''Mediorhynchus'' is a genus of small parasitic spiny-headed (or thorny-headed) worms. Phylogenetic analysis has been conducted on two known species of ''Mediorhynchus'' and confirmed the placement along with the related genus Gigantorhynchus in the family Gigantorhynchida. The distinguishing features of this order among archiacanthocephalans is a divided proboscis (specifically, the presence of a "teloboscis" which is the posterior third of a proboscis). This genus contains fifty-eight species that are distributed globally. These worms exclusively

parasitize Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The entomologist E. O. Wilson ha ...

birds by attaching themselves around the

cloaca In animal anatomy, a cloaca ( ), plural cloacae ( or ), is the posterior orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals. All amphibians, reptiles and birds, ...

using their hook-covered

proboscis A proboscis () is an elongated appendage from the head of an animal, either a vertebrate or an invertebrate. In invertebrates, the term usually refers to tubular mouthparts used for feeding and sucking. In vertebrates, a proboscis is an elong ...

. The bird

hosts A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places * Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County People *Jim Host (born 1937), American businessman *Michel Host ...

are of different orders.

Taxonomy and description

''Mediorhynchus'' is monophyletic based on phylogenetic analysis. Species can be identified primarily morphologically by the arrangement of hooks of the

. The presence of a divided proboscis (specifically, the presence of a "teloboscis" which is the posterior third of a proboscis) is an

autapomorphy In phylogenetics, an autapomorphy is a distinctive feature, known as a derived trait, that is unique to a given taxon. That is, it is found only in one taxon, but not found in any others or outgroup taxa, not even those most closely related to ...

of ''Mediorhynchus''. Males in some species possess eight cement glands which are used to temporarily close the posterior end of the female after copulation.

Species

There are 59 species in the genus ''Mediorhynchus''. *''Mediorhynchus africanus'' Amin, Evans, Heckmann and El-Naggar, 2013 ''M. africanus'' has been found parasitizing the helmeted guinea fowl (''Numida meleagris'') in

Kruger National Park Kruger National Park is a South African National Park and one of the largest game reserves in Africa. It covers an area of in the provinces of Limpopo and Mpumalanga in northeastern South Africa, and extends from north to south and from ea ...

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring coun ...

Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It overlooks the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to A ...

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...

(reported as ''Numida ptilorhyncha'') and

Burkina Faso Burkina Faso (, ; , ff, 𞤄𞤵𞤪𞤳𞤭𞤲𞤢 𞤊𞤢𞤧𞤮, italic=no) is a landlocked country in West Africa with an area of , bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana t ...

, and the Yellow-necked spurfowl (''Pternistis leucoscepus'') in

Kenya ) , national_anthem = " Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"() , image_map = , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Nairobi , coordinates = , largest_city = Nairobi , ...

. One mitochondrial and one nuclear gene sequence confirmed that ''M. africanus'' and ''M. gallinarum'' are allopatric

sister species In phylogenetics, a sister group or sister taxon, also called an adelphotaxon, comprises the closest relative(s) of another given unit in an evolutionary tree. Definition The expression is most easily illustrated by a cladogram: Taxon A and ...

with 9.7% genetic sequence divergence. It is synonymous with ''Empodius segmentatus'' (de Marval, 1902) Southwell et MacFie, 1925 and ''Mediorhynchus selengensis'' Harris 1973. The species name ''africanus'' is named for the worm's distribution across sub-Saharan Africa. The trunk is pseudosegmented, flattened laterally, has many prevalent sensory pits, and measures 3.0 to 74.0 mm long by 0.5 to 2.80 mm wide in the male and measures between 4.00 and 110.00 mm long by 0.60 and 4.00 mm wide in the much larger female. There are up to 100 annuli (structures that permits shortening and lengthening of the body by telescoping) in females but fewer in the shorter males. The proboscis is divided by a prominent ridge into two parts: anterior and posterior. The anterior proboscis is pear or apple-shaped with a truncated bare apical end measuring 250 to 339 long by 278 to 478 wide in the male and 300 to 438 long by 330 to 510 wide in the female. The anterior proboscis has two prominent apical pores and 18 to 22 longitudinal rows of 4 to 6 hooks each. The hooks posteriorly directed and measure between 35 and 76 long with the smallest found anteriorly and the longest in the middle. The posterior proboscis is conically shaped and measures 291 to 332 long by 591 to 689 wide at junction with anterior trunk in the male, and 323 to 365 long by 99 to 745 wide at junction with anterior trunk in the female. Except for the posterior most end, the posterior proboscis is covered in very thin spines that are curved posteriorly or undulating with a total of 26 to 40 longitudinal rows of 2 to 6 spines each measuring 14 to 43 long with the longest spines found anteriorly. The Proboscis receptacle is single-walled with anterior portion encased in jacket of adjacent retractor fibers and measures 0.64 to 1.23 mm long by 0.11 to 0.44 mm wide in the male and 0.64 to 1.80 mm long by 0.11 to 0.55 mm wide in the female. The proboscis retractor muscles are prominent and attached to the proboscis receptacle near its posterior end dorsally. The lemnisci long, digitiform, unequal, and unattached. The shorter lemniscus measure between 1.60 and 3.38 mm long by 0.21 and 0.31 mm wide, with 5 or 6 giant nuclei in the male and measure 1.60 to 5.50 mm long by 0.19 to 0.33 mm wide, with 5 or 6 giant nuclei in the female. Longer lemniscus measures 2.15 to 3.47 mm long by 0.21 to 0.33 mm wide with 6, occasionally 7, giant nuclei in the male and measures 2.12 to 7.31 mm long by 0.19 to 0.62 mm wide with 6 giant nuclei in the female. The male reproductive system is located in the posterior third of trunk and consists of two oblong testes measuring Anterior testis measure 0.37 to 4.10 mm long by 0.30 to 1.10 mm wide and the posterior testis measure 0.32 to 3.15 mm wide. There are eight clustered cement glands larger anteriorly, each with one large central giant nucleus and with independent cement ducts emptying at posterior end of Saefftigen’s pouch, along with prominent common sperm duct. The male

gonopore A gonopore, sometimes called a gonadopore, is a genital pore in many invertebrates. Hexapods, including insects have a single common gonopore, except mayflies, which have a pair of gonopores. More specifically, in the unmodified female it is t ...

is terminal. The female reproductive system is short and located in the broad and flat posterior end of trunk. The uterine bell contains many large nucleated cells with its dorsal and ventral anterior ends connected to body wall with filaments. The gonopore is sub-ventral occasionally covered by a looping posterior trunk expansion. The eggs are ovoid being 65 to 86 long by 39 to 52 wide. *''Mediorhynchus cambellensis'' Soota, Srivastava, Glosh, 1969Studies on the helminth fauna of the Great Nicobar Island
/ref> ''M. cambellensis'' has been found infesting the intestine of an oriole and flycatcher on Great Nicobar Island. This worm closely resembles ''M. armenicum'' but differs from it in number of proboscis hooks and extent of lemnisci. The male is 9.13 mm long and 1.2 mm wide whereas the female is larger measuring 13 to 16 mm long and 2 mm wide. The proboscis is short and club shaped and 0.83 mm long in the male and 1.0 mm long in the female. The distal portion of the proboscis is truncated, the proximal portion is conical, and the proboscis receptacle 0.66 mm long. The proboscis hooks are anterior and in seven spiral rows each of 7-9 large hooks, posterior hooks are very numerous and small. The lemnisci are almost equal, measuring 3.15 by 0.25 mm. The testes are almost equal and measure 1.2 by 0.44 mm and the eggs measure 0.055 by 0.033 mm. There are four pairs of cement glands that are difficult to distinguish. The species name, ''cambellensis'' was named after the location the hosts were caught, Campbell Bay. *''Mediorhynchus centurorum'' Nickol, 1969 ''M. centurorum'' was found in the egg and larval forms in Pennsylvania wood cockroach (''Parcoblatta pensylvanica''). In the laboratory setting, these worms were found to infect

red-bellied woodpecker The red-bellied woodpecker (''Melanerpes carolinus'') is a medium-sized woodpecker of the family Picidae. It breeds mainly in the eastern United States, ranging as far south as Florida and as far north as Canada. Though it has a vivid orange-red ...

s (''Melanerpes carolinus''), red-headed woodpeckers (''Melanerpes erythrocephalus''),

Northern flicker The northern flicker or common flicker (''Colaptes auratus'') is a medium-sized bird of the woodpecker family. It is native to most of North America, parts of Central America, Cuba, and the Cayman Islands, and is one of the few woodpecker spec ...

, (''Colaptes auratus''); and a

hairy woodpecker The hairy woodpecker (''Leuconotopicus villosus'') is a medium-sized woodpecker that is found over a large area of North America. It is approximately in length with a wingspan. With an estimated population in 2020 of almost nine million individ ...

, (''Dendrocopos villosus'') with a mean prepatent period of 35 days. Cystacanths fed to

starlings Starlings are small to medium-sized passerine birds in the family Sturnidae. The Sturnidae are named for the genus '' Sturnus'', which in turn comes from the Latin word for starling, ''sturnus''. Many Asian species, particularly the larger ones, ...

(''Sturnus vaulgaris''), and red-winged blackbirds, Agelaius phoeniceus, did not produce infections. The eggs have 4 membranes, are 55 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.53.Pfenning, A. C. (2017). Egg morphology, dispersal, and transmission in acanthocephalan parasites: integrating phylogenetic and ecological approaches.Url=https://via.library.depaul.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1273&context=csh_etd *''Mediorhynchus channapettae'' George and Nadakal, 1984 ''M. channapettae'' has been found birds of

Kerala Kerala ( ; ) is a state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin, Malabar, South Ca ...

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area, the List of countries and dependencies by population, second-most populous ...

. *''Mediorhynchus cisticolae'' Smales, 2011 ''M. cisticolae'' has been found infesting the

Red-faced cisticola The red-faced cisticola (''Cisticola erythrops'') is a species of bird in the family Cisticolidae. It is widely present across sub-Saharan Africa (rare in southern Africa). Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical seasonally wet or flood ...

(''Cisticola erythrops'') which is the type host, in the

Cote D'Ivoire Ivory Coast, also known as Côte d'Ivoire, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country on the southern coast of West Africa. Its capital is Yamoussoukro, in the centre of the country, while its largest city and economic centre ...

. The species name ''cisticolae'' is named after the host genus '' Cisticola''. *''Mediorhynchus colluricinclae'' Smales, 2002 *''M. colluricinclae'' has been found parasitizing pomatostomatids in

South Australian South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...

. The eggs are 51.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.34. *''Mediorhynchus conirostris'' Ward, 1966 ''M. conirostris'' parasitizes rodents in

Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...

and has a proboscis which contains 16 to 20 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks. *''Mediorhynchus corcoracis'' Johnston and Edmonds, 1950Johnston & Edmonds, 1950 : ''Australian Acanthocephala n° 8.'' Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, vol.74, p.1–5 url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/128927#page/5/mode/1up. ''M. corcoracis'' was found parasitising the white-winged chough (''Corcorax melanorhamphos'') in

New South Wales ) , nickname = , image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates: , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , es ...

Queensland ) , nickname = Sunshine State , image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg , map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia , subdivision_type = Country , subdivision_name = Australia , established_title = Before federation , establishe ...

Victoria Victoria most commonly refers to: * Victoria (Australia), a state of the Commonwealth of Australia * Victoria, British Columbia, provincial capital of British Columbia, Canada * Victoria (mythology), Roman goddess of Victory * Victoria, Seychelle ...

, and

South Australia South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a States and territories of Australia, state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest o ...

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...

. It is named after the genus name of the host species Corcorax. It is also found in several species of crow including the little crow '' Corvus bennetti'' from , the Australian raven ''

Corvus coronoides The Australian raven (''Corvus coronoides'') is a passerine bird in the genus ''Corvus'' native to much of southern and northeastern Australia. Measuring in length, it has all-black plumage, beak and mouth, as well as strong grey-black legs and ...

'', and the little raven ''

Corvus mellori The little raven (''Corvus mellori'') is a species of the family Corvidae that is native to southeastern Australia. An adult individual is about in length, with completely black plumage, beak, and legs; as with all Australian species of ''Cor ...

'' all from South Australia. It has also been found in the Australian Magpie-lark (''Grallina cyanoleuca''). *''Mediorhynchus edmondsi'' Schmidt and Kuntz, 1977 *''Mediorhynchus emberizae'' (Rudolphi, 1819) ''M. emberizae'' is found infesting the intestines of the red-cowled cardinal (''Paroaria dominicana'') in the State of Bahia, Brazil. *''Mediorhynchus empodius'' (Skrjabin, 1913) *''Mediorhynchus fatimaae'' Khan, Bilqees and Muti-ur-Rehman, 2004 ''M. fatimaae'' has been found parasitizing the

White-eyed buzzard The white-eyed buzzard (''Butastur teesa'') is a medium-sized hawk, distinct from the true buzzards in the genus ''Buteo'', found in South Asia. Adults have a rufous tail, a distinctive white iris, and a white throat bearing a dark mesial stripe ...

(''Burastur teesa'') in

Karachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c ...

Pakistan Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 24 ...

. It is distinguished mainly by a unique proboscis armature of 10-12 longitudinal rows having 7-8 hooks and 10 longitudinal rows having 7-8 spines and eggs measuring 0.041-0.045 mm by 0.015-0.018 mm. *''Mediorhynchus gallinarum'' (Bhalerao, 1937) ''M. gallinarum'' was found infecting chickens (''Gallus gallus'') in

, other Asian countries, and

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

. ''M. gallinarum'' is similar to ''M. africanus'' however specimens from

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Gui ...

and elsewhere are cylindrical and non-segmented, the proboscis has 18 to 22 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks and lacks prominent apical pores, sensory pits are rare on the trunk, the posterior end of the female is pointed with a terminal gonopore, and the eggs are smaller. *''Mediorhynchus gibsoni'' Bilqees, Khan, Khatoon and Khatoon, 2007Bilqees, F. M., Khan, A., Khatoon, N., & Khatoon, S. (2007). Acanthocephala from eagle of Karachi with descriptions of two new species. Proceedings of Parasitology (Pakistan). ''M. gibsoni'' was found infesting the

(''Butastur teesa'') in

Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest province of Pakistan by land area and the second-largest province ...

. The worm has a long pseudosegmented body with a short neck. The proboscis is long with a sac-like receptacle and possesses 25 circular longitudinal rows of between 8 and 12 hooks at the anterior region, and 10 rows of 8 to 16 spines at the posterior region. The two testes are oval and there are eight cement glands. *''Mediorhynchus giganteus'' Meyer, 1931 ''M. giganteus'' has been found parasitizing the

domestic turkey The domestic turkey (Meleagris gallopavo domesticus) is a large fowl, one of the two species in the genus '' Meleagris'' and the same species as the wild turkey. Although turkey domestication was thought to have occurred in central Mesoamerica ...

(''Meleagris gallopavo'') in

East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historica ...

. The proboscis has about 14 longitudinal rows of five hooks with a maximum body length of 11 cm found in a female. *''Mediorhynchus grandis'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M. grandis'' has been found in the small intestine of the Common grackle (''Quiscalus quiscula'') in

Maryland Maryland ( ) is a state in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It shares borders with Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia to its south and west; Pennsylvania to its north; and Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean t ...

New Jersey New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delawa ...

Kansas Kansas () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. Its Capital city, capital is Topeka, Kansas, Topeka, and its largest city is Wichita, Kansas, Wichita. Kansas is a landlocked state bordered by Nebras ...

Illinois Illinois ( ) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Its largest metropolitan areas include the Chicago metropolitan area, and the Metro East section, of Greater St. Louis. Other smaller metropolitan areas include, Peoria and Rock ...

Kentucky Kentucky ( , ), officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States and one of the states of the Upper South. It borders Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio to the north; West Virginia and Virginia ...

, the

American crow The American crow (''Corvus brachyrhynchos'') is a large passerine bird species of the family Corvidae. It is a common bird found throughout much of North America. American crows are the New World counterpart to the carrion crow of Europe an ...

(''Corvus brachyrhynchos'') in Maryland and

Ohio Ohio () is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Of the List of states and territories of the United States, fifty U.S. states, it is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 34th-l ...

, Eastern meadowlark (''Sturnella magna'') in

North Carolina North Carolina () is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. The state is the List of U.S. states and territories by area, 28th largest and List of states and territories of the United ...

, Ohio, Illinois,

Oklahoma Oklahoma (; Choctaw: ; chr, ᎣᎧᎳᎰᎹ, ''Okalahoma'' ) is a state in the South Central region of the United States, bordered by Texas on the south and west, Kansas on the north, Missouri on the northeast, Arkansas on the east, New ...

, and

Texas Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...

Red-winged blackbird The red-winged blackbird (''Agelaius phoeniceus'') is a passerine bird of the family Icteridae found in most of North America and much of Central America. It breeds from Alaska and Newfoundland south to Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, Mexico, and G ...

(''Agelaius phoeniceus)'') in Ohio and Texas,

Rusty blackbird The rusty blackbird (''Euphagus carolinus'') is a medium-sized New World blackbird, closely related to grackles ("rusty grackle" is an older name for the species). It is a bird that prefers wet forested areas, breeding in the boreal forest and m ...

(''Euphagus carolinus'') in Illinois,

Brown-headed cowbird The brown-headed cowbird (''Molothrus ater'') is a small, obligate brood parasitic icterid native to temperate and subtropical North America. It is a permanent resident in the southern parts of its range; northern birds migrate to the southern ...

(''Molothrus ater'') in Texas, the

Saltmarsh sparrow The saltmarsh sparrow (''Ammospiza caudacuta'') is a small New World sparrow found in salt marshes along the Atlantic coast of the United States. At one time, this bird and the Nelson's sparrow were thought to be a single species, the sharp-tail ...

(''Ammospiza caudacutus'') or a

Nelson's sparrow Nelson's sparrow (''Ammospiza nelsoni'') is a small New World sparrow. This bird was named after Edward William Nelson, an American naturalist. Formerly, this bird and the saltmarsh sparrow were considered to be a single species, the sharp-tailed ...

(''Ammospiza nelsoni'') in Texas and the

American robin The American robin (''Turdus migratorius'') is a migratory bird of the true thrush genus and Turdidae, the wider thrush family. It is named after the European robin because of its reddish-orange breast, though the two species are not closely ...

(''Turdus migratorius'') in Ohio. Females are 27 to 51 mm long and 0.8 to 1.44 wide, whereas the males are smaller being 7 to 12 mm long and 0.6 to 0.8 mm wide. The proboscis is cone-shaped and 0.57 to 0.86 mm long and is divided into anterior and posterior portions. The anterior portion of the proboscis has 18 longitudinal rows of hooks each with 4 to 5 hooks (averaging a total of 76 hooks), and each hook having posteriorly directed roots. The posterior region of the proboscis has around 30 longitudinal rows of small hooks each with 4 to 6 hooks (averaging a total of 130).There are five to eight pyriform cement glands. Testes are oval (0.98 to 1.03 mm by 0.26 to 0.35 mm). Leminsci are filiform and have 6 nuclei each. The worms have been found in the intermediate host, grasshoppers. The eggs have 4 membranes, are 47.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.86. *''Mediorhynchus indicus'' Varghese-George, Mathai-Nadakal, Kunjanpillai-Vijayakumaran and Rajendran, 1981 *''Mediorhynchus kuntzi'' Ward, 1960 ''M. kuntzi'' has been found parasitizing

curlews The curlews () are a group of nine species of birds in the genus ''Numenius'', characterised by their long, slender, downcurved bills and mottled brown plumage. The English name is imitative of the Eurasian curlew's call, but may have been i ...

(''Numenius'') in

. The proboscis has 24 rows of five to six hooks. *''Mediorhynchus lanius'' Amin, Nguyen, and Heckmann, 2008 ''M. Mediorhynchus lanius'' has been found infesting the Long-tailed shrike (''Lanius schach'') in the Quang Ninh Province,

Vietnam Vietnam or Viet Nam ( vi, Việt Nam, ), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam,., group="n" is a country in Southeast Asia, at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of and population of 96 million, making ...

. It is named after the genus name of the host species ''Lanius'' *''Mediorhynchus lagodekhiensis'' Kuraschvili, 1955 *''Mediorhynchus leptis'' Ward, 1966 ''M. leptis'' has been found parasitizing the

Common kestrel The common kestrel (''Falco tinnunculus'') is a bird of prey species belonging to the kestrel group of the falcon family Falconidae. It is also known as the European kestrel, Eurasian kestrel, or Old World kestrel. In the United Kingdom, where n ...

(''Falco tinnunculus'') in

. The proboscis has 22 longitudinal rows of five to six hooks. *''Mediorhynchus lophurae'' Wang, 1966 ''M. lophurae'' is a parasite of the Silver pheasant (''Lophura nycthemera'') and is found in

Lang Son Lang may refer to: * Lang (surname), a surname of independent Germanic or Chinese origin Places * Lang Island (Antarctica), East Antarctica * Lang Nunatak, Antarctica * Lang Sound, Antarctica * Lang Park, a stadium in Brisbane, Australia * L ...

. *''Mediorhynchus mariae'' George and Nadakal, 1984 *''Mediorhynchus mattei'' Marchand and Vassiliades, 1982 ''M. mattei'' has been found in the digestive tract of the

Northern red-billed hornbill The northern red-billed hornbill (''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') is a species of hornbill in the family Bucerotidae. It is found from southern Mauritania through Somalia and northeast Tanzania. There are five species of red-billed hornbills recogn ...

(''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') which is the type-host in

Senegal Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...

. Male worms are 2–3 cm in length, females are 3–11 cm in length. It was described in 1982; its name honours French

zoologist Zoology ()The pronunciation of zoology as is usually regarded as nonstandard, though it is not uncommon. is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and d ...

Xavier Mattei who collected the birds containing this acantocephalan used to identify the species. *''Mediorhynchus meiringi'' Bisseru, 1960 *''Mediorhynchus micranthus'' (Rudolphi, 1819) ''M. micranthus'' was found infesting the Eurasian skylark (''Alauda arvensis'') and the

Crested lark The crested lark (''Galerida cristata'') is a species of lark widespread across Eurasia and northern Africa. It is a non-migratory bird, but can occasionally be found as a vagrant in Great Britain. Taxonomy and systematics The crested lark was ...

(''Galerida cristata'') in the Golestan Province of

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...

. *''Mediorhynchus mirabilis'' (Marval, 1905) *'' Mediorhynchus mokgalongi'' Smales, Halajian, Luus-Powell, and Tavakol, 2018 The proboscis of ''M. mokgalongi'' has between 125 to 156 hooks arranged in 24 to 26 longitudinal rows of 24 to 26 hooks followed by 30 rows of 5 to 6 spines. It was found infesting a Karoo Thrush bird (''Turdus smithi'') in

Polokwane Polokwane (, meaning "Sanctuary" in Northern SothoPolokwane - The Heart of the Limpopo Province ...

Limpopo Province Limpopo is the northernmost Provinces of South Africa, province of South Africa. It is named after the Limpopo River, which forms the province's western and northern borders. The capital and largest city in the province is Polokwane, while th ...

. The parasite was named after Mahlo Mokgalong for his contribution to the field of bird parasitology. *''Mediorhynchus muritensis'' Lundstrom, 1942 *''Mediorhynchus nickoli'' Khan, Bilqees and Muti-ur-Rehman, 2004 ''M. nickoli'' has been found parasitizing the

Black kite The black kite (''Milvus migrans'') is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have ...

(''Milvus migrans'') in

. It is distinguished mainly by a unique proboscis armature of 10 longitudinal rows having 7-8 hooks and six longitudinal rows having 6-8 spines and eggs measuring 0.046-0.051 mm by 0.0076-0.015 mm. *''Mediorhynchus numidae'' (Baer, 1925) ''M. numidae'' was found infesting the helmeted guinea fowl (''Numida meliagris'') in

Pretoria Pretoria () is South Africa's administrative capital, serving as the seat of the Executive (government), executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to South Africa. Pretoria straddles the Apies River and extends ...

Gauteng Province Gauteng ( ) is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. The name in Sotho-Tswana languages means 'place of gold'. Situated on the Highveld, Gauteng is the smallest province by land area in South Africa. Although Gauteng accounts for only 1. ...

. Meyer renamed this species in 1932 from ''Heteroplus numidae''. The proboscis has twelve longitudinal rows of three hooks. *''Mediorhynchus orientalis'' Belopolskaya, 1953 In an aviary setting, M. orientalis was found infesting the

purple starling The purple starling (''Lamprotornis purpureus''), also known as the purple glossy starling, is a member of the starling family of birds. Distribution and habitat It is a resident breeder in tropical Africa from Senegal and north Zaire east to ...

(''Lamprotornis purpureus''),

Rüppell's starling Rüppell's starling (''Lamprotornis purpuroptera''), also known as Rueppell's glossy-starling or Rueppell's long-tailed starling, is a species of starling in the family Sturnidae. It is found in Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Erit ...

(''Lamprotornis purpuroptera''), and the Bali myna (''Leucopsar rothschildi'') with the intermediate hosts being the Surinam cockroach (''Pycnoscelus surinamensis'') and the

American cockroach The american cockroach (''Periplaneta americana'') is the largest species of common cockroach, and often considered a pest. In certain regions of the U.S. it is colloquially known as the waterbug, though it is not a true waterbug since it is not ...

(''Periplaneta americana''). The eggs are 53 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.12. *''Mediorhynchus oswaldocruzi'' Travassos, 1923 *''Mediorhynchus otidis'' (Miescher, 1841) *''Mediorhynchus pandei'' Bhattacharya, 2007 *''Mediorhynchus papillosus'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M papillosus'' was found infesting the

rufous-collared sparrow The rufous-collared sparrow or Andean sparrow (''Zonotrichia capensis'') is an American sparrow found in a wide range of habitats, often near humans, from the extreme south-east of Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, and the island of Hispaniola (split ...

s, (''Zonotrichia capensis'') in northern and central Chile. The eggs are 42.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.02. It is the

type species In zoological nomenclature, a type species (''species typica'') is the species name with which the name of a genus or subgenus is considered to be permanently taxonomically associated, i.e., the species that contains the biological type specimen ...

of the genus. ''M. bakeri'' but was found to be a junior synonym was found infesting the small intestines of the

Northern bobwhite The northern bobwhite (''Colinus virginianus''), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in th ...

(''Colinus virginianus'') in

Leon County, Florida Leon County is a county in the Panhandle of the U.S. state of Florida. It was named after the Spanish explorer Juan Ponce de León. As of the 2020 census, the population was 292,198. The county seat is Tallahassee, which is also the state cap ...

. ''M. alecturae'' (Johnston and Edmonds, 1947)Johnston & Edmonds, 1947 : ''Australian Acanthocephala n° 6.'' Records of the South Australian Museum, volume 8, pages 555-562 ur

. is considreded a junior synonym of ''M papillosus''. It occurs only in the

Australian brushturkey The Australian brushturkey or Australian brush-turkey or gweela (''Alectura lathami''), also frequently called the scrub turkey or bush turkey, is a common, widespread species of mound-building bird from the family Megapodiidae found in eastern ...

(''Alectura lathami'') and located in Queensland, Australia. It is named after the genus name of the host species ''Alectura''. *''Mediorhynchus passerus'' Das, 1951 *''Mediorhynchus pauciuncinatus'' Dollfus, 1959 *''Mediorhynchus peckeri'' Bhattacharya, 1999 *''Mediorhynchus peruensis'' Moya, Martinez and Tantalean, 2011 ''M. peruensis'' was found infesting the

Chiguanco thrush The Chiguanco thrush (''Turdus chiguanco'') is a species of bird in the family Turdidae. It is found in Ecuador and the Altiplano. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical high-altitude shrubland and heavily degraded former forest. Gall ...

(''Turdus chiguanco'') in Peru. *''Mediorhynchus petrochenkoi'' Gvosdev and Soboleva, 1966 *''Mediorhynchus pintoi'' Travassos, 1923 ''M. pintoi'' was found infesting the

Spotted nothura __NOTOC__ The spotted nothura (''Nothura maculosa'') is a species of tinamou. This bird is native to grassy habitats in eastern and southern Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and eastern and northern Argentina.Clements, J. (2007) Description The spotte ...

(''Nothura maculosa'') from

Minas Gerais Minas Gerais () is a state in Southeastern Brazil. It ranks as the second most populous, the third by gross domestic product (GDP), and the fourth largest by area in the country. The state's capital and largest city, Belo Horizonte (literally ...

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...

. Only a damaged female specimen was discovered, and the original description is lost. *''Mediorhynchus quilonensis'' Bhattacharya, 2007 *''Mediorhynchus rajasthanensis'' Gupta, 1976 *''Mediorhynchus robustus'' Van Cleave, 1916 ''M. robustus'' was found infesting the intestines of a

Yellow-breasted chat The yellow-breasted chat (''Icteria virens'') is a large songbird found in North America, and is the only member of the family Icteriidae. It was once a member of the New World warbler family, but in 2017, the American Ornithological Society move ...

(''Icteria virens'') in

Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

and the

Long-tailed Meadowlark The long-tailed meadowlark (''Leistes loyca'') is a passerine bird of southern South America and the Falkland Islands, belonging to the meadowlark genus ''Leistes'' in the icterid family that looks very similar to the related endangered species, ...

(''Sturnella loyca'') in the

Biobío Region The Biobío Region ( es, Región del Biobío ), is one of Chile's sixteen regions of Chile, regions (first-order administrative divisions). With a population of 1.5 million, thus being the third most populated region in Chile, it is divided int ...

Chile Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in the western part of South America. It is the southernmost country in the world, and the closest to Antarctica, occupying a long and narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east a ...

. The largest hooks are 38 microns. The intermediate hosts for this worm are unknown. ''M. Robustus'' has been found in larval cystacanth form the

Raccoon dog The common raccoon dog (''Nyctereutes procyonoides''), also called the Chinese or Asian raccoon dog, is a small, heavy-set, fox-like canid native to East Asia. Named for its raccoon-like face markings, it is most closely related to foxes. Common ...

(''Nyctereutes procyonoides'') in

Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...

, but this is likely a dead end host since all known final hosts for this species are ''

Passeriformes A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped'), which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines are distinguished from other orders of birds by t ...

''. The eggs are 38 um long and have an elongation ratio of 2.38. *''Mediorhynchus rodensis'' Cosin, 1971 ''M. rodensis'' was found in the small intestine of the

Eurasian jay The Eurasian jay (''Garrulus glandarius'') is a species of passerine bird in the crow family Corvidae. It has pinkish brown plumage with a black stripe on each side of a whitish throat, a bright blue panel on the upper wing and a black tail. The ...

(''Garrulus glandarius'') in

Lakatnik Lakatnik ( bg, Лакатник ) is a small village located in Svoge Municipality, near the Lakatnik rocks. The village has a train station called Gara Lakatnik on the train line Sofia - Mezdra located 8 km north of the village. During t ...

in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

Bulgaria Bulgaria (; bg, България, Bǎlgariya), officially the Republic of Bulgaria,, ) is a country in Southeast Europe. It is situated on the eastern flank of the Balkans, and is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and North Macedon ...

.Bechev, D., & Georgiev, D. Review of species of the phylum Acanthocephala recorded from Vrachanska Planina Mountains. *''Mediorhynchus sipocotensis'' Tubangui, 1935Tubangui, M. A. (1935). Additional notes on Philippine Acanthocephala. Philippine Journal of Science, 56(1), 13-17. ''M. sipocotensis'' was found parasitizing the

(''Turdus migratorius'') in

Marion County, Indiana Marion County is located in the U.S. state of Indiana. The 2020 United States census, 2020 United States census reported a population of 977,203, making it the largest county in the state and 51st List of the most populous counties in the United ...

. The worms possess a globular proboscis armed with concentric spines and a sac-like body with no spines on the trunk. They also have large unfragmented epidermal nuclei. The females possess two ligament sacs, and the males possess eight cement glands. *''Mediorhynchus spinaepaucitas'' Smales, 2011 ''M. spinaepaucitas'' has been found infesting the

Yellow-throated longclaw The yellow-throated longclaw (''Macronyx croceus'') is a species of bird in the family Motacillidae. It is found in Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of t ...

(''Macronyx croceus'') in the

. *''Mediorhynchus taeniatus'' (Linstow, 1901) ''M. taeniatus'' has been found infesting the

African pied hornbill The African pied hornbill (''Lophoceros fasciatus'') is a bird of the hornbill family, a family of tropical near-passerine birds found in the Old World. The African pied hornbill is a common resident breeder in much of equatorial Africa, from ...

(''Tockus fasciatus'') in the

. It has also been found infesting the helmeted guinea fowl (''Numida meliagris'') in Kimberley,

Northern Cape Province The Northern Cape is the largest and most sparsely populated province of South Africa. It was created in 1994 when the Cape Province was split up. Its capital is Kimberley, South Africa, Kimberley. It includes the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, ...

and the

Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill The southern yellow-billed hornbill (''Tockus leucomelas'') is a hornbill found in southern Africa. Yellow-billed hornbills feed mainly on the ground, where they forage for seeds, small insects, spiders and scorpions. This hornbill species is a ...

(''Tockus leucomelas'') in

. It was renamed from ''Echinorhynchus taeniatus'' to its present name by Dollfus in 1936. *''Mediorhynchus tanagrae'' (Rudolphi, 1819) *''Mediorhynchus tenuis'' Meyer, 1931 ''M. tenuis'' was found in the small intestine of the

Common rock thrush The common rock thrush (''Monticola saxatilis''), also known as rufous-tailed rock thrush or simply rock thrush, is a chat belonging to the family Muscicapidae. It was formerly placed in the family Turdidae. The scientific name is from Latin. ' ...

(''Monticola saxatilis'') in the Iskarskoto defile in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

. It is also found in passeriforms in

North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in ...

. The proboscis has 24 longitudinal rows of four to five hooks. *''Mediorhynchus textori'' Barus, Six and Majumdar, 1978 ''M. textori'' is a parasite of the

Village weaver The village weaver (''Ploceus cucullatus''), also known as the spotted-backed weaver or black-headed weaver (the latter leading to easy confusion with '' P. melanocephalus''), is a species of bird in the family Ploceidae found in much of sub-Sah ...

(''Ploceus cucullatus'' reported as the

synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are all ...

''Textor cucullatus'') in

Ghana Ghana (; tw, Gaana, ee, Gana), officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It abuts the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, sharing borders with Ivory Coast in the west, Burkina Faso in the north, and To ...

. The proboscis has 10 to 11 longitudinal rows of nine to ten hooks. The eggs are 62.5 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.54. *''Mediorhynchus thrushi'' Bhattacharya, 2000 *''Mediorhynchus turdi'' Smales, 2011 ''M. turdi'' has been found infesting the African thrush (''Turdus pelios'') in the

. The species name ''turdi'' derives from the genus name of the type host ''

Turdus True thrushes are medium-sized mostly insectivorous or omnivorous birds in the genus ''Turdus'' of the wider thrush family, Turdidae. The genus name ''Turdus'' is Latin for "thrush". The term " thrush" is used for many other birds of the family T ...

''. *''Mediorhynchus turnixena'' (Tubangui, 1931)Tubangui, M. A. (1933). Notes on Acanthocephala in the Philippines. Philippine Journal of Science, 50(2), 115-128. ''M. turnixena'' was found infesting the

Spotted buttonquail The spotted buttonquail (''Turnix ocellatus'') is a species of bird in the family Turnicidae. It is endemic to the northern Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republ ...

(''Turnix ocellata'') in the

Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...

. *''Mediorhynchus vaginatus'' (Diesing, 1851) ''M. vaginatus'' was found infesting the

Green aracari The green araçari (''Pteroglossus viridis''), is a toucan, a near-passerine bird. It is found in the lowland forests of northeastern South America (the Guiana Shield), in the northeast Amazon Basin, the Guianas and the eastern Orinoco River drain ...

(''Pteroglossus viridis''), the

Channel-billed toucan The channel-billed toucan (''Ramphastos vitellinus'') is a near-passerine bird in the family Ramphastidae found on the Caribbean island of Trinidad and in tropical South America as far south as southern Brazil and central Bolivia. Taxonomy an ...

(''Ramphastos vitellinus'' reported as ''Rhamphastus culminatus''), a

Cock-of-the-rock The cocks-of-the-rock, which compose the genus ''Rupicola'', are large cotingid birds native to South America. The first alleged examples of this species were documented during a research expedition led by the explorer and biologist Sir Joshua W ...

(reported as ''Rupicola crocea'') and the

bobolink The bobolink (''Dolichonyx oryzivorus'') is a small New World blackbird and the only member of the genus ''Dolichonyx''. An old name for this species is the "rice bird", from its tendency to feed on cultivated grains during winter and migration. ...

(''Dolichonyx oryzivorus''). *''Mediorhynchus vancleavei'' (Lundstrom, 1942) ''M. vancleavei'' is a parasite of birds in

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...

including the

Common sandpiper The common sandpiper (''Actitis hypoleucos'') is a small Palearctic wader. This bird and its American sister species, the spotted sandpiper (''A. macularia''), make up the genus ''Actitis''. They are parapatric and replace each other geographic ...

(''Actitis hypoleucos'' reported as ''Tringa hypoleucos''). The species name ''vancleavei'' is derived from the named of American parasitologist Harley Jones Van Cleave who originally named the genus ''Mediorhynchus''. *''Mediorhynchus wardi'' Schmidt and Canaris, 1967 ''M. wardi'' is a parasite of passeriforms in

Kenya ) , national_anthem = " Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"() , image_map = , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Nairobi , coordinates = , largest_city = Nairobi , ...

. The proboscis has 24 to 26 longitudinal rows of six to eight hooks. The eggs are 52 um long and have an elongation ratio of 1.68. *''Mediorhynchus zosteropis'' (Porta, 1913)Antonio María La Porta, « Acantocefali della Nuova Caledonia e delle isole Loyalty », ?, 1913, p. 165-170. language=italian ''M. zosteropis'' was found in the small intestine of the

Hooded crow The hooded crow (''Corvus cornix''), also called the scald-crow or hoodie, is a Eurasian bird species in the genus ''Corvus''. Widely distributed, it is found across Northern, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe, as well as parts of the Middle Eas ...

(''Corvus cornix'') in the

Vratsa Vratsa ( bg, Враца ) is the largest city in northwestern Bulgaria and the administrative and economic centre of the municipality of Vratsa and Vratsa district. It is located about 112 km north of Sofia, 40 km southeast of Montana. ...

in the Vrachanska Planina mountains of

and generally distributed in

New Caledonia ) , anthem = "" , image_map = New Caledonia on the globe (small islands magnified) (Polynesia centered).svg , map_alt = Location of New Caledonia , map_caption = Location of New Caledonia , mapsize = 290px , subdivision_type = Sovereign st ...

and the

Palaearctic The Palearctic or Palaearctic is the largest of the eight biogeographic realms of the Earth. It stretches across all of Eurasia north of the foothills of the Himalayas, and North Africa. The realm consists of several bioregions: the Euro-Sibe ...

. It is also reported in the Muscicapidae '' Diaphanopterus naevius similimus'' and the

silvereye The silvereye or wax-eye (''Zosterops lateralis'') is a very small omnivorous passerine bird of the south-west Pacific. In Australia and New Zealand its common name is sometimes white-eye, but this name is more commonly used to refer to all membe ...

(''Zosterops lateralis'') in

Hosts

''Mediorhynchus'' species exclusively parasitize avian hosts. File:Numida meleagris -Kruger National Park, South Africa-8a.jpg, alt=Helmeted guineafowl walking in a field, The Helmeted guineafowl is a host of ''M. africanus'', ''M. numidae'', and ''M. taeniatus'' File:Australian Brushturkey 2 - Newington.jpg, alt=An Australian brushturkey on grass, The

is a host of ''M. alecturae'' File:Red-faced Cisticola (Cisticola erythrops).jpg, alt=A red-faced cisticola on a piece of wood., The

is a host of ''M. cisticolae'' File:White-eyed buzzard (Butastur teesa) Photograph By Shantanu Kuveskar 2.jpg, alt=A white-eyed buzzard on a tree branch, The

is a host of ''M. fatimaae'' File:Serengeti Gelbkehlpieper1.jpg, alt=A Yellow-throated longclaw walking on the ground, The

is a host of ''M. spinaepaucitas'' File:Red-billed hornbill (Tockus erythrorhynchus) male.jpg, alt=A northern red-billed hornbill walking on grass, The

northern red-billed hornbill The northern red-billed hornbill (''Tockus erythrorhynchus'') is a species of hornbill in the family Bucerotidae. It is found from southern Mauritania through Somalia and northeast Tanzania. There are five species of red-billed hornbills recogn ...

is the type-host of ''M. mattei'' File:African Pied Hornbill - Kakum NP - Ghana 14 S4E2286 (16177823316) cropped.jpg, alt=An African pied hornbill on a tree branch, The

is a host of ''M. taeniatus'' File:Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill, Tockus leucomelas at Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo, South Africa (18305273221).jpg, alt=A Southern Yellow-billed Hornbill on a tree branch near the ground, The

is a host of ''M. taeniatus'' File:Schwarzmilan.jpg, alt=A black kite (bird) sitting on a metal wire, The

is a host of ''M. nickoli'' File:Yellow-Breasted-Chat-Oregon.jpg, alt=A Yellow-breasted chat on a branch, The

is a host of ''M. robustus'' File:Garrulus glandarius 1 Luc Viatour.jpg, alt=A Eurasian jay on a branch, The

is one of the hosts of ''M. rodensis'' File:Monsax.jpg, alt=A Common rock thrush on a branch, The

is one of the hosts of ''M. tenuis'' File:Nebelkrähe Corvus cornix.jpg, alt=A Hooded crow thrush on a branch, The

is one of the hosts of ''M. zosteropis''

Notes

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q2783016 Archiacanthocephala