![Matka Boza z Guadalupe](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Matka_Boza_z_Guadalupe.jpg)
''Marianismo'' is a term that describes an ideal of true
femininity
Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered fe ...
with characteristics derived from a central figure of Catholicism, Mary of Guadalupe. It defines standards for the
female
Female (Venus symbol, symbol: ♀) is the sex of an organism that produces the large non-motile ovum, ova (egg cells), the type of gamete (sex cell) that fuses with the Sperm, male gamete during sexual reproduction.
A female has larger gamet ...
gender role
A gender role, also known as a sex role, is a social role encompassing a range of behaviors and attitudes that are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for a person based on that person's sex. Gender roles are usually cent ...
in
Hispanic America
The region known as Hispanic America (in Spanish called ''Hispanoamérica'' or ''América Hispana'') and historically as Spanish America (''América Española'') is the portion of the Americas comprising the Spanish-speaking countries of North, ...
n
folk culture
Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, r ...
s, and is strictly intertwined with ''
machismo
Machismo (; ; ; ) is the sense of being " manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 1940s best defined as hav ...
'' and
Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
.
Marianismo revolves around the veneration for
feminine virtues like
interpersonal harmony, inner strength,
self-sacrifice
Self-sacrifice is the giving up of something that a person wants for themselves so that others can be helped or protected or so that other external value can be advanced or protected.
See also
* Altruism (unselfishness)
* Altruistic suicide
* Sacr ...
,
family
Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
,
chastity
Chastity, also known as purity, is a virtue related to temperance. Someone who is ''chaste'' refrains either from sexual activity considered immoral or any sexual activity, according to their state of life. In some contexts, for example when mak ...
, and
morality
Morality () is the differentiation of intentions, decisions and actions between those that are distinguished as proper (right) and those that are improper (wrong). Morality can be a body of standards or principles derived from a code of cond ...
among Hispanic women.
More ideas held within ''marianismo'' include those of feminine passivity, sexual purity, and self-silencing.
Evelyn Stevens, political scientist, states:
teaches that women are semi-divine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men."
[Evelyn P. Stevens, "''Marianismo: la otra cara del machismo en Latino-América''"; in: Ann Pescatelo, ''Hembra y macho en Latino-América: Ensayos.'', Edición Diana, ]México
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
1977, p.123.
Origin of term
"''Marianismo''" originally referred to a devotion towards the
Blessed Virgin Mary
Mary; arc, ܡܪܝܡ, translit=Mariam; ar, مريم, translit=Maryam; grc, Μαρία, translit=María; la, Maria; cop, Ⲙⲁⲣⲓⲁ, translit=Maria was a first-century Jews, Jewish woman of Nazareth, the wife of Saint Joseph, Jose ...
(
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many Latin American countries
**Spanish cuisine
Other places
* Spanish, Ontario, Cana ...
: ''María''). The term was first used by
political scientist
Political science is the science, scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and power, and the analysis of politics, political activities, political thought, political behavior, and associated c ...
Evelyn Stevens in her 1973 essay "''Marianismo'': The Other Face of ''Machismo''". It was coined as a female counterpart to ''machismo,'' the hispanic ideal of masculinity. Marianismo is the supposed ideal of true
femininity
Femininity (also called womanliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with women and girls. Femininity can be understood as socially constructed, and there is also some evidence that some behaviors considered fe ...
that women are supposed to live up to—i.e. being
modest,
virtuous
Virtue ( la, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standards: ...
, and
sexually abstinent
Sexual abstinence or sexual restraint is the practice of refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity for medical, psychological, legal, social, financial, philosophical, moral, or religious reasons. Sexual abstinence is distinct from ...
until marriage—and then being faithful and subordinate to their husbands. Although Stevens was the first to use the term, the concept probably originated at the same as ''machismo,'' during the time of the
Spanish colonization of the Americas
Spain began colonizing the Americas under the Crown of Castile and was spearheaded by the Spanish . The Americas were invaded and incorporated into the Spanish Empire, with the exception of Brazil, British America, and some small regions ...
.
[Web Archive, Marianismo: Origin and Meaning](_blank)
/ref>
In their book ''The Maria Paradox: How Latinas Can Merge Old World Traditions with New World Self-esteem'' (1996, G. P. Putnam), Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vazquez credit Stevens with introducing the concept of marianismo, citing the "ground-breaking essay written by Evelyn P. Stevens in 1973". They also discuss use of the term by academicians such as Sally E. Romero, Julia M. Ramos-McKay, Lillian Comas-Díaz, and Luis Romero. In their book, Gil and Vazquez use it as applicable across a variety of Hispanic cultures.[Marianismo: Origin and Meaning](_blank)
Evelyn Stevens' Contributions
In her essay, Stevens defines Marianismo as "the cult of female spiritual superiority, which teaches that women are semidivine, morally superior to and spiritually stronger than men." She explains the characteristics of machismo: "exaggerated aggressiveness in intransigence in male-to-male interpersonal relationships and arrogance and sexual aggression in male-to-female relationships." Stevens argues that marianismo and machismo are complements, and that one cannot exist without the other.
Origin of Marianismo
Stevens believes that marianismo is rooted in the awe and worship of female bodies, particularly in the context of pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring develops ( gestates) inside a woman's uterus (womb). A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.
Pregnancy usually occurs by sexual intercourse, but ca ...
, exemplified by early cultures. She discusses the various versions of holy Mother figures found through the world, such as Ninhursag
, deity_of=Mother goddess, goddess of fertility, mountains, and rulers
, image= Mesopotamian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42564 - Impression.jpg
, caption=Akkadian cylinder seal impression depicting a vegetation goddess, possibly Ninhursag, sitting ...
a, Mah
''Mångha'' (') is the Avestan for "Moon, month", equivalent to Persian ''Māh'' (; Old Persian ).
It is the name of the lunar deity in Zoroastrianism. The Iranian word is masculine. Although Mah is not a prominent deity in the Avestan script ...
, Ninmah
, deity_of=Mother goddess, goddess of fertility, mountains, and rulers
, image= Mesopotamian - Cylinder Seal - Walters 42564 - Impression.jpg
, caption=Akkadian cylinder seal impression depicting a vegetation goddess, possibly Ninhursag, sitting ...
, Innana
Inanna, also sux, 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀭𒈾, nin-an-na, label=none is an ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, divine justice, and political power. She was originally worshiped in Su ...
, Ishtar
Inanna, also sux, 𒀭𒊩𒌆𒀭𒈾, nin-an-na, label=none is an ancient Mesopotamian goddess of love, war, and fertility. She is also associated with beauty, sex, divine justice, and political power. She was originally worshiped in S ...
, Astarte
Astarte (; , ) is the Hellenized form of the Ancient Near Eastern goddess Ashtart or Athtart (Northwest Semitic), a deity closely related to Ishtar (East Semitic), who was worshipped from the Bronze Age through classical antiquity. The name i ...
, Nintu
Mami is a goddess in the Babylonian epic Atra-Hasis and in other creation legends. She was probably synonymous with Ninhursag. She was involved in the creation of humankind from clay and blood. As Nintu legends states she pinched off fourteen p ...
, and Aruru. In many of these goddess' myths, there are stories of the young male figure in their lives, be it a son or lover, disappearing. The response of the goddesses is typically grief, and as she grieves the earth is barren. Stevens argues that this may be an allegory or explanation of the seasons. Stevens points out that the monotheistic
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one deity, an all-supreme being that is universally referred to as God. Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford ...
structure of Christianity did not produce a woman-figure to venerate, especially in early Christianity, which was deeply rooted in Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
beliefs. Around 431 AD, people began to exalt the popular figure of Mary, Mother of Jesus
Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
. As veneration of her grew, so did concern from Protestant leaders, who believed people were practicing Mariolatry
Protestant views on Mary include the theological positions of major Protestant representatives such as Martin Luther and John Calvin as well as some modern representatives. While it is difficult to generalize about the place of Mary, mother of Je ...
.
When Spanish colonists brought Catholicism to what is now modern-day Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
, a Native American man, who took the name Juan Diego
Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, also known as Juan Diego (; 1474–1548), was a Chichimec peasant and Marian visionary. He is said to have been granted apparitions of the Virgin Mary on four occasions in December 1531: three at the hill of Tepeyac a ...
, is said to have seen a vision of the "Most Holy Mother of God" on a mound in Tepeyac
Tepeyac or the Hill of Tepeyac, historically known by the names Tepeyacac and Tepeaquilla, is located inside Gustavo A. Madero, the northernmost ''delegación'' or borough of Mexico City. According to the Catholic tradition, it is the site where ...
, north of what is now Mexico City
Mexico City ( es, link=no, Ciudad de México, ; abbr.: CDMX; Nahuatl: ''Altepetl Mexico'') is the capital and largest city of Mexico, and the most populous city in North America. One of the world's alpha cities, it is located in the Valley o ...
. Before Christianity was introduced to the continent, Native Americans in the region believed the mound to be sacred to the Aztec goddess Tonantzin
Tonantzin ( nci-IPA, Tonāntzin, toˈnáːn.tsin) is a Nahuatl title composed of ''to-'' "our" + ''nān'' "mother" + ''-tzin'' "(honorific suffix)". When addressing Tonantzin directly, males use the suffixed vocative form ''Tonāntziné'' [], and ...
, or "Our Mother". The vision Diego saw was eventually named "Our Lady of Guadalupe" and made patroness of Mexico by Pope Benedict XIV in 1756. Our Lady of Guadalupe quickly gained prestige in Hispanic America. Father Hidalgo lead rebels with the famous Grito de Dolores
A ''grito'' or ''grito mexicano'' (, Spanish for "shout") is a common Mexican interjection, used as an expression.
Characteristics
This interjection is similar to the ''yahoo'' or ''yeehaw'' of the American cowboy during a hoedown, with added ul ...
in 1810: "''¡Viva Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe, muera el mal gobierno, mueran los gachupines!''" ( "Long live our Lady of Guadalupe, down with bad government, down with the spurred ones" (or Spanish Mexicans))
Effects on women
In marianismo, Stevens argues, it is the bad woman who enjoys premarital sex
Premarital sex is Human sexual activity, sexual activity which is practiced by people before they are Marriage, married. Premarital sex is considered a sin by a number of religions and also considered a Sexual mores, moral issue which is taboo i ...
, whereas the good woman only experiences it as a marriage requirement. Many women confess of sex with their husbands to their priests by referring to the act as "''le hice el servicio''" (or "I did him the service"). The belief system also believes that women should grieve heavily over family, encouraging women not to show any happiness or participate in anything that may bring them joy. Some have gained social prestige by mourning in these ways until they too die.
She also states in her argument that the characteristics of the ideal woman are the same throughout the culture when she claims that "popular acceptance of a stereotype of the ideal woman subiquitous in every social class. There is near universal agreement on what a 'real woman' is like and how she should act". However, she argues that most indigenous communities do not share the marianismo-machismo dichotomy.
Marianismo dictates the ideologies imposed on the day-to-day lives of Hispanic American women. Stevens believes that marianismo will not disappear anytime soon because Hispanic American women still cling to the role. She points out that men follow machismo because they are taught to by their mothers, aunts, and grandmothers. She also says that women encourage marianismo in each other because of the potential shame they could face for not fitting into its standards. Stevens believes many women find comfort in their personal and historical identities by partaking in this system.
Critique of Stevens
Evelyn Stevens' essay was very significant to this area of study. However, since its publication, her argument has been debated by other researchers and critics. Although her argument addresses marianismo in Hispanic America at large, many of the sources she uses mainly focus on Mexican culture
Mexican culture is primarily influenced by its Indigenous inhabitants and the culture of Spain. Mexican culture is described as the 'child' of both western and native American civilizations. Other minor influences include those from other regio ...
, thus severely limiting her frame of reference. Also, she is criticized for implying that, despite other differences among various socio-economic classes, the ideal woman's characteristics are ultimately the same across social class
A social class is a grouping of people into a set of Dominance hierarchy, hierarchical social categories, the most common being the Upper class, upper, Middle class, middle and Working class, lower classes. Membership in a social class can for ...
es. Her critics claim Stevens ignores socio-economic factors, saying "her description of women as altruistic, selfless, passive, ndmorally pure" is inadequate. There have been some responses in the literature to the concept of marianismo that assert that its model of/for women's behavior is very class-based. In other words, the idea that men do all the hard work, while women remain idle, on a pedestal is something that rarely exists for the lowest classes. As Gil and Vazquez remind us, "most of her tevens'sdata came from middle class Mexican women".
Researcher Gloria González-López says heterosexual norms are created, maintained, and changed in different national locations. González-López goes so far as to sayMarianismo has done damage to our understanding of gender relations and inequalities among Latin American and U.S Latina women...Now discredited, marianismo was originally an attempt to examine women's gender identities and relationships within the context of inequality, by developing a model based on a religious icon (María), the quintessential expression of submissiveness and spiritual authority. This notion of Latin American women is grounded in a culturalist essentialism that does far more than spread misinformed ideas: it ultimately promotes gender inequality. Both marianismo and machismo have created clichéd archetypes, fictitious and cartoonesque representations of women and men of Latin American origin."
Ten Commandments of Marianismo
Therapists Rosa Maria Gil and Carmen Inoa Vasquez, present the beliefs they observed many of their patients holding as intrinsic to marianismo: "Don't forget the place of the woman; don't give up your traditions; don't be an old maid, independent, or have your own opinions; don't put your needs first; don't wish anything but to be a housewife; don't forget sex is to make babies, not pleasure; don't be unhappy with your man, no matter what he does to you; don't ask for help outside of your husband; don't discuss your personal problems outside the house; and don't change."
Five Pillars
Other researchers identify "five pillars" of Marianismo, or specific beliefs that "good women" must adhere to.
Familismo
Familismo is an individual's strong identification with and attachment to family, both nuclear and extended. To ascribe to this belief, Hispanic women function as the source of strength of families by maintaining their overall happiness, health, and unity. In order to maintain their families' reputations, Hispanic women are discouraged from sharing what is considered "family issues" with others. This belief causes many women who are abused
Abuse is the improper usage or treatment of a thing, often to unfairly or improperly gain benefit. Abuse can come in many forms, such as: physical or verbal maltreatment, injury, assault, violation, rape, unjust practices, crimes, or other t ...
by their partners to not report their experiences to law enforcement. Instead, they may talk about the abuse with family and friends. However, this disclosure to friends and family is linked to increased risk of future assault of Hispanic women. Therefore, adherence to traditional values of keeping matters regarding abuse within one's family discourage reporting and may have serious health implications for those experiencing abuse.
The concept of family is considered so important to marianismo women that those who attempt to intervene in situations of partner violence in marianismos are encouraged to view autonomy
In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy, from , ''autonomos'', from αὐτο- ''auto-'' "self" and νόμος ''nomos'', "law", hence when combined understood to mean "one who gives oneself one's ...
and independence
Independence is a condition of a person, nation, country, or state in which residents and population, or some portion thereof, exercise self-government, and usually sovereignty, over its territory. The opposite of independence is the statu ...
as very westernized concepts, and are told to instead focus on listening and aiding women in the goals they create to avoid violence, in order to avoid alienating the women. Many of the goals stated by those interviewed were, rather than leaving a relationship with an abusive husband, to stop the violence, improve relationships with their partners, help their partners learn to be more supportive husbands and fathers.
Men and women in Hispanic cultures are expected to value their families, though the ways to express the value vary based on gender proscriptions. While men are expected to provide financial resources, protection, and leadership, women are told to provide emotionally and physically in part by raising children and doing domestic work within their homes.
Chastity
Virginity
Virginity is the state of a person who has never engaged in sexual intercourse. The term ''virgin'' originally only referred to sexually inexperienced women, but has evolved to encompass a range of definitions, as found in traditional, modern ...
is viewed as an important feature, and by abstaining from premarital sex
Premarital sex is Human sexual activity, sexual activity which is practiced by people before they are Marriage, married. Premarital sex is considered a sin by a number of religions and also considered a Sexual mores, moral issue which is taboo i ...
, women prevent shame from coming upon themselves and their families. Often, sex is associated with feelings of guilt
Guilt may refer to:
*Guilt (emotion), an emotion that occurs when a person feels that they have violated a moral standard
*Culpability, a legal term
*Guilt (law), a legal term
Music
*Guilt (album), ''Guilt'' (album), a 2009 album by Mims
*Guilt ( ...
and sadness
Sadness is an emotional pain associated with, or characterized by, feelings of disadvantage, loss, despair, grief, helplessness, disappointment and sorrow. An individual experiencing sadness may become quiet or lethargic, and withdraw thems ...
in marianismo-abiding girls and women. This is because sex is often framed in a dichotomy of either being for procreation
Reproduction (or procreation or breeding) is the biological process by which new individual organisms – "offspring" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual org ...
or eroticism
Eroticism () is a quality that causes sexual feelings, as well as a philosophical contemplation concerning the aesthetics of sexual desire, sensuality, and romantic love. That quality may be found in any form of artwork, including painting, sculp ...
.
Women are expected to be non-sexual and virginally pure. This means that women should strive for monogamy
Monogamy ( ) is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner during their lifetime. Alternately, only one partner at any one time (serial monogamy) — as compared to the various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., polyga ...
, sexual desire in long-term, committed (ideally married) relationships only, and should limit their exploration of their sexual identities only in heterosexual
Heterosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction or sexual behavior between people of the opposite sex or gender. As a sexual orientation, heterosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" to ...
relationships. This often leads to an interpretation that women should remain with their partner for the rest of their lives, even if they are abused.
Women are also expected to be passive in sexual encounters, which is linked to lower condom usage and therefore higher risk of STIs
The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) is a spectrograph, also with a camera mode, installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. Aerospace engineer Bruce Woodgate of the Goddard Space Flight Center was the principal investigator and crea ...
, especially HIV
The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune ...
/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual m ...
. Women are expected to learn how to have sex from their husbands, and if a woman shows too much interest or assertiveness, she is sometimes treated as "suspect".
Respeto
Respeto ("respect") is the obedience, duty, and deference an individual adheres to in their position of a hierarchical structure. This maintains the common Hispanic family structure, and provides individuals with a standard to how they respond to interpersonal situations. There is a golden rule, ''no faltarle el respeto,'' which tells individuals not to speak against those who are higher up in the hierarchy.
Self-silencing
According to marianismo, Hispanic women should withhold personal thoughts and needs in order to avoid disagreement. Adherence to this belief is linked with significantly higher rates of psychological distress
Mental distress or psychological distress encompasses the symptoms and experiences of a person's internal life that are commonly held to be troubling, confusing or out of the ordinary. Mental distress can potentially lead to a change of behavior, a ...
, depression, and anxiety
Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...
in Hispanic women and young girls. It also influences women to stay in violent interpersonal relationships. Many Hispanic women perceive that "keeping things inside" causes their depression.
Simpatía
Simpatía is a value of peace keeping and "kindness" that calls for women to avoid disagreements and assertiveness to keep relationships harmonious.
Spiritual
This pillar focuses on the perceived ability, and therefore responsibility, given to women to lead their families in spiritual growth and religious practice. This pillar is considered to be very important to perceived "good mothers". Higher endorsement of spiritual responsibility of women and mothers is linked to anger, hostility, and anxiety in women.
In the media
Very few studies on the role of ''marianismo'' in the media have been conducted. However, in more recent years, researchers are beginning to explore this cultural phenomenon. Researchers Jorge Villegas, Jennifer Lemanski and Carlos Valdez conducted a study on the portrayal of women in Mexican television commercials. Often women are portrayed as either those who adhere to the feminine ideal, and those who do not. These women are then categorized as good women and bad women, respectively. These "good women" are seen as nurturing, family-oriented, soft-spoken, even-tempered and sexually naïve, whereas the "bad women" are often the sexual targets of men. Another dichotomy presented by this study is dependent women versus independent women. The researchers found that "dependent women tended to display characteristics perceived as positive in marianismo (helpful, rewarded by their family) whereas independent women were more sexualized". A similar study by Rocío Rivadeneyra examined the gender portrayals in telenovelas
A telenovela is a type of a television serial drama or soap opera produced primarily in Latin America. The word combines ''tele'' (for "television") and ''novela'' (meaning "novel"). Similar drama genres around the world include ''teleserye'' (P ...
. Her research found that in comparison to their male counterparts, women were seen as spending more time with children and were either homemakers or unemployed. Both studies, however, noted that women and men were portrayed with equal frequency in the media.
A study of commercials on Mexico's national TV found a disparity in the ways women are depicted based on whether they are dependent on another person to have their role (mothers/wives) or independent (single women/employees). The study found that independent women are objectified
''Objectified'' is a feature-length documentary film examining the role of everyday non-living objects, and the people who design them, in our daily lives. The film is directed by Gary Hustwit. ''Objectified'' premiered at the South By Southwest ...
and sexualized
Sexualization (or sexualisation) is to make something sexual in character or quality or to become aware of sexuality, especially in relation to men and women. Sexualization is linked to sexual objectification. According to the American Psychologi ...
more than dependent women, by wearing significantly more torn clothing to expose the torso and explicit/implicit nudity. Though, both independent and dependent women are more sexualized than men, by wearing more tight-fitting clothes, low-cut/unbuttoned shirts to show cleavage, and nudity. Independent women's motivations for taking actions were significantly more for the approval of men and for social advancement than dependent women. In addition, in these commercials, dependent women are viewed in stereotypical feminine settings, significantly more often in homes and restaurants and less in stores and occupational settings than men. Dependent women are found in homes and outdoors significantly more than independent women who are seen in workplaces more often. Also, women were shown significantly more often as both the givers and receivers of advice and the receivers of help, with men most commonly giving help to others. Commercials reflect cultural views, and these may show understandings on women's expected roles. Portrayals of women as traditional has a real effect on what women and girls can perceive themselves doing and becoming.
Criticisms
Marianismo presents a foundation for normal female behavior within Hispanic countries. Under Marianismo, women are expected to present behavior that shows compliance to male dominance, strong ties to morality (especially relating to the Virgin Mary), and willing to give up everything for the name of family. Like machismo, Marianismo sets up a list of rules that promotes how one needs to be when interacting with society, strongly encouraging a gap between the genders by reinforcing these beliefs in various ways throughout society. Hispanic people who are exposed to the constructs of Marianismo and Machismo are predisposed to behaviors normative within the Hispanic cultures of what constitutes being a man and a woman. Expectations of behavior begin to be evident before birth with these social constructs, liberating and constricting both genders to fit inside a bubble deemed appropriate by Hispanic cultural values. Men are viewed as providers and decision-makers for their family, while women are to provide emotional support to their families only.
Hispanic women's experiences in life both hinder and improve due to Marianismo. They are more likely to exhibit higher levels for pessimistic views in life and developing depression. Yet, they are also less likely to attempt unsafe behavior, such as underage drinking
The legal drinking age is the minimum age at which a person can legally consume alcoholic beverages. The minimum age alcohol can be legally consumed can be different from the age when it can be purchased in some countries. These laws vary between ...
and substance abuse. Restrictions placed on their expected behaviors instills women to remain quiet about their issues. If efforts build to push away from the social constructs behind Marianismo, criticisms appear from the outside community. Even without going against the norm, stereotypes of Hispanic women are conjured up, similar to men under Machismo. They are viewed as "exotic", implying they are secretly sexually passionate wanting to branch out from that ideology, or prefer to divulge in dangerous activities to make up for this “innocent” life they’ve been confined in, much like the archetype of the "sexy librarian". Furthermore, women can ostracize the woman fighting against the norm, claiming she is going against her culture and faith by her challenges towards Marianismo
In Hispanic countries, a woman who presents herself in society without a man is frowned upon, as a man is the basis of family life and having a positive association within the community. Machismo promotes aggression, dominance and entitlement— characteristics that can be applied when focusing on interpersonal violence. When applying interpersonal violence, Hispanic women deal with the abuse from IPV from fear of losing their husbands, their children’s father and social status of admitting abuse to the outside world. Marianismo promotes women to be self-sacrificing, leading for them to accept abuse continually and remain quiet from fear of losing their livelihood and dependency from their husbands. Given these characteristics, men remain dominant and exert their power over their partner, continuing the cultural establishment of patriarchy within Hispanic cultures.
Studies conducted on ''marianismo'' have concluded that Hispanic women who ascribe to this particular female gender role are more likely to engage in high-risk sexual behaviors, gender-based violence Gender-related violence or gender-based violence includes any kind of violence directed against people due to their gender or gender identification.
Types of gender-related violence include:
* Violence against women (sometimes referred to simply as ...
, and experience negative mental health
Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior. It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making. Mental health ...
outcomes.
Jane F. Collier demonstrated that access to economic opportunity is a factor in determining to what extent Hispanic women may choose to conform to traditional notions of ''marianismo'', and to what degree they are inclined to adapt them to new circumstances. As early as 1997, Dr. Rosa Gil and Dr. Carmen Inoa-Vazquez made reference to ''Nuevo Marianismo'', which is to embrace the ''marianismo'' ideal of being nurturing and caring, yet breaking away from the barriers those characteristics previously presented. Coined in 1973, researcher Gloria González-López says that ''marianismo'', as a theoretical category, is not only culturally chauvinist but elitist
Elitism is the belief or notion that individuals who form an elite—a select group of people perceived as having an intrinsic quality, high intellect, wealth, power, notability, special skills, or experience—are more likely to be construc ...
as well.
HIV crisis
According to Marianismo beliefs, women are expected to be naïve about sex, which means that many girls and women are not taught about the spread of HIV
The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the immune ...
/AIDS
Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual m ...
. As a result women know very little about sex, including the homosexual extramarital affairs of their husbands. Many husbands have homosexual relations as a way to prove their ''machismo''. Most women in Hispanic American cultures with HIV contracted it from their sole sex partner, their husband. Regardless of the sexual monogamy
Monogamy ( ) is a form of dyadic relationship in which an individual has only one partner during their lifetime. Alternately, only one partner at any one time (serial monogamy) — as compared to the various forms of non-monogamy (e.g., polyga ...
associated with Marianismo purity a woman adheres to, her status as HIV-positive
The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of ''Lentivirus'' (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), a condition in which progressive failure of the ...
threatens the identity she wants to associate with.
Women often stay silent about their status out of fear of being ostracized by family. Women are often blamed for their husbands' contractions of and death from HIV. Women who are HIV-positive have the risk of their children being taken away from them, because their families often see them as too sick and dirty to care for them. Women often lose status if they are seen to be associating with people who are HIV-positive, because people with HIV are often associated with sexual deviancy
Paraphilia (previously known as sexual perversion and sexual deviation) is the experience of intense sexual arousal to atypical objects, situations, fantasies, behaviors, or individuals. It has also been defined as sexual interest in anything ot ...
and impurity.
Feminist criticism
Some feminists criticize the concept of ''marianismo'', suggesting that it simply legitimizes the social conditions of women in Hispanic America by making it seem valid and normal. They also note that ''marianismo'' is often presented as everything ''machismo'' is not; therefore femaleness is put into "the realm of passivity, chastity, and self-sacrifice". They argue ''marianismo'' suggests that if a woman has a job outside of the home, her virtues and her husband's machismo are put into question.
Ambivalent Sexism Theory
According to Ambivalent Sexism Theory, sexism and women's low status in terms of autonomy and safety is maintained through two types of sexism, hostile
Hostility is seen as form of emotionally charged aggressive behavior. In everyday speech it is more commonly used as a synonym for anger and aggression.
It appears in several psychological theories. For instance it is a facet of neuroticism in ...
and benevolent. Hostile sexism being the belief that women inherently have negative features, and benevolent sexism often being the belief that women have inherently delicate features that causes the need for protection. Marianismo and ambivalent sexism share similar traits, including the fact that women are given respect, high status, and protection if they conform to gendered expectations. Marianismo thus functions as a risk factor and a protective factor.
Modern Marianismo
Hispanic and Latina women in the United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...
find themselves attempting to merge two cultures. "Latinas today are demonstrating ... "Modern Marianismo" (Gil & Vazquez (1997) referred to as "Nuevo Marianismo") which is to embrace the Marianismo Ideal (of being nurturing and caring), yet breaking away from the barriers those characteristics previously presented (for Latinas)."[Bonilla-Rodriguez, Damary. "Latinas and Modern Marianismo", ''Huff Post'', October 25, 2013]
/ref> Damary Bonilla-Rodríguez says that values such as: Familia, Amor y Pasión (Family, Love and Passion) have allowed erpeople to overcome adversity across centuries, and highlighting successful Latinas such as Justice Sonia Sotomayor
Sonia Maria Sotomayor (, ; born June 25, 1954) is an American lawyer and jurist who serves as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. She was nominated by President Barack Obama on May 26, 2009, and has served since ...
, Secretary Hilda Solis
Hilda Lucia Solis (; born October 20, 1957) is an American politician and a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors for the 1st district. Solis previously served as the 25th United States Secretary of Labor from 2009 to 2013, as par ...
, and others is essential to connecting Latino cultural values with mainstream American values.[
Such change is not unique to the United States. In ]Andalusia
Andalusia (, ; es, Andalucía ) is the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Peninsular Spain. It is the most populous and the second-largest autonomous community in the country. It is officially recognised as a ...
, with exposure to more modern models in Spanish TV and advertising, in one generation the focus shifted from traditional norms of expected behavior with the realization that "inequalities in income and lifestyle among villagers no longer appeared to rest on inheritance, but on urban, salaried jobs people obtained."Collier, Jane F. “From Mary to Modern Woman: The Material Basis of Marianismo and Its Transformation in a Spanish Village.” ''American Ethnologist'', vol. 13, no. 1, 1986, pp. 100–107. JSTOR
/ref>
See also
*Barefoot and pregnant
"Barefoot and pregnant" is a figure of speech most commonly associated with the idea that women should not work outside the home and should have many children during their reproductive years.
The phrase "barefoot and pregnant" seems to have been ...
*Feminine psychology
Feminine psychology or the psychology of women is an approach that focuses on social, economic, and political issues confronting women all throughout their lives. It emerged as a reaction to male-dominated developmental theories such as Sigmund F ...
*Feminism
Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the position that society prioritizes the male po ...
*Good Wife, Wise Mother
"Good Wife, Wise Mother" is a phrase representing a traditional ideal for womanhood in East Asia, including Japan, China and Korea. First appearing in the late 1800s, the four-character phrase "Good Wife, Wise Mother" (also ) was coined by Nakamu ...
*Kinder, Küche, Kirche
''Kinder, Küche, Kirche'' (), or the 3 Ks, is a German slogan translated as "children, kitchen, church" used under the German Empire to describe a woman's role in society. It now has a mostly derogatory connotation, describing what is seen as an ...
*Machismo
Machismo (; ; ; ) is the sense of being " manly" and self-reliant, a concept associated with "a strong sense of masculine pride: an exaggerated masculinity". Machismo is a term originating in the early 1930s and 1940s best defined as hav ...
*María Clara
María Clara, whose full name is María Clara de los Santos y Alba, is the ''mestiza'' heroine in '' Noli Me Tángere'', a novel by José Rizal, the national hero of the Philippines. Her name and character have since become a byword in Filipin ...
*Marian devotion
Marian devotions are external pious practices directed to the person of Mary, mother of God, by members of certain Christian traditions. They are performed in Catholicism, High Church Lutheranism, Anglo-Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy and Orien ...
*New feminism
New feminism is a form of feminism that emphasizes the integral complementarity of women and men, rather than the superiority of men over women or women over men, and advocates for respecting persons from conception to natural death.
New femini ...
*Sexism
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primari ...
*Yamato nadeshiko
''Yamato nadeshiko'' ( or ) is a Japanese term meaning the "personification of an idealized Japanese woman", or "the epitome of pure, feminine beauty"; poised, decorous, kind, gentle, graceful, humble, patient, virtuous, respectful, bene ...
*Violence against women in Mexico
Violence against women in Mexico includes different forms of gender-based violence. It may consist of emotional, physical, sexual, and/or mental abuse. The United Nations (UN) has rated Mexico as one of the most violent countries for women in th ...
References
{{reflist
Bibliography
*Stevens Evelyn P.; 1973. :''Marianismo:The Other Face of Machismo in Latin America''; in: Pescatelo Ann; ''Female and Male in Latin America'', University of Pittsburgh Press, 1973.
*Villegas, Jorge, Jennifer Lemanski, and Carlos Valdéz. "Marianismo And Machismo: The Portrayal Of Females In Mexican TV Commercials." Journal of International Consumer Marketing 22.4 (2010): 327-346.
*Rivadeneyra, Rocío. "Gender And Race Portrayals On Spanish-Language Television." Sex Roles 65.3/4 (2011): 208-222.
*Montoya, Rosario, Lessie Jo Frazier, and Janise Hurtig. Gender's Place : Feminist Anthropologies Of Latin America / Edited By Rosario Montoya, Lessie Jo Frazier, And Janise Hurtig. n.p.: New York : Palgrave Macmillan, 2002., 2002.
*De La Torre, Miguel A. Hispanic American Religious Cultures. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2009.
External links
Kemper, Robert V.; ''Marianismo in Mexico: An Ethnographic Encounter''
Dept. of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University
, mottoeng = "The truth will make you free"
, established =
, type = Private research university
, accreditation = SACS
, academic_affiliations =
, religious_affiliation = United Methodist Church
, president = R. Gerald Turner
, prov ...
.
Gender roles
Mexican culture
Women and psychology
Femininity
Psychological attitude
Gender in Latin America