Massif Du Tsaratanana
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Madagascar is a large island in the Indian Ocean off the eastern coast of southern Africa, east of Mozambique. It has a total area of with of land and of water. Madagascar is the fourth largest island and the 2nd largest island country in the world. The highest point is
Maromokotro Maromokotro or MaromokotraMadagascar National Parks
is the highest mountain on < ...
, in the
Tsaratanana ''For other localities with the same name, see Tsaratanana (disambiguation)'' Tsaratanana is a town and commune ( mg, kaominina) in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Tsaratanana, which is a part of Betsiboka Region. The population of the ...
Massif region in the north of the island, at . The capital Antananarivo is in the Central Highlands near the centre of the island. It has the 25th largest Exclusive Economic Zone of . Madagascar is 400 kilometres (250 miles) east of mainland Africa.


Geographical regions

Madagascar can be divided into five general geographical regions: the east coast, the Tsaratanana Massif, the Central Highlands, the west coast, and the southwest. The highest elevations parallel the east coast. The total size is , which makes it the world's second largest island country.


East coast

The east coast consists of a narrow band of lowlands about fifty kilometers wide, formed from the sedimentation of
alluvial soils Alluvium (from Latin ''alluvius'', from ''alluere'' 'to wash against') is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Allu ...
, and an intermediate zone composed of steep bluffs alternating with ravines bordering an escarpment of about in elevation, which gives access to the Central Highlands. The coastal region roughly from north of Baie d'Antongil, the most prominent feature on the
Masoala ''Masoala'' is a genus of flowering plant in the family Arecaceae. It contains the following species, both endemic to Madagascar:Jumelle, Henri Lucien. 1933. Annales du Musée Colonial de Marseille, sér. 5, 1(1): 8. * ''Masoala kona'' Beentje ...
Peninsula, to the far north of the island. The coastline is straight, with the exception of a bay, offering less in the way of natural harbors than the west coast. The Canal des Pangalanes, an -long lagoon formed naturally by the washing of sand up on the island by the Indian Ocean currents and by the silting of rivers, is a feature of the coast; it has been used both as a means of transportation up and down the coast and as a fishing area. The beach slopes steeply into deep water. The east coast is considered dangerous for swimmers and sailors because of the large number of sharks that frequent the shoreline.


Tsaratanana Massif

The Tsaratanana Massif region at the north end of the island contains
Maromokotro Maromokotro or MaromokotraMadagascar National Parks
is the highest mountain on < ...
, the highest point on the island at . Further north is the
Montagne d'Ambre Montagne d'Ambre National Park is a national park in the Diana Region of northern Madagascar. The park is known for its endemic flora and fauna, water falls and crater lakes. It is north of the capital, Antananarivo and is one of the most biolog ...
(Ambohitra), which is of volcanic origin. The coastline is deeply indented; two prominent features are the natural harbor at
Antsiranana Antsiranana ( mg, Antsiran̈ana ), named Diego-Suárez prior to 1975, is a city in the far north of Madagascar. Antsiranana is the capital of Diana Region. It had an estimated population of 115,015 in 2013. History The bay and city originally u ...
(Diego Suárez), just south of the Cap d'Ambre (Tanjon' i Bobaomby), and the large island of Nosy Be to the west. The mountainous topography of the Tsaratanana Massif limits the potential of the port at Antsiranana by impeding the flow of traffic from other parts of the island.


Central Highlands

The Central Highlands, which range from in altitude, contain a wide variety of topographies: rounded and eroded hills, massive granite outcrops, extinct volcanoes, eroded peneplains, and alluvial plains and marshes, which have been converted into irrigated rice fields. The Central Highlands extend from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to the Ivakoany Massif in the south. They are defined rather clearly by the escarpments along the east coast, and they slope gently to the west coast. The Central Highlands include the Anjafy High Plateaux; the volcanic formations of Itasy (Lake Itasy is in a volcanic crater) and the Ankaratra Massif, reaching a height of . The Isalo Roiniforme Massif lies between the central highlands and the west coast. Antananarivo, the national capital, is located in the northern portion of the Central Highlands at above sea level. A prominent feature of the Central Highlands is a rift valley running north to south, located east of Antananarivo and including
Lac Alaotra Lake Alaotra ( mg, farihin' Alaotra, ; french: Lac Alaotra) is the largest lake in Madagascar, located in Alaotra-Mangoro Region and on the island's northern central plateau. Its basin is composed of shallow freshwater lakes and marshes surrounded ...
, the largest body of water on the island. The lake is located above sea level and is bordered by two cliffs, rising to the west and to the east, which form the walls of a valley. This region has experienced geological
subsidence Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope move ...
, and earth tremors are frequent.


West coast

The west coast, composed of sedimentary formations, is more indented than the east coast, thus offering a number of harbors sheltered from cyclones, such as the harbor at
Mahajanga Mahajanga (French: Majunga) is a city and an administrative district on the northwest coast of Madagascar. The city of Mahajanga (Mahajanga I) is the capital of the Boeny Region. The district (identical to the city) had a population of 220,629 i ...
. Deep bays and well-protected harbors have attracted explorers, traders, and
pirates Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East since ancient times; thus, the area has served as an important bridge between Madagascar and the outside world. Silting up of harbors on this coast, caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion suffered inland in Madagascar, is a major problem. The broad alluvial plains found on the coast between Mahajanga and Toliara, which are believed to have great agricultural potential, are thinly inhabited, in many places covered with swamps of Madagascar mangroves, and remain largely unexplored, although they are the subject of mineral and hydrocarbon exploration activity. The giant oil fields of Tsimiroro (heavy oil) and Bemolanga (ultra heavy oil) lie towards the west of the island.


Southwest

The southwest is bordered on the east by the Ivakoany Massif and on the north by the Isala Roiniforme Massif. It includes two regions along the south coast, the Mahafaly Plateau and the desert region occupied by the
Antandroy The Tandroy are a traditionally nomadic ethnic group of Madagascar inhabiting the arid southern part of the island called Androy, tracing their origins back to the East Africa mainland. In the 17th century however, the Tandroy emerged as a confe ...
people.


Rivers and lakes

The Mananara and Mangoro rivers flow from the Central Highlands to the east coast, as does the Maningory, which flows from Lake Alaotra. Other rivers flowing east into the Indian Ocean include the
Bemarivo Bemarivo is a rural municipality in north-western Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Ambatomainty, which is a part of Melaky Region. It has a population of 9,091 inhabitants. It can be reached by the unpaved National road 8c from Morafen ...
, the
Ivondro Ivondro (former name: ''Lavaraty'') is a town and commune in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Midongy-Atsimo Midongy Atsimo or Midongy Sud is a district in the region of Atsimo-Atsinanana in Madagascar. Communes The district is further ...
, and the
Mananjary Mananjary is a city located in Vatovavy, Madagascar with a population of 25,222 inhabitants in 2018. It is the chief city of the Mananjary district. It contains a town of the same name, situated on the southern part of the east coast, where the M ...
. These rivers tend to be short because the
watershed Watershed is a hydrological term, which has been adopted in other fields in a more or less figurative sense. It may refer to: Hydrology * Drainage divide, the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins * Drainage basin, called a "watershe ...
is located close to the east coast. Owing to the steep elevations, they flow rapidly, often over spectacular waterfalls. The rivers flowing to the west coast discharge into the Mozambique Channel and tend to be lengthier and have a lesser gradient. The major rivers on the west coast are the Sambirano, the Mahajamba, the Betsiboka (part of
Mahajanga Mahajanga (French: Majunga) is a city and an administrative district on the northwest coast of Madagascar. The city of Mahajanga (Mahajanga I) is the capital of the Boeny Region. The district (identical to the city) had a population of 220,629 i ...
is located at the mouth), the
Mania Mania, also known as manic syndrome, is a mental and behavioral disorder defined as a state of abnormally elevated arousal, affect, and energy level, or "a state of heightened overall activation with enhanced affective expression together wit ...
, the North and South Mahavavy, the Mangoky, and the
Onilahy Onilahy (or ''Ionilahy'') is a rural municipality in Madagascar. It belongs to the Manakara-Atsimo District, which is a part of Fitovinany. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 5,000 in 2001 commune census. Only prima ...
. The Ikopa, which flows past Antananarivo, is a tributary of the Betsiboka. The Onilahy, located in the driest part of the island, occasionally dries up during droughts. Important lakes, aside from Alaotra, include
Lake Kinkony Lake Kinkony is a large lake in the northwestern part of Madagascar, in the lower Mahavavy Sud River watershed in Boeny region (former Mahajanga Province Mahajanga was a former province of Madagascar that had an area of 150,023 km². It had ...
in the northwest, Lake Itasy in the center and Lake Ihotry in the southwest. File:Majahilo River 01.jpg, Majahilo river at
Miandrivazo Miandrivazo is a town and commune ( mg, kaominina) in Madagascar. It is situated at the Mahajilo River and belongs to the district of Miandrivazo, which is a part of Menabe Region. The population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 1 ...
File:Estuaries, Northwest Coast of Madagascar.JPG, This astronaut photograph highlights two estuaries along the north-western coastline of Madagascar File:Tsiribihina River.jpg,
Tsiribihina River The Tsiribihina is a river of western Madagascar. The main tributaries are the Mahajilo, Manandaza, Mania, and Sakeny rivers. Its basin has an area of 49,800 km2. 7,025 km2 is in the basin of the Sakeny River, 14,500 km2 in that of the Mahaj ...
File:Lake Tritriva 01.jpg,
Lake Tritiva Lake Tritriva is a volcanic lake in southwest-central Madagascar, in the region of Vàkinankàratra, located near the village of Belazao. In a distance of 15 km from Antsirabe, it is easy to reach by the National Road 34. There's a strict Fady ...


Geographic features


Somali Plate

Madagascar originated as part of the
Gondwana Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
supercontinent. Its west coast was formed when Africa broke off from Gondwana around 165 million years ago. Madagascar eventually broke off from India about 88 million years ago. It is geologically located within the Somali plate.


Soils

Madagascar has been called the "Great Red Island" because of the prominence of red
lateritic Laterite is both a soil and a rock type rich in iron and aluminium and is commonly considered to have formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are of rusty-red coloration, because of high iron oxide content. They develop by ...
soils. The red soils predominate the Central Highlands, although there are much richer soils in the regions of former volcanic activity, Itasy and Ankaratra, and
Tsaratanana ''For other localities with the same name, see Tsaratanana (disambiguation)'' Tsaratanana is a town and commune ( mg, kaominina) in Madagascar. It belongs to the district of Tsaratanana, which is a part of Betsiboka Region. The population of the ...
to the north. A narrow band of alluvial soils is found all along the east coast and at the mouths of the major rivers on the west coast; clay, sand, and limestone mixtures are found in the west; and shallow or skeletal laterite and limestone are located in the south. Deforestation and grazing cause aggressive erosion in many locations.


Tidal Flats

A recent global remote sensing analysis suggested that there were 1,748km² of tidal flats in Madagascar, making it the 18th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there.


Climate

The climate is tropical along the coast, temperate inland, and arid in the south. The weather is dominated by the southeastern trade winds that originate in the Indian Ocean anticyclone, a center of high atmospheric pressure that seasonally changes its position over the ocean. Madagascar has two seasons: a warm, wet season from November to April; and a cooler, dry season from May to October. There is, however, great variation in climate owing to elevation and position relative to dominant winds. Overall, surface water is most abundant along the east coast and in the far north (with the exception of the area around Cap d'Ambre, which has relatively little surface water). Amounts diminish to the west and south, and the driest regions are in the extreme south. The east coast has a tropical rainforest climate; being most directly exposed to the trade winds, it has the highest rainfall, averaging as high as annually in some places. This region has a hot, humid climate in which tropical fevers are endemic. Destructive cyclones occur during the rainy season, coming in principally from the direction of the
Mascarene Islands The Mascarene Islands (, ) or Mascarenes or Mascarenhas Archipelago is a group of islands in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar consisting of the islands belonging to the Republic of Mauritius as well as the French department of Réunion. Thei ...
. Because rain clouds discharge much of their moisture east of the highest elevations on the island, the Central Highlands are drier and, owing to the altitude, also cooler. Thunderstorms are common during the rainy season in the Central Highlands and the eastern coastal lowlands. Antananarivo receives practically all of its average annual of rainfall between November and April. The dry season is sunny, although somewhat chilly, especially in the mornings. Although frosts are rare in Antananarivo, they are common at higher elevations. Hail is common in many of the higher areas of the island (including Antananarivo), but there is no snowfall except on the Ankaratra massif where above it may occasionally fall and even remain for several days. The west coast is drier than either the east coast or the Central Highlands because the trade winds lose their humidity by the time they reach this region. The southwest and the extreme south are semidesert; as little as of rain falls annually at Toliara.


Climate change


Cyclones

Madagascar occasionally experiences the impact of
cyclones In meteorology, a cyclone () is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an anti ...
. During February 2–4, 1994, Madagascar was struck by
Cyclone Geralda Intense Tropical Cyclone Geralda was a powerful tropical cyclone that caused catastrophic damage in Madagascar in late January 1994, among the strongest to hit the country. It was also the most intense tropical cyclone worldwide in 1994. It orig ...
. The cyclone killed seventy people and destroyed enough property to leave approximately 500,000 homeless, including 30,000 in Antananarivo and 80,000 in Toamasina. The cyclone also significantly damaged the country's infrastructure, most notably coastal roads, railroads, and telecommunications, as well as agriculture. The damage was estimated at US$45 million. During March 1-18, 2004, Madagascar was impacted by Cyclone Gafilo, the most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded in the South-West Indian Ocean. The National Rescue Council in Antananarivo reported 237 dead, 181 missing, 879 injured, and 304,000 homeless (174,000 in Antalaha alone). More than 20,000 homes were destroyed, as well as 413 public buildings and 3,400 schools were damaged, including 1,400 schools completely destroyed. The Cyclone left an estimated damage of US$250 million. In February 2022,
Cyclone Batsirai Intense Tropical Cyclone Batsirai was a deadly tropical cyclone which heavily impacted Madagascar in February 2022, becoming the strongest tropical cyclone to strike Madagascar since Cyclone Enawo in 2017. It made landfall two weeks after Trop ...
killed at least 10 people and caused floods, power outages, and structural damages, mere weeks after
Cyclone Ana Tropical Cyclone Ana was one of three tropical cyclones to impact the island nation of Fiji towards the end of January 2021. The fifth tropical disturbance, third tropical cyclone and second severe tropical cyclone of the 2020–21 South Pacif ...
had killed 55 and displaced 130,000 people on the island.


Flora and fauna

The island of Madagascar has been described as an "alternate world" or a "world apart" because of the uniqueness and rarity of many of its plant and animal species. Their characteristics are believed to reflect the island's origins as a part of
Gondwanaland Gondwana () was a large landmass, often referred to as a supercontinent, that formed during the late Neoproterozoic (about 550 million years ago) and began to break up during the Jurassic period (about 180 million years ago). The final stages ...
and its many millions of years of isolation following the breakup of the landmass. Many of the characteristic African species—large mammals such as the elephant, rhinoceros, giraffe, zebra, and antelope and predators such as lions and leopards—do not exist in Madagascar. In addition, the island has been spared the great variety of venomous snakes indigenous to the African continent. Although it is assumed that most life forms on the island had an African (or South American) origin, isolation has allowed old species—elsewhere extinct—to survive and new species unique to the island to evolve. Thus, a great number of plant, insect, reptile, and fish species are endemic to Madagascar, and all indigenous land mammal species—66 in all—are unique to the island. Madagascar was once covered almost completely by forests, but slash and burn practices for dry rice cultivation has denuded most of the landscape, especially in the Central Highlands. Rain forests are concentrated on the steep hillsides along a slender north-south axis bordering the east coast, from the Tsaratanana Massif in the north to Tolagnaro in the south. Secondary growth, which has replaced the original forest and consists to a large extent of traveller's trees, raffia palm, and
baobab ''Adansonia'' is a genus made up of eight species of medium-to-large deciduous trees known as baobabs ( or ). They are placed in the Malvaceae family, subfamily Bombacoideae. They are native to Madagascar, mainland Africa, and Australia.Tropic ...
s, is found in many places along the east coast and in the north. The vegetation of the Central Highlands and the west coast is for the most part savanna or
steppe In physical geography, a steppe () is an ecoregion characterized by grassland plains without trees apart from those near rivers and lakes. Steppe biomes may include: * the montane grasslands and shrublands biome * the temperate grasslands, ...
, and coarse prairie grass predominates where erosion has not exposed the orange-red lateritic soil. In the southwest, the vegetation is adapted to desert conditions. The remaining rain forest contains a great number of unique plant species. The country has some 900 species of orchid.
Banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large herbaceous flowering plants in the genus ''Musa''. In some countries, bananas used for cooking may be called "plantains", distinguis ...
s,
mango A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree ''Mangifera indica''. It is believed to have originated in the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India. ''M. indica'' has been cultivated in South a ...
es,
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family ( Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, the seed, or the ...
, vanilla, and other tropical plants grow on the coasts, and the eucalyptus tree, brought from
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
, is widespread today. Wood and charcoal from the forests are used to meet 80% of domestic fuel needs. As a result, wood has become scarce. In 1990, the World Bank launched an environmental program that has increased the planting of pine and eucalyptus to satisfy fuel needs.


Natural resources

Madagascar has a number of natural resources, including graphite,
chromite Chromite is a crystalline mineral composed primarily of iron(II) oxide and chromium(III) oxide compounds. It can be represented by the chemical formula of FeCr2O4. It is an oxide mineral belonging to the spinel group. The element magnesium can s ...
, coal, bauxite, rare Earth elements, salt, quartz, tar sands,
semi-precious A gemstone (also called a fine gem, jewel, precious stone, or semiprecious stone) is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, ...
stones and
mica Micas ( ) are a group of silicate minerals whose outstanding physical characteristic is that individual mica crystals can easily be split into extremely thin elastic plates. This characteristic is described as perfect basal cleavage. Mica is ...
. There are also fishing areas offshore and potential for hydropower. In 2011, it was estimated that 5.96% of the land area was used for arable land and 1.02% had permanent crops. Twenty-six percent of the land is forested. The majority of the population depends on subsistence farming, largely rice and cattle. The manufacturing sector is small but growing.


Environmental issues

Madagascar is currently suffering in some areas from soil erosion as a result of deforestation and overgrazing,
desertification Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which biological productivity is lost due to natural processes or induced by human activities whereby fertile areas become increasingly arid. It is the spread of arid areas caused by ...
, and contamination of surface water with raw sewage and organic waste. Several species of flora and fauna that are unique to the islands are endangered. Regular cyclones cause flooding in low-lying coastal regions.


Extreme points

This is a list of the extreme points of Madagascar, the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location. * Northernmost Point - Cap D'Ambre,
Antsiranana Province Antsiranana is a former province of Madagascar with an area of 43,406 km2. It had a population of 1,188,425 (July, 2001). Its capital was Antsiranana. A diversity of ethnic groups are found in the province, including Anjoaty, Sakalava, Antaka ...
at 11°57′00″S 49°15′56″E * Easternmost Point - Ile Ngontsy,
Antsiranana Province Antsiranana is a former province of Madagascar with an area of 43,406 km2. It had a population of 1,188,425 (July, 2001). Its capital was Antsiranana. A diversity of ethnic groups are found in the province, including Anjoaty, Sakalava, Antaka ...
at 15°15′48″S 50°29′36″E * Easternmost point (mainland) - Cap Est,
Antsiranana Province Antsiranana is a former province of Madagascar with an area of 43,406 km2. It had a population of 1,188,425 (July, 2001). Its capital was Antsiranana. A diversity of ethnic groups are found in the province, including Anjoaty, Sakalava, Antaka ...
at 15°15′56″S 50°29′10″E * Southernmost Point - Cape Vohimena (Cap Sainte Marie), Toliara Province at 25°36′24″S 45°10′02″E * Westernmost Point - Nosy Hao, Toliara Province at 22°05′13″S 43°11′18″E * Westernmost Point (mainland) - Pointe Mananonoka, Toliara Province at 22°15′04″S 43°13′13″E


See also

* List of cities in Madagascar * List of rivers of Madagascar *
Ecoregions of Madagascar The ecoregions of Madagascar, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund, include seven terrestrial, five freshwater, and two marine ecoregions. Madagascar's diverse natural habitats harbour a rich fauna and flora with high levels of endemism, but most ...
*


References

* {{Africa topic, Climate of M M Madagascar Climate change in Madagascar