Mealybugs are insects in the

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

Pseudococcidae, unarmored

scale insect Scale insects are small insects of the order Hemiptera, suborder Sternorrhyncha. Of dramatically variable appearance and extreme sexual dimorphism, they comprise the infraorder Coccomorpha which is considered a more convenient grouping than the ...

s found in moist, warm habitats. Many species are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of

greenhouse A greenhouse (also called a glasshouse, or, if with sufficient heating, a hothouse) is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of Transparent ceramics, transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic condit ...

plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a

vector Vector most often refers to: *Euclidean vector, a quantity with a magnitude and a direction *Vector (epidemiology), an agent that carries and transmits an infectious pathogen into another living organism Vector may also refer to: Mathematic ...

for several plant diseases. Some ants live in symbiotic relationships with them, protecting them from predators and feeding off the honeydew which they excrete.

Description

Mealybugs are

sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...

: females appear as nymphs, exhibiting reduced morphology, and lack wings, although unlike many female scale insects, they often retain legs and can move. Males are smaller, gnat-like and have wings. Since mealybugs (as well as all other

Hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order (biology), order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising over 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, Reduviidae, assassin bugs, Cimex, bed bugs, and shield bugs. ...

) are

hemimetabolous Hemimetabolism or hemimetaboly, also called incomplete metamorphosis and paurometabolism,McGavin, George C. ''Essential Entomology: An Order-by-Order Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. pp. 20. is the mode of development of certa ...

insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis in the true sense of the word. However, male mealybugs do exhibit a radical change during their life cycle, changing from wingless, ovoid nymphs to

wasp A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. Th ...

-like flying adults. Mealybug females feed on plant sap, normally in roots or other crevices, and in a few cases the bottoms of stored fruit. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery

wax Waxes are a diverse class of organic compounds that are lipophilic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40 °C (104 °F), melting to give low ...

layer (hence the name "mealy" bug) used for protection while they suck the plant juices. In Asia,

mango mealybug Mango mealybug (''Drosicha mangiferae''), is a pest of mango crops in Asia. The nymphs and females suck plant sap from inflorescences, tender leaves, shoots and fruit peduncles.Allahdin GrouMango pests: Mango mealy bug/ref> As a result, the infes ...

is considered a major menace for the

mango A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree ''Mangifera indica''. It is believed to have originated in the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. ''M. indica'' has been cultivated in South a ...

crop. The males on the other hand are short-lived as they do not feed at all as adults and only live to fertilize the females. Male citrus mealy bugs fly to the females and resemble fluffy

gnat A gnat () is any of many species of tiny flying insects in the dipterid suborder Nematocera, especially those in the families Mycetophilidae, Anisopodidae and Sciaridae. They can be both biting and non-biting. Most often they fly in large num ...

s. Some

species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...

of mealybug lay their

egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...

s in the same waxy layer used for protection in quantities of 50–100; other species are born directly from the female. The most serious pests are mealybugs that feed on

citrus ''Citrus'' is a genus of flowering plant, flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as Orange (fruit), oranges, Lemon, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and lim ...

; other species damage

sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...

grapes A grape is a fruit, botanically a berry, of the deciduous woody vines of the flowering plant genus ''Vitis''. Grapes are a non- climacteric type of fruit, generally occurring in clusters. The cultivation of grapes began perhaps 8,000 years ago ...

pineapple The pineapple (''Ananas comosus'') is a tropical plant with an edible fruit; it is the most economically significant plant in the family Bromeliaceae. The pineapple is indigenous to South America, where it has been cultivated for many centuri ...

(Jahn et al. 2003),

coffee trees Coffee is a drink prepared from roasted coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content. It is the most popular hot drink in the world. Seeds of th ...

cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava (), manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America. Although a perennial plant, cassava is extensively ...

fern A fern (Polypodiopsida or Polypodiophyta ) is a member of a group of vascular plants (plants with xylem and phloem) that reproduce via spores and have neither seeds nor flowers. The polypodiophytes include all living pteridophytes except t ...

cacti A cactus (, or less commonly, cactus) is a member of the plant family Cactaceae, a family comprising about 127 genera with some 1750 known species of the order Caryophyllales. The word ''cactus'' derives, through Latin, from the Ancient Greek ...

gardenia ''Gardenia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the coffee family, Rubiaceae, native to the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa, Asia, Madagascar and Pacific Islands, and Australia. The genus was named by Carl Linnaeus and John Ellis aft ...

papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus ''Carica'' of the family Caricaceae. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within modern-day southern Mexico and ...

mulberry ''Morus'', a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of diverse species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. Generally, the genus has 64 identif ...

sunflower The common sunflower (''Helianthus annuus'') is a large annual forb of the genus ''Helianthus'' grown as a crop for its edible oily seeds. Apart from cooking oil production, it is also used as livestock forage (as a meal or a silage plant), as ...

and

orchid Orchids are plants that belong to the family Orchidaceae (), a diverse and widespread group of flowering plants with blooms that are often colourful and fragrant. Along with the Asteraceae, they are one of the two largest families of flowering ...

s. Mealybugs only tend to be serious pests in the presence of ants because the ants protect them from predators and parasites. Mealybugs are also a vector of viruses in grapevines, spreading grapevine leafroll and grapevine red blotch viruses. Mealybugs also infest some species of

carnivorous plant Carnivorous plants are plants that derive some or most of their nutrients from trapping and consuming animals or protozoans Protozoa (singular: protozoan or protozoon; alternative plural: protozoans) are a group of single-celled eukaryot ...

such as ''

Sarracenia ''Sarracenia'' ( or ) is a genus comprising 8 to 11 species of North American pitcher plants, commonly called trumpet pitchers. The genus belongs to the family Sarraceniaceae, which also contain the closely allied genera '' Darlingtonia'' and ...

'' (pitcher plants); in such cases it is difficult to eradicate them without repeated applications of

insecticide Insecticides are substances used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are claimed to b ...

such as

diazinon Diazinon (IUPAC name: ''O'',''O''-Diethyl ''O''- -methyl-6-(propan-2-yl)pyrimidin-2-ylphosphorothioate, INN - Dimpylate), a colorless to dark brown liquid, is a thiophosphoric acid ester developed in 1952 by Ciba-Geigy, a Swiss chemical company ( ...

. Small infestations may not inflict significant damage. In larger amounts though, they can induce leaf drop. In recent years, some of the mealybug species have become invasive pests in localities posing a great problem to the new agro-ecosystems. In

India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...

, ''

Withania somnifera ''Withania somnifera'', known commonly as ashwagandha or winter cherry, is an evergreen shrub in the Solanaceae or nightshade family that grows in India, the Middle East, and parts of Africa. Several other species in the genus ''Withania'' are m ...

'' plant have been reported as a new reservoir host for an invasive mealybug species ''

Phenacoccus solenopsis ''Phenacoccus solenopsis'', the cotton mealybug or solenopsis mealybug, is a species of mealybug in the family Pseudococcidae. Having originated in North America, it has spread to other parts of the world and become a major pest of cotton crops ...

''. Some mealybugs of the '' Hypogeococcus'' are used as

biological pest control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also invo ...

s of invasive

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring countri ...

, including '' Harrisia balansae'', '' H. martinii'', and ''

Opuntia cespitosa ''Opuntia cespitosa'', commonly called the eastern prickly pear, is a species of cactus native to North America. It is most common west of the Appalachian Mountains and east of the Mississippi River, where it is found in the Midwest, Upper South ...

''.

Fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserved ...

specimens of genus '' Acropyga''

ant Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period. More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22 ...

s have been recovered from the

Burdigalian The Burdigalian is, in the geologic timescale, an age (geology), age or stage (stratigraphy), stage in the early Miocene. It spans the time between 20.43 ± 0.05 annum, Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma (million years ago). Preceded by the Aquitanian (sta ...

stage

Dominican amber Dominican amber is amber from the Dominican Republic derived from resin of the extinct tree ''Hymenaea protera''. Dominican amber differentiates itself from Baltic amber by being nearly always transparent, and it has a higher number of fossil incl ...

deposits and several individuals are preserved carrying the extinct mealybug genus ''

Electromyrmococcus ''Electromyrmococcus'' is an extinct genus of mealybug in the Pseudococcidae subfamily Rhizoecinae. The genus currently contains three species, all from the early Miocene, Burdigalian stage, Dominican amber deposits on the island of Hispaniola. ...

''. These fossils represent the oldest record of the

symbiosis Symbiosis (from Greek , , "living together", from , , "together", and , bíōsis, "living") is any type of a close and long-term biological interaction between two different biological organisms, be it mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasit ...

between mealybugs and ''Acropyga'' species ants. File:Maconellicoccus hirsutus - hibiscus mealybug - adult male.jpg, Male

hibiscus ''Hibiscus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising several hundred species that are native to warm temperate, subtropical and tropical regions throughout the world. Member species ...

mealybug, ''

Maconellicoccus hirsutus ''Maconellicoccus hirsutus'', (also known as the pink, grape or hibiscus mealybug) is a pest of many plants, trees, and shrubs. It infests hibiscus, citrus, coffee, sugar cane, annonas, plums, guava, mango (although, mango mealybug is more proble ...

'' File:Formica fusca and mealy bugs.jpg, ''

Formica fusca ''Formica fusca'' is a black-colored ant commonly found throughout Europe as well as parts of Southern Asia and Africa. It has the common names silky ant or dusky ant. The range within the palaearctic region extends from Portugal in the west to J ...

'' ants tending a herd of mealybugs File:Ladybug(india).jpg, A

ladybird Coccinellidae () is a widespread family of small beetles ranging in size from . They are commonly known as ladybugs in North America and ladybirds in Great Britain. Some entomologists prefer the names ladybird beetles or lady beetles as they ...

preying on mealybugs File:Mealybugs feeding on hibiscus plant.jpg, alt=Mealybugs on Hibiscus plant., Mealybugs on hibiscus plant File:Phenacoccus aceris.jpg, '' Phenacoccus aceris'' File:Acropyga glaesaria SMFBE457B2 01.jpg, ''

Acropyga glaesaria ''Acropyga glaesaria'' is an extinct species of ant in the subfamily Formicinae known from a group of possibly Miocene fossils found on Hispaniola. ''A. glaesaria'' is the first species of the ant genus '' Acropyga'' to have been described from f ...

'' ant carrying an '' Electromyrmococcus abductus'' mealybug

Control methods

Pyrethroid A pyrethroid is an organic compound similar to the natural pyrethrins, which are produced by the flowers of pyrethrums (''Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium'' and ''Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. coccineum''). Pyrethroids are used as commercial and hou ...

s such as

permethrin Permethrin is a medication and an insecticide. As a medication, it is used to treat scabies and lice. It is applied to the skin as a cream or lotion. As an insecticide, it can be sprayed onto clothing or mosquito nets to kill the insects that t ...

bifenthrin Bifenthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide. It is widely used against ant infestations. It is not a restricted chemical in the United States and is commonly sold in hardware stores to control pests in homes. Chemical properties Bifenthrin is poorly ...

cyfluthrin Cyfluthrin is a pyrethroid insecticide and common household pesticide. It is a complex organic compound and the commercial product is sold as a mixture of isomers. Like most pyrethroids (MoA 3a), it is highly toxic to fish and invertebrates, but ...

can be used to control mealybugs. Some gardeners use green lacewing (

Chrysopidae Green lacewings are insects in the large family Chrysopidae of the order Neuroptera. There are about 85 genera and (differing between sources) 1,300–2,000 species in this widespread group. Members of the genera '' Chrysopa'' and '' Chrysoperl ...

) larvae to control mealybug infestations, as the larval lacewings are voracious predators of aphids and other small insects.

Metabolism

Mealybugs have a highly sophisticated metabolism that involves not one but two bacterial

endosymbionts An ''endosymbiont'' or ''endobiont'' is any organism that lives within the body or cells of another organism most often, though not always, in a mutualistic relationship. (The term endosymbiosis is from the Greek: ἔνδον ''endon'' "within" ...

, one inside the other. The endosymbionts make essential amino acids that the mealybug is now unable to acquire directly from its diet. Genetically, mealybugs rely on a "mosaic" of metabolic pathways in which proteins are transported across membranes between what were once independent organisms.

Genera

* '' Acaciacoccus'' * '' Acinicoccus'' * '' Acrochordonus'' * '' Adelosoma'' * '' Agastococcus'' * ''

Albertinia ''Albertinia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the daisy family described as a genus in 1820.Allomyrmococcus'' * '' Allotrionymus'' * '' Amonostherium'' * '' Anaparaputo'' * '' Anisococcus'' * '' Annulococcus'' * '' Anthelococcus'' * '' Antonina'' * '' Antoninella'' * '' Antoninoides'' * '' Apodastococcus'' * '' Artemicoccus'' * '' Asaphococcus'' * '' Asphodelococcus'' * '' Asteliacoccus'' * '' Atriplicicoccus'' * '' Atrococcus'' * '' Australicoccus'' * '' Australiputo'' * '' Balanococcus'' * '' Bessenayla'' * '' Bimillenia'' * '' Birendracoccus'' * '' Boninococcus'' * '' Boreococcus'' * '' Bouhelia'' * '' Brasiliputo'' * '' Brevennia'' * '' Brevicoccus'' * '' Callitricoccus'' * '' Calyptococcus'' * '' Cannococcus'' * '' Capitisetella'' * '' Cataenococcus'' * '' Chaetococcus'' * '' Chaetotrionymus'' * '' Chileputo'' * '' Chlorococcus'' * '' Chnaurococcus'' * '' Chorizococcus'' * '' Chryseococcus'' * '' Cintococcus'' * '' Circaputo'' * '' Cirnecoccus'' * '' Clavicoccus'' * '' Coccidohystrix'' * '' Coccura'' * '' Coleococcus'' * '' Colombiacoccus'' * '' Conicosoma'' * '' Conulicoccus'' * '' Coorongia'' * '' Cormiococcus'' * '' Criniticoccus'' * '' Crisicoccus'' * '' Crocydococcus'' * '' Cryptoripersia'' * '' Cucullococcus'' * '' Cyperia'' * '' Cypericoccus'' * '' Cyphonococcus'' * '' Dawa'' * '' Delococcus'' * '' Delottococcus'' * '' Densispina'' * '' Discococcus'' * '' Distichlicoccus'' * '' Diversicrus'' * '' Drymococcus'' * '' Dysmicoccus'' * '' Eastia'' * '' Ehrhornia'' * ''

'' † * '' Epicoccus'' * '' Erimococcus'' * '' Eriocorys'' * '' Erioides'' * '' Erium'' * '' Eucalyptococcus'' * '' Eumirococcus'' * '' Eumyrmococcus'' * '' Eupeliococcus'' * '' Euripersia'' * '' Eurycoccus'' * '' Exilipedronia'' * '' Farinococcus'' * ''

Ferrisia ''Ferrisia'' is a genus of mealybugs. Taxonomic history David T. Fullaway circumscribed the genus in 1923. He included one species: '' F. virgata'', which was initially described in ''Dactylopius'' and had been transferred to '' Pseudococcus''. ...

'' * '' Ferrisicoccus'' * '' Fijicoccus'' * '' Fonscolombia'' * '' Formicococcus'' * '' Gallulacoccus'' * '' Geococcus'' * '' Glycycnyza'' * '' Gomezmenoricoccus'' * ''

Gouxia ''Gouxia danielaferreroae'' is a species of mealybug that lives in France. It was placed in a monotypy, monotypic genus by Lucien Goux in 1989, but the genus name he used, ''Giraudia (disambiguation), Giraudia'', was a junior homonym of at least ...

'' * '' Greenoripersia'' * '' Grewiacoccus'' * '' Hadrococcus'' * '' Heliococcus'' * '' Heterococcopsis'' * ''

Heterococcus ''Heterococcus'' is a genus of yellow-green algae Yellow-green algae or the Xanthophyceae (xanthophytes) are an important group of heterokont algae. Most live in fresh water, but some are found in marine and soil habitats. They vary from singl ...

'' * '' Heteroheliococcus'' * '' Hippeococcus'' * '' Hopefoldia'' * '' Humococcus'' * '' Hypogeococcus'' * '' Iberococcus'' * '' Idiococcus'' * '' Indococcus'' * '' Inopicoccus'' * '' Ityococcus'' * '' Kenmorea'' * '' Kermicus'' * '' Kiritshenkella'' * '' Lachnodiella'' * '' Lachnodiopsis'' * '' Lacombia'' * '' Laingiococcus'' * '' Laminicoccus'' * '' Lankacoccus'' * '' Lantanacoccus'' * '' Lenania'' * '' Leptococcus'' * '' Leptorhizoecus'' * '' Liucoccus'' * '' Lomatococcus'' * '' Londiania'' * '' Longicoccus'' * ''

Maconellicoccus ''Maconellicoccus'' is a genus of true bugs belonging to the family Pseudococcidae. The species of this genus are found in tropical regions and Australia. Species Species: *''Maconellicoccus australiensis'' *''Maconellicoccus hirstutus'' *''M ...

'' * '' Macrocepicoccus'' * '' Maculicoccus'' * '' Madacanthococcus'' * '' Madagasia'' * '' Madangiacoccus'' * '' Madeurycoccus'' * '' Malaicoccus'' * '' Malekoccus'' * '' Mammicoccus'' * '' Marendellea'' * ''Mascarenococcus'' * ''Maskellococcus'' * ''Mauricoccus'' * ''Melanococcus'' * ''Metadenopsis'' * ''Metadenopus'' * ''Miconicoccus'' * ''Mirococcopsis'' * ''Mirococcus'' * ''Miscanthicoccus'' * ''Misericoccus'' * ''Mizococcus'' * ''Mollicoccus'' * ''Mombasinia'' * ''Moystonia'' * ''Mutabilicoccus'' * ''Nairobia'' * ''Natalensia'' * ''Neochavesia'' * ''Neoclavicoccus'' * ''Neoripersia'' * ''Neosimmondsia'' * ''Neotrionymus'' * ''Nesococcus'' * ''Nesopedronia'' * ''Nesticoccus'' * ''Nipaecoccus'' * ''Novonilacoccus'' * ''Octococcus'' * ''Odacoccus'' * ''Ohiacoccus'' * ''Oracella'' * ''Orococcus'' * ''Orstomicoccus'' * ''Oxyacanthus'' * ''Palaucoccus'' * ''Palmicultor'' * ''Paludicoccus'' * ''Pandanicola (bug), Pandanicola'' * ''Papuacoccus'' * ''Paracoccus (bug), Paracoccus'' * ''Paradiscococcus'' * ''Paradoxococcus'' * ''Paraferrisia'' * ''Paramococcus'' * ''Paramonostherium'' * ''Paramyrmococcus'' * ''Parapaludicoccus'' * ''Parapedronia'' * ''Paraputo'' * ''Pararhodania'' * ''Paratrionymus'' * ''Parkermicus'' * ''Paulianodes'' * ''Pedrococcus'' * ''Pedronia'' * ''Peliococcopsis'' * ''Peliococcus'' * ''Pelionella'' * ''Pellizzaricoccus'' * ''Penthococcus'' * ''Peridiococcus'' * ''Phenacoccus'' * ''Phyllococcus'' * ''Pilococcus'' * ''Planococcoides'' * ''Planococcus (bug), Planococcus'' * ''Pleistocerarius'' * ''Plotococcus'' * ''Poecilococcus'' * ''Polystomophora'' * ''Porisaccus'' * ''Porococcus'' * ''Prorhizoecus'' * ''Prorsococcus'' * ''Pseudantonina'' * ''Pseudococcus'' * ''Pseudorhizoecus'' * ''Pseudorhodania'' * ''Pseudoripersia'' * ''Pseudotrionymus'' * ''Puto (bug), Puto'' * ''Pygmaeococcus'' * ''Quadrigallicoccus'' * ''Rastrococcus'' * ''Renicaula'' * ''Rhizoecus'' * ''Rhodania'' * ''Ripersia'' * ''Ritsemia'' * ''Rosebankia'' * ''Saccharicoccus'' * ''Sarococcus'' * ''Scaptococcus'' * ''Seabrina'' * ''Serrolecanium'' * ''Seyneria'' * ''Spartinacoccus'' * ''Sphaerococcus'' * ''Spilococcus'' * ''Spinococcus'' * ''Stachycoccus'' * ''Stemmatomerinx'' * ''Stipacoccus'' * ''Strandanna'' * ''Stricklandina'' * ''Strombococcus'' * ''Synacanthococcus'' * ''Syrmococcus'' * ''Tangicoccus'' * ''Tasmanicoccus'' * ''Telocorys'' * ''Tibetococcus'' * ''Tomentocera'' * ''Trabutina'' * ''Tridiscus'' * ''Trimerococcus'' * ''Trionymus'' * ''Trochiscococcus'' * ''Turbinococcus'' * ''Tylococcus'' * ''Tympanococcus'' * ''Ventrispina'' * ''Villosicoccus'' * ''Volvicoccus'' * ''Vryburgia'' * ''Xenococcus'' * ''Yudnapinna''

References

External links

* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/advice/pests_and_diseases/identifier.shtml?mealy_bugs Mealy bugs ''Pseudococcus spp.'']—BBC gardening advice
CISR – Vine Mealybug
��Center for Invasive Species Research summary on Vine Mealybug * On the University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences ''Featured Creatures'' website: *
''Hypogeococcus pungens''
*

{{Taxonbar, from=Q143569 Pseudococcidae, Agricultural pest insects Insect pests of ornamental plants Insect vectors of plant pathogens