Material is a
substance
Substance may refer to:
* Matter, anything that has mass and takes up space
Chemistry
* Chemical substance, a material with a definite chemical composition
* Drug substance
** Substance abuse, drug-related healthcare and social policy diagnosis ...
or
mixture
In chemistry, a mixture is a material made up of two or more different chemical substances which are not chemically bonded. A mixture is the physical combination of two or more substances in which the identities are retained and are mixed in the ...
of substances that constitutes an
object
Object may refer to:
General meanings
* Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept
** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place
** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter
* Goal, an ai ...
. Materials can be pure or impure, living or non-living matter. Materials can be classified on the basis of their
physical
Physical may refer to:
*Physical examination
In a physical examination, medical examination, or clinical examination, a medical practitioner examines a patient for any possible medical signs or symptoms of a medical condition. It generally co ...
and
chemical properties, or on their
geological origin or
biological
Biology is the scientific study of life. It is a natural science with a broad scope but has several unifying themes that tie it together as a single, coherent field. For instance, all organisms are made up of cells that process hereditary in ...
function.
Materials science is the study of materials, their properties and their applications.
Raw material
A raw material, also known as a feedstock, unprocessed material, or primary commodity, is a basic material that is used to produce goods, finished goods, energy, or intermediate materials that are feedstock for future finished products. As feedst ...
s can be processed in different ways to influence their properties, by purification, shaping or the introduction of other materials. New materials can be produced from raw materials by
synthesis
Synthesis or synthesize may refer to:
Science Chemistry and biochemistry
*Chemical synthesis, the execution of chemical reactions to form a more complex molecule from chemical precursors
** Organic synthesis, the chemical synthesis of organ ...
.
In
industry, materials are inputs to
manufacturing processes
Manufacturing is the creation or production of goods with the help of equipment, labor, machines, tools, and chemical or biological processing or formulation. It is the essence of secondary sector of the economy. The term may refer to a rang ...
to produce products or more complex materials.
Historical elements
Materials chart the history of humanity. The system of the three prehistoric ages (
Stone Age
The Stone Age was a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used to make tools with an edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted for roughly 3.4 million years, and ended between 4,000 BC and 2,000 BC, with t ...
,
Bronze Age,
Iron Age) were succeeded by historical ages: steel age in the 19th century, polymer age in the middle of the following century (plastic age) and silicon age in the second half of the 20th century.
Classification by use
Materials can be broadly categorized in terms of their use, for example:
*
Building materials are used for construction
*
Building insulation materials are used to retain heat within buildings
*
Refractory materials
In materials science, a refractory material or refractory is a material that is resistant to Thermal decomposition, decomposition by heat, pressure, or chemical attack, and retains strength and form at high temperatures. Refractories are polycr ...
are used for high-temperature applications
*
Nuclear materials are used for nuclear power and weapons
*
Aerospace materials are used in aircraft and other aerospace applications
*
Biomaterials are used for applications interacting with living systems
Material selection Material selection is a step in the process of designing any physical object. In the context of product design, the main goal of material selection is to minimize cost while meeting product performance goals. Systematic selection of the best materia ...
is a process to determine which material should be used for a given application.
Classification by structure
The relevant structure of materials has a different length scale depending on the material. The structure and composition of a material can be determined by
microscopy
Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view objects and areas of objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of micr ...
or
spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the field of study that measures and interprets the electromagnetic spectra that result from the interaction between electromagnetic radiation and matter as a function of the wavelength or frequency of the radiation. Matter wa ...
.
Microstructure
In engineering, materials can be categorised according to their microscopic structure:
*
Ceramics: non-metal, inorganic solids
*
Glasses:
amorphous
In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid, glassy solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is characteristic of a crystal.
Etymology
The term comes from the Greek ''a'' ("wi ...
solids
*
Metals: pure or
combined
Combined may refer to:
* Alpine combined (skiing), the combination of slalom and downhill skiing as a single event
** Super combined (skiing)
* Nordic combined (skiing), the combination of cross country skiing and ski jumping as a single event
* T ...
chemical elements with
specific chemical bonding behavior
*
Polymers: materials based on long carbon or silicon chains
* Hybrids: combinations of multiple materials, for example
composites.
Larger-scale structure
A
metamaterial is any material engineered to have a property that is not found in naturally occurring materials, usually by combining several materials to form a composite and / or tuning the
shape,
geometry,
size,
orientation
Orientation may refer to:
Positioning in physical space
* Map orientation, the relationship between directions on a map and compass directions
* Orientation (housing), the position of a building with respect to the sun, a concept in building de ...
and arrangement to achieve the desired property.
In
foams and
textiles
Textile is an umbrella term that includes various fiber-based materials, including fibers, yarns, filaments, threads, different fabric types, etc. At first, the word "textiles" only referred to woven fabrics. However, weaving is not the ...
, the chemical structure is less relevant to immediately observable
properties than larger-scale material features: the holes in foams, and the weave in textiles.
Classification by properties
Materials can be compared and classified by their large-scale physical properties.
Mechanical properties
Mechanical properties determine how a material responds to applied
forces.
Examples include:
*
Stiffness
Stiffness is the extent to which an object resists deformation in response to an applied force.
The complementary concept is flexibility or pliability: the more flexible an object is, the less stiff it is.
Calculations
The stiffness, k, of a b ...
*
Strength
Strength may refer to:
Physical strength
*Physical strength, as in people or animals
*Hysterical strength, extreme strength occurring when people are in life-and-death situations
*Superhuman strength, great physical strength far above human ca ...
*
Toughness
*
Hardness
Thermal properties
Materials may degrade or undergo changes of properties at different temperatures. Thermal properties also include the material's
thermal conductivity and
heat capacity, relating to the transfer and storage of
thermal energy by the material.
Other properties
Materials can be compared and categorized by any quantitative measure of their behavior under various conditions. Notable additional properties include the optical, electrical, and magnetic behavior of materials.
See also
*
Hyle
In philosophy, hyle (; from grc, ὕλη) refers to matter or stuff. It can also be the material cause underlying a change in Aristotelian philosophy. The Greeks originally had no word for matter in general, as opposed to raw material suitable ...
, the Greek term, relevant for the
philosophy of matter
Philosophy of matter is the branch of philosophy concerned with issues surrounding the ontology, epistemology and character of matter and the material world. The word ''matter'' is derived from the Latin word ''materia'', meaning "wood", or “ti ...
*
Matter
*
:Materials
References
External links
{{Authority control
Broad-concept articles