ''Kutadgu Bilig'' or ''Qutadğu Bilig'' (; Middle Turkic: ), is an 11th century work written by Yūsuf Balasaguni for the prince of Kashgar. The text reflects the author's and his society's beliefs, feelings and practices with regard to quite ...

'' (11th century) * At-Turtushi, '' Siraj al-Muluk'' 'The Lamp of Kings' (c. 1121) * Ibn Ẓafar al-Ṣiqillī's (12th century) ''Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'udwan al-atba'' 'Consolation for the Ruler during the Hostility of Subjects'; published in English (1852) as, ''Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort'' *''Bahr Al-Fava'id'' 'Sea of (Precious) Virtues', compiled in the 12th century. *

Ibn Arabi Ibn ʿArabī ( ar, ابن عربي, ; full name: , ; 1165–1240), nicknamed al-Qushayrī (, ) and Sulṭān al-ʿĀrifīn (, , ' Sultan of the Knowers'), was an Arab Andalusian Muslim scholar, mystic, poet, and philosopher, extremely influen ...

, ''Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah)'' (1194-1201AD/590-598AH) * Saadi's Gulistan'', chapter I, "The Manners of Kings", (1258, Persian). *

Hussain Vaiz Kashifi Hussein, Hussain, Hossein, Hossain, Huseyn, Husayn, Husein or Husain (; ar, حُسَيْن ), coming from the triconsonantal root Ḥ-S-i-N ( ar, ح س ی ن, link=no), is an Arabic name which is the diminutive of Hassan, meaning "good", "h ...

's Aklhaq i Muhsini (composed in Persian AH 900/AD 1495), translated into English as "The Morals Of The Beneficent" in the mid 19th century by Henry George Keene * Lütfi Pasha ''Asafname'' (Mid-16th century) *Muhammad al-Baqir Najm-I Sani, ''Mau‘izah-i Jahangiri'' 'Admonition of Jahāngír' or 'Advice on the art of governance' (1612 - 1613).

Slavonic texts

*Patriarch

Photios I of Constantinople Photios I ( el, Φώτιος, ''Phōtios''; c. 810/820 – 6 February 893), also spelled PhotiusFr. Justin Taylor, essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., & Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Materia ...

, letter addressed to Boris I of Bulgaria (867AD) *Poucheniye (Instruction) of Vladmir Monomakh to his children (1120s). * Izmaragd (c. 14th century) moral guide and education for children * Patriarch Antony IV of Constantinople, letter to

Vasily I of Moscow Vasily I Dmitriyevich ( rus, Василий I Дмитриевич, Vasiliy I Dmitriyevich; 30 December 137127 February 1425) was the Grand Prince of Moscow ( r. 1389–1425), heir of Dmitry Donskoy (r. 1359–1389). He ruled as a Golden Hor ...

(1393). * Domostroy (c. 15th century) * Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521), ''The teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie'', one of the earliest literary works in

Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and s ...

Mikhail Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (; russian: Михаил (Михайло) Васильевич Ломоносов, p=mʲɪxɐˈil vɐˈsʲilʲjɪvʲɪtɕ , a=Ru-Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov.ogg; – ) was a Russian polymath, scientist and wri ...

, (1760) ''Panegyric to the Sovereign Emperor, Peter the Great''

Chinese texts

Ancient

Tao Te Ching The ''Tao Te Ching'' (, ; ) is a Chinese classic text written around 400 BC and traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship, date of composition and date of compilation are debated. The oldest excavated portion d ...

– Lao Tzu Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC) *

Mencius Mencius ( ); born Mèng Kē (); or Mèngzǐ (; 372–289 BC) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher who has often been described as the "second Sage", that is, second to Confucius himself. He is part of Confucius' fourth generation of disciple ...

– moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC) * Han Fei Zi –

Legalist Legalist, Inc. is an investment firm that specializes in alternative assets in the private credit industry. Today the firm manages approximately $750 million across three separate strategies: litigation finance, bankruptcy (debtor-in-possession or ...

text advice for a ruler and the art of statecraft (mid-3rd century BC) dedicated to

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...

The Book of Lord Shang The ''Book of Lord Shang'' () is an ancient Chinese text from the 3rd century BC, regarded as a foundational work of " Chinese Legalism". The earliest surviving of such texts (the second being the Han Feizi), it is named for and to some extent a ...

(Multiple authors spanning centuries, starting from c. 330BC) text advice useful for a ruler and statecraft * Shizi (c. 330BC) particularly section 15, ''The Ruler's Governance''

Imperial Dynasties

Han Dynasty

* Lu Jia (c.200BC) ''Xin Yu'' 新语 ("New Discourses"), treatise on why empires rise and fall. *

Ban Biao Ban Biao (, 3–54 CE), courtesy name (), was a Chinese historian and politician born in what is now Xianyang, Shaanxi during the Han Dynasty. He was the nephew of Consort Ban, a famous poet and concubine to Emperor Cheng. Ban Biao began the ...

(c.50AD)

Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' or ''History of the Former Han'' (Qián Hàn Shū,《前汉书》) is a history of China finished in 111AD, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. ...

, Volume 23, Treatise on Punishment and Law *

(c.50AD)

Treatise on the Mandate of Kings A treatise is a formal and systematic written discourse on some subject, generally longer and treating it in greater depth than an essay, and more concerned with investigating or exposing the principles of the subject and its conclusions."Treat ...

(王命論) covers the concept of sovereignty that would influence later Chinese texts.

Tang Dynasty

Ouyang Xun Ouyang Xun (; 557–641), courtesy name Xinben (), was a Chinese calligrapher, politician, and writer of the early Tang dynasty. He was born in Hunan, Changsha, to a family of government officials; and died in modern Anhui province. Achievements ...

(624AD) ''Yiwen leiju'' 藝文類聚 ("Classified collection based on the Classics and other literature") *

Kong Yingda Kong Yingda (; 574 – 648), courtesy names Chongyuan () and Zhongda (), was a Chinese philosopher during the Sui and Tang dynasty. An amorous Confucianist, who is considered one of the most influential Confucian scholars in Chinese history. ...

(642AD) ''Wujing Zhengyi'' 五經正義 ("Correct Meaning of the Five Classics") * Liu Zhi (7th century AD) ''Zhengdian'' 政典 ("Manual of politics"), a political encyclopaedia useful for young boys taking the

Imperial Examination The imperial examination (; lit. "subject recommendation") refers to a civil-service examination system in Imperial China, administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureaucrats by ...

Song Dynasty

Ouyang Xiu Ouyang Xiu (; 1007 – 1072 CE), courtesy name Yongshu, also known by his art names Zuiweng () and Liu Yi Jushi (), was a Chinese historian, calligrapher, epigrapher, essayist, poet, and politician of the Song dynasty. He was a renowned writer ...

(1060AD) New Book of Tang, carries a treatise on how to select and appoint officials. *

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the monumental history book ''Zizhi Tongjian''. Sima was ...

(1084AD)

Zizhi Tongjian ''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynas ...

(''Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance'') *

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...

(1172AD)

Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu The ''Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu'' (資治通鑑綱目, "Outline and Details of the '' Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Government''"), also known as the ''Tongjian Gangmu'' or ''Gangmu'', is an 1172 Chinese history book based on Sima Guang's 1084 book ''Z ...

* Zheng Qiao (12th century) ''Tongzhi'' 通治 ("Comprehensive Treatise on Government")

Ming Dynasty

Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), personal name Zhu Yuanzhang (), courtesy name Guorui (), was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty of China, reigning from 1368 to 1398. As famine, plagues and peasant revolts i ...

(1373AD) '' Huang-Ming Zuxun''

Qing Dynasty

* Huang Zongxi (1661-62AD) '' Waiting for the Dawn

In popular culture

* ''Mirrors For Princes'' is the name of a 2010 cinematic work by Lior Shamriz. Parts of the text were based on the Instructions of Shuruppak and other Sumerian literature.

Antiquity

Greek and Roman

Indian

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

High and Late Middle Ages

Renaissance

Enlightenment

Modern

Byzantine texts

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Islamic texts

Slavonic texts

Chinese texts

Ancient

Imperial Dynasties

Han Dynasty

Tang Dynasty

Song Dynasty

Ming Dynasty

Qing Dynasty

In popular culture

See also

References

Further reading