Margaret Of Habsburg (1480–1530)
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Margaret of Austria (; ; ; ; 10 January 1480 – 1 December 1530) was
Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands The governor () or governor-general () of the Habsburg Netherlands was a representative appointed by the Holy Roman emperor (1504-1556), the king of Spain (1556-1598, 1621-1706), and the archduke of Austria (1716-1794), to administer the Burgund ...
from 1507 to 1515 and again from 1519 until her death in 1530. She was the first of many female regents in the Netherlands. She was variously the
Princess of Asturias Prince or Princess of Asturias () is the main substantive title used by the heir apparent, or heir presumptive to the Spanish Crown. According to the Spanish Constitution of 1978: The title originated in 1388, when King John I of Castile gr ...
,
Duchess of Savoy This is a list of consorts of the Savoyard monarchs. Countess of Savoy, 1003–1416 Duchess of Savoy, 1416–1713 ;As courtesy title Queen of Sardinia, 1720–1861 Between 1859 and 1861 the Kingdom of Sardinia incorporated the majo ...
, and was born an
Archduchess of Austria The Archduchy of Austria (; ) was a major Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, principality of the Holy Roman Empire and the nucleus of the Habsburg monarchy. With its capital at Vienna, the archduchy was centered at the Empire's southeastern periph ...
. Her life until her mid-twenties was dominated by her importance in political marriages, and the early death of many of her close family. She was engaged for three marriage alliances, and completed two, but both husbands died within a few years: six months in 1497 in the case of
John, Prince of Asturias John, Prince of Asturias and Girona (; 30 June 1478 – 4 October 1497) was the only son of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, and heir apparent to both their thrones for nearly his entire life. Early life The only ...
, and three years with
Philibert II, Duke of Savoy Philibert II (10 April 1480 – 10 September 1504), nicknamed the Handsome or the Good, was the Duke of Savoy from 1497 until his death. Biography Born in Pont-d'Ain, Philibert was the son of Philip (Filippo) the Landless and his first wife ...
, from 1501. Her mother had died when she was two, and her only brother in 1506. Thereafter she made a success, according to most historians, of the highly important role of regent or governor of the
Habsburg Netherlands Habsburg Netherlands were the parts of the Low Countries that were ruled by sovereigns of the Holy Roman Empire's House of Habsburg. This rule began in 1482 and ended for the Northern Netherlands in 1581 and for the Southern Netherlands in 1797. ...
, for firstly her father
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death in 1519. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians. He proclaimed hi ...
, then her nephew
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
, who were both forced to spend most of their time in Germany and other parts of the growing Habsburg empire. She spent most of her life in the Netherlands. Her usual name comes from being a member of the Austrian
Habsburg family The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...
; she hardly went there, and probably neither spoke nor read German, unlike French and Castilian. The German texts in her extensive library were in French translations.


Childhood and life in France

Margaret was born on 10 January 1480 in
Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...
and baptised in what is now the cathedral there, named after her step-grandmother,
Margaret of York Margaret of York (3 May 1446 – 23 November 1503), also known as Margaret of Burgundy, was Duchess of Burgundy from 1468 to 1477 as the third wife of Charles the Bold, and after his death (1477) acted as a protector of the Burgundian State. ...
. She was the second child and only daughter of Maximilian of Austria (future Holy Roman Emperor) and
Mary of Burgundy Mary of Burgundy (; ; 13 February 1457 – 27 March 1482), nicknamed the Rich, was a member of the House of Valois-Burgundy who ruled the Burgundian lands, comprising the Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy and Free County of Burgundy, County of Burgundy a ...
, co-sovereigns of the
Low Countries The Low Countries (; ), historically also known as the Netherlands (), is a coastal lowland region in Northwestern Europe forming the lower Drainage basin, basin of the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta and consisting today of the three modern "Bene ...
. In 1482, her mother died and her four-year-old brother
Philip the Handsome Philip the Handsome (22 June/July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg King of Castile (as Philip I) for a brief ...
succeeded her as sovereign of the Low Countries, with her father as his regent. The same year her mother died, King
Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
of France signed the Treaty of Arras, whereby her father promised to give her hand in marriage to Louis's son, the Dauphin Charles. The engagement took place in 1483, and on the death of his father he became
Charles VIII of France Charles VIII, called the Affable (; 30 June 1470 – 7 April 1498), was King of France from 1483 to his death in 1498. He succeeded his father Louis XI at the age of 13. His elder sister Anne acted as regent jointly with her husband Peter II, Du ...
later in the year, at the age of 13. With
Franche-Comté Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
and
Artois Artois ( , ; ; Picard: ''Artoé;'' English adjective: ''Artesian'') is a region of northern France. Its territory covers an area of about 4,000 km2 and it has a population of about one million. Its principal cities include Arras (Dutch: ...
as her
dowry A dowry is a payment such as land, property, money, livestock, or a commercial asset that is paid by the bride's (woman's) family to the groom (man) or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price ...
, Margaret was transferred to the guardianship of Louis XI, until he died in August. She was to be raised as a
fille de France ''Fils de France'' (, ''Son of France'') was the style and rank held by the sons of the kings and dauphins of France. A daughter was known as a fille de France (, ''Daughter of France''). The children of the dauphin (a title reserved for the ...
and prepared for her future role as Queen of France in the household of the Queen Mother
Charlotte of Savoy Charlotte of Savoy (16 November 1441 – 1 December 1483) was Queen of France as the second spouse of Louis XI. She served as regent during the king's absence in 1465, and was a member of the royal regency council during her son's minority in 148 ...
, mostly at the
Château d'Amboise The Château d'Amboise is a château in Amboise, located in the Indre-et-Loire ''Departments of France, département'' of the Loire Valley in France. Confiscated by the monarchy in the 15th century, it became a favoured royal residence and was ex ...
; but Queen Charlotte also died in December 1483. Now under the supervision of Charles's sister, Anne de Beaujeu, regent of France, and her governess Madame de Segré, Margaret received a fine education alongside several noble children, amongst whom was
Louise of Savoy Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess ''suo jure'' of Auvergne (province), Auvergne and House of Bourbon, Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours and the mother of King Francis I of France, Francis I ...
, four years older, who was later to become her sister-in-law. Although their union was political, the young Margaret developed a genuine affection for Charles. However, he renounced the treaty in the autumn of 1491 and forcibly married Margaret's former stepmother
Anne, Duchess of Brittany Anne of Brittany (; 25/26 January 1477 – 9 January 1514) was reigning List of rulers of Brittany, Duchess of Brittany from 1488 until her death, and List of French royal consorts, Queen of France from 1491 to 1498 and from 1499 to her death. ...
, for political reasons. The French court had ceased treating Margaret as their future queen but she could not return to her ex-stepmother's (Anne of Brittany) court until June 1493 after the
Treaty of Senlis The Treaty of Senlis concerning the Burgundian succession was signed at the French city of Senlis on 23 May 1493, between King Charles VIII of France and Maximilian I, at the time King of the Romans and future Holy Roman Emperor, who acted on ...
had been signed in May that year. She was hurt by Charles's actions and was left with a feeling of enduring resentment towards the
House of Valois The Capetian House of Valois ( , also , ) was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. They succeeded the House of Capet (or "Direct Capetians") to the List of French monarchs, French throne, and were the royal house of France from 1328 to 1589. ...
, even after Charles's death in 1498. When she met her father in
Maastricht Maastricht ( , , ; ; ; ) is a city and a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the southeastern Netherlands. It is the capital city, capital and largest city of the province of Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg. Maastricht is loca ...
as a young teenager, she had not seen him since she left for France at the age of two, but they got on well, unlike his difficult relationship with Philip. File:Albrecht Dürer - Emperor Maximilian I.jpg, Her father,
Emperor Maximilian I Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death in 1519. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians. He proclaimed hi ...
, 1519,
Albrecht Dürer Albrecht Dürer ( , ;; 21 May 1471 – 6 April 1528),Müller, Peter O. (1993) ''Substantiv-Derivation in Den Schriften Albrecht Dürers'', Walter de Gruyter. . sometimes spelled in English as Durer or Duerer, was a German painter, Old master prin ...
File:Maître de la légende de Sainte Marie-Madeleine - Philippe le Beau, INV 2085 ; C 324.jpg, Her brother,
Philip the Handsome Philip the Handsome (22 June/July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg King of Castile (as Philip I) for a brief ...
, c. 1500 File:Bust of Philibert le Beau, Duke of Savoy, by Conrat Meit, Mechelen, before 1523-1524, box wood - Bode-Museum - DSC03025.JPG, Her beloved 2nd husband,
Philibert II, Duke of Savoy Philibert II (10 April 1480 – 10 September 1504), nicknamed the Handsome or the Good, was the Duke of Savoy from 1497 until his death. Biography Born in Pont-d'Ain, Philibert was the son of Philip (Filippo) the Landless and his first wife ...
, by Conrat Meit File:PM 147892 B Gent.jpg, Bust of Margaret's nephew, Charles V, 1515–19, attributed to Conrat Meit


Marriages


Princess of Asturias

To achieve an alliance with Queen
Isabella I of Castile Isabella I (; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504), also called Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: ''Isabel la Católica''), was Queen of Castile and List of Leonese monarchs, León from 1474 until her death in 1504. She was also Queen of Aragon ...
and King
Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II, also known as Ferdinand I, Ferdinand III, and Ferdinand V (10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516), called Ferdinand the Catholic, was King of Aragon from 1479 until his death in 1516. As the husband and co-ruler of Queen Isabella I of ...
, Maximilian started negotiating the marriage of their only son and heir,
John, Prince of Asturias John, Prince of Asturias and Girona (; 30 June 1478 – 4 October 1497) was the only son of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile, and heir apparent to both their thrones for nearly his entire life. Early life The only ...
, to Margaret, as well as the marriage of their daughter
Juana Juana is a Spanish language, Spanish female name. It is the feminine form of ''Juan'' (English ''John (given name), John''), and thus corresponds to the English names Jane (given name), Jane, Jean (female given name), Jean, Joan (given name), J ...
to Philip. Margaret left the Netherlands for
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
late in 1496. Her engagement to the Prince of Asturias seemed doomed when the ship carrying her to Spain hit a storm in the
Bay of Biscay The Bay of Biscay ( ) is a gulf of the northeast Atlantic Ocean located south of the Celtic Sea. It lies along the western coast of France from Point Penmarc'h to the Spanish border, and along the northern coast of Spain, extending westward ...
. In haste, she wrote her own
epitaph An epitaph (; ) is a short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves be ...
should she not reach Spain: She had had a
proxy marriage A proxy wedding or proxy marriage is a wedding in which one or both of the individuals being united are not physically present, usually being represented instead by other persons (proxies). If both partners are absent, this is known as a double pro ...
back in Mechelen, including symbolically lying on a bed next to Francisco de Rojas y Escobar, acting as Spanish ambassador. However, Margaret survived the storm, and in February 1497 her entire fleet was still waiting in
Southampton Southampton is a port City status in the United Kingdom, city and unitary authority in Hampshire, England. It is located approximately southwest of London, west of Portsmouth, and southeast of Salisbury. Southampton had a population of 253, ...
in England for the weather to clear up. Margaret actually married Prince John on 3 April 1497 in
Burgos Cathedral The Cathedral of Saint Mary of Burgos () is a Catholic church dedicated to the Virgin Mary located in the historical center of the Spanish city of Burgos. Its official name is the Holy Metropolitan Cathedral Basilica Church of St Mary of Burgos ...
. Tragically, John died of a fever after only six months, on 4 October. Margaret was left pregnant but gave birth to a premature stillborn daughter on 2 April 1498. Margaret stayed in Spain until September 1499 before returning home. In the meantime it was suggested that she should teach her teenage sister-in-law
Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Aragon (also spelt as Katherine, historical Spanish: , now: ; 16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was List of English royal consorts, Queen of England as the Wives of Henry VIII, first wife of King Henry VIII from their marr ...
French. When she was on her way back, her nephew, the future Emperor
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
was born. Her brother, Philip, sent an express messenger to his sister, "begging her to hasten back so that she could hold the child in her hands at the font during the baptism." When she arrived, she pressured Philip to name the baby Maximilian, after their father, but Philip chose to name him Charles, after their maternal grandfather
Charles the Bold Charles Martin (10 November 1433 – 5 January 1477), called the Bold, was the last duke of Burgundy from the House of Valois-Burgundy, ruling from 1467 to 1477. He was the only surviving legitimate son of Philip the Good and his third wife, ...
. She was Charles's godmother, and was later to play the main part in raising him after his father's early death. By this time, the unexpected deaths of
Isabella of Aragon, Queen of Portugal Isabella, Princess of Asturias (2 October 1470 – 23 August 1498), also known as Isabella of Aragon, was the eldest child and heiress presumptive of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. She was Queen of Portugal as the ...
, elder sister of John, Prince of Asturias, in 1498, and her infant son Miguel in 1500, left Joanna and eventually Charles the heirs to the thrones of Castille and Aragon, while he also inherited the Netherlands and the Habsburg claim to the Holy Roman Empire.


Duchess of Savoy

In 1501, Margaret married
Philibert II, Duke of Savoy Philibert II (10 April 1480 – 10 September 1504), nicknamed the Handsome or the Good, was the Duke of Savoy from 1497 until his death. Biography Born in Pont-d'Ain, Philibert was the son of Philip (Filippo) the Landless and his first wife ...
(1480–1504), whose realm played a decisive role in the rivalry between France and the Habsburgs in
Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
on account of its strategic position in the
Western Alps The Western Alps are the western part of the Alps, Alpine Range including the southeastern part of France (e.g. Savoie), the whole of Monaco, the northwestern part of Italy (i.e. Piedmont and the Aosta Valley) and the southwestern part of Switzer ...
. Though the same age as Margaret, this was his second marriage. They had a very stable relationship for those 3 years, mostly living not in
Savoy Savoy (; )  is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps. Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south and west and to the Aosta Vall ...
proper, but in
Bresse Bresse () is a former French province. It is located in the regions of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté of eastern France. The geographical term ''Bresse'' has two meanings: ''Bresse bourguignonne'' (or ''louhannaise''), whic ...
, then Savoyard territory on the eastern borders of
Burgundy Burgundy ( ; ; Burgundian: ''Bregogne'') is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. ...
(today in France). When Margaret came to Savoy, the government was in the hands of René, Philibert's bastard brother. Margaret fought hard to strip away his powers and possessions, even involving Maximilian (as
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
, he was overlord of
Savoy Savoy (; )  is a cultural-historical region in the Western Alps. Situated on the cultural boundary between Occitania and Piedmont, the area extends from Lake Geneva in the north to the Dauphiné in the south and west and to the Aosta Vall ...
) to nullify the letters that gave René legitimacy. René, being declared a traitor, took refuge in France and was welcomed by his half-sister
Louise of Savoy Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess ''suo jure'' of Auvergne (province), Auvergne and House of Bourbon, Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours and the mother of King Francis I of France, Francis I ...
, mother of Francis I. She then took hold of the government, while her husband focused on private hobbies like hunting (which she did share with him). She summoned councils, appointed officers, and when her brother Philip visited, she discussed and approved his plan regarding a continued rapprochement with France. In September 1504 Philibert died of
pleurisy Pleurisy, also known as pleuritis, is inflammation of the membranes that surround the lungs and line the chest cavity (Pulmonary pleurae, pleurae). This can result in a sharp chest pain while breathing. Occasionally the pain may be a constant d ...
. Grief-stricken, Margaret threw herself out of a window, but was saved. After being persuaded to bury her husband, she had his heart embalmed so she could keep it with her forever. Her court historian and poet
Jean Lemaire de Belges Jean Lemaire de Belges (c. 1473c. 1525) was a Walloon poet, historian, and pamphleteer who, writing in French, was the last and one of the best of the school of poetic 'rhétoriqueurs' (“rhetoricians”) and the chief forerunner, both in style a ...
gave her the title "Dame de deuil" (Lady of Mourning). She remained in Savoy for two years as a widow, beginning the lengthy construction of the lavishly-designed
Royal Monastery of Brou The Royal Monastery of Brou is a religious complex located at Bourg-en-Bresse in the Ain département, central France. Made out of monastic buildings in addition to a church, they were built at the beginning of the 16th century by Margaret of Aust ...
in
Bresse Bresse () is a former French province. It is located in the regions of Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté of eastern France. The geographical term ''Bresse'' has two meanings: ''Bresse bourguignonne'' (or ''louhannaise''), whic ...
(now eastern France) to house the tombs of Philibert, his mother
Margaret of Bourbon (1438–1483) Margaret of Bourbon (5 February 1438 – 24 April 1483) was the daughter of Charles I, Duke of Bourbon and Agnes of Burgundy. Marriage and issue On 6 April 1472, she became the first wife of Philip II, Duke of Savoy (1443–1497). Her children ...
and eventually herself. She returned to the Netherlands after the sudden death of her brother
Philip the Handsome Philip the Handsome (22 June/July 1478 – 25 September 1506), also called the Fair, was ruler of the Burgundian Netherlands and titular Duke of Burgundy from 1482 to 1506, as well as the first Habsburg King of Castile (as Philip I) for a brief ...
in September 1506, at her father's request. In 1505 Maximilian and Philip had tried to arrange a match with
Henry VII of England Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), also known as Henry Tudor, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henr ...
, 48 years old at the time, but Margaret refused. A portrait, probably five years old, was sent to England.


Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands

Queen Isabella died in late 1504, and Philip and Juana went to Castile to claim the crown. After Philip's death, Charles was the new sovereign of the Low Countries, but he was only six years old, and his mother Juana could not act as regent because her unstable mental state. Her Castilian subjects would also not allow their ruler to live outside the kingdom. Preoccupied with German affairs, her father, Emperor Maximilian I, named Margaret governor of the Low Countries and guardian of Charles in 1507, along with her nieces
Eleanor Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It was the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages">Provençal dialect ...
,
Isabella Isabella may refer to: People and fictional characters * Isabella (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters * Isabella (surname), including a list of people Places United States * Isabella, Alabama, an unincorpo ...
and
Mary Mary may refer to: People * Mary (name), a female given name (includes a list of people with the name) Religion * New Testament people named Mary, overview article linking to many of those below * Mary, mother of Jesus, also called the Blesse ...
(then all children, who would later marry foreign monarchs). Only her nephew
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I (10 March 1503 – 25 July 1564) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1556, King of Bohemia, King of Hungary, Hungary, and List of rulers of Croatia, Croatia from 1526, and Archduke of Austria from 1521 until his death in 1564.Milan Kruhek ...
(as he became some fifty years later), was brought up in Spain in the charge of his grandfather
Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II, also known as Ferdinand I, Ferdinand III, and Ferdinand V (10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516), called Ferdinand the Catholic, was King of Aragon from 1479 until his death in 1516. As the husband and co-ruler of Queen Isabella I of ...
, and when adult was sent to govern Austria. Margaret became the only woman elected as its ruler by the representative assembly of Franche-Comté, with her title confirmed in 1509. Some report that Margaret was considered a foreigner because of her childhood at the French court. According to Blockmans and others though, Margaret, Philip as well as Charles V were considered indigenous; only Maximilian was always a foreigner. The Governess served as an intermediary between her father and her nephew's subjects in the Netherlands from her newly built palace at
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
. During a remarkably successful career, she broke new ground for women rulers. In 1520, Charles made Margaret his governor-general in gratitude for her services. She was the only regent he ever re-appointed indefinitely from 1519 until her death in on 1 December 1530. Tupu Ylä-Anttila opines that Margaret acted as de facto queen consort in a political sense, first to her father and then Charles V, "absent rulers" who needed a representative dynastic presence that also complemented their characteristics. Her queenly virtues helped her to play the role of diplomat and peace-maker, as well as guardian and educator of future rulers, whom Maximilian called "our children" or "our common children" in letters to Margaret. This was a model that developed as part of the solution for the emerging Habsburg composite monarchy and would continue to serve later generations. As an older relative and former guardian, she had more power with Charles than with her father Maximilian, who treated her cordially but occasionally acted in a threatening manner. The authors of ''The Promised Lands: The Low Countries Under Burgundian Rule, 1369–1530'' credit Margaret with keeping the provinces together as well as fulfilling the demands for peace from the Netherlandish Estates. Despite
Louis XII Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), also known as Louis of Orléans was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples (as Louis III) from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Cleves, he succeeded his second ...
's attempts to regain control of certain territories and to interfere in
Guelders The Duchy of Guelders (; ; ) is a historical duchy, previously county, of the Holy Roman Empire, located in the Low Countries. Geography The duchy was named after the town of Geldern (''Gelder'') in present-day Germany. Though the present pr ...
,
Friesland Friesland ( ; ; official ), historically and traditionally known as Frisia (), named after the Frisians, is a Provinces of the Netherlands, province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern part. It is situated west of Groningen (p ...
and Liege, cooperation between the regent, the Privy Council and the Estates General maintained the integrity of the Burgundian inheritance.


Foreign policy

Margaret soon found herself at war with France over the question of Charles's requirement to pay homage to the French king for the
County of Flanders The County of Flanders was one of the most powerful political entities in the medieval Low Countries, located on the North Sea coast of modern-day Belgium and north-eastern France. Unlike the neighbouring states of Duchy of Brabant, Brabant and ...
(which was outside the Empire; and while a long-standing portion of the inherited Burgundian titles & provinces, legally still within France). In response, she persuaded Emperor Maximilian to end the war with King
Louis XII Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), also known as Louis of Orléans was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples (as Louis III) from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Cleves, he succeeded his second ...
. On November 1508, she journeyed to
Cambrai Cambrai (, ; ; ), formerly Cambray and historically in English Camerick or Camericke, is a city in the Nord department and in the Hauts-de-France region of France on the Scheldt river, which is known locally as the Escaut river. A sub-pref ...
to assist in the formation of the
League of Cambrai The League of Cambrai was a military coalition against the Republic of Venice formed on 10 December 1508, by the main European powers (Holy Roman Empire, France, Aragon and their allies), to maintain their hegemony over the Italian Peninsula. Th ...
, which ended (for a time) the possibility of a French invasion of the Low Countries, redirecting French attention to Northern Italy. The Estates preferred to maintain peace with France and Guelders. But Charles of Egmont, the de facto lord of Guelders, continued to cause trouble. In 1511, she made an alliance with
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
and besieged Venlo, but Charles of Egmont invaded
Holland Holland is a geographical regionG. Geerts & H. Heestermans, 1981, ''Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal. Deel I'', Van Dale Lexicografie, Utrecht, p 1105 and former provinces of the Netherlands, province on the western coast of the Netherland ...
so the siege had to be lifted. When she asked her father (who had fought Guelders even without the Low Countries's help during the time of Philip, and then helped Philip to achieve his 1505 victory over Guelders) to come to help, he suggested to her that the Estates in the Low Countries should defend themselves, forcing her to sign the 1513 treaty with Charles, recognizing him as Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen. In 1514, he marched into Arnhem – a clear breach of the treaty. The Habsburg Netherlands would only be able to incorporate Guelders and Zutphen under Charles V. According to James D. Tracy, Maximilian and Margaret were reasonable in demanding more stern measures against Guelders, but their critics in the Estates General (that had continuously voted against providing funds for wars against Guelders) and among the nobles naively thought that Charles of Egmont could be controlled by maintaining the peaceful relationship with the King of France, his patron. After Charles's brief personal rule (1514–1517), Margaret returned to witness Guelders's most stunning military success in decades, together with a horrible trail of destruction their Black Band mercenaries left through Friesland and Holland. Many of Charles V's Netherlands subjects, including leading Humanists like
Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus ( ; ; 28 October c. 1466 – 12 July 1536), commonly known in English as Erasmus of Rotterdam or simply Erasmus, was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic priest and Catholic theology, theologian, educationalist ...
and Hadrianus Barlandus unreasonably mistrusted their government, suspecting that princes (Maximilian, in particular) were concocting clever schemes just to expand the Habsburg dominion and extracting money (in fact, Maximilian also did hope to employ the wealth of the Low Countries to finance his projects elsewhere – he hardly succeeded though). The inaction of the experienced commander Rudolf von Anhalt during the sacking of the town of
Tienen Tienen (; ) is a city and municipality in the province of Flemish Brabant, in Flanders, Belgium. The municipality comprises Tienen itself and the towns of Bost, Goetsenhoven, Hakendover, Kumtich, Oorbeek, Oplinter, Sint-Margriete-Houtem and Viss ...
in Brabant, in particular, made Barlandus suspect a sinister motive (in reality, von Anhalt was ordered by Margaret to avoid direct engagement until he had more troops). By 1512, she told her father that the Netherlands existed on peace and trade, and thus she would declare neutrality while using foreign armies and funds to wage wars. She played the key role in bringing together the participants of Holy League: the pope, the
Swiss Swiss most commonly refers to: * the adjectival form of Switzerland * Swiss people Swiss may also refer to: Places * Swiss, Missouri * Swiss, North Carolina * Swiss, West Virginia * Swiss, Wisconsin Other uses * Swiss Café, an old café located ...
,
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his Wives of Henry VIII, six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. ...
,
Ferdinand II of Aragon Ferdinand II, also known as Ferdinand I, Ferdinand III, and Ferdinand V (10 March 1452 – 23 January 1516), called Ferdinand the Catholic, was King of Aragon from 1479 until his death in 1516. As the husband and co-ruler of Queen Isabella I of ...
and her father Maximilian (he joined the League only as Emperor, as not as guardian of his grandson Charles and thus, the Low Countries' neutrality was maintained). The league targeted France. The treaty also would not prevent the more adventurous Netherlands seigneurs from serving under Maximilian and Henry when they attacked the French later. Following this strategy, in 1513, at the head of Henry VIII's army, Maximilian gained a victory against the French at the
Battle of the Spurs The Battle of the Spurs or (Second) Battle of Guinegate took place on 16 August 1513. It formed a part of the War of the League of Cambrai of 1508 to 1516, during the Italian Wars. King Henry VIII of England and Emperor Maximilian I were besi ...
, at little cost to himself or his daughter (in fact according to Margaret, the Low Countries got a profit of one million of gold from supplying the English army). For the sake of his grandson Charles's Burgundian lands, he ordered
Thérouanne Thérouanne (; ; Dutch ''Terwaan'') is a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department in the Hauts-de-France region of France west of Aire-sur-la-Lys and south of Saint-Omer, on the river Lys. Population History At the time of the Gauls, ''T ...
's walls to be demolished (the stronghold had often served as a backdoor for French interference in the Low Countries). After Maximillian I's death in 1519, Margaret and young Charles (then 18) began to negotiate the latter's election as Holy Roman Emperor despite the opposition of the papacy and France. The Governess instead supported her younger nephew Archduke
Ferdinand Ferdinand is a Germanic name composed of the elements "journey, travel", Proto-Germanic , abstract noun from root "to fare, travel" (PIE , "to lead, pass over"), and "courage" or "ready, prepared" related to Old High German "to risk, ventu ...
. However, Charles refused to withdraw. Using a combination of diplomacy and bribery, Margaret played a crucial role in the election of Charles as Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, defeating the candidacy of King
Francis I of France Francis I (; ; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once removed and father-in-law Louis&nbs ...
, who from this day forward became Charles' great rival in the struggle for pre-eminence in Europe. As Emperor, Charles V inherited the long-running disputes with the Kings of France over possession of the
Duchy of Milan The Duchy of Milan (; ) was a state in Northern Italy, created in 1395 by Gian Galeazzo Visconti, then the lord of Milan, and a member of the important Visconti of Milan, Visconti family, which had been ruling the city since 1277. At that time, ...
and the
Kingdom of Naples The Kingdom of Naples (; ; ), officially the Kingdom of Sicily, was a state that ruled the part of the Italian Peninsula south of the Papal States between 1282 and 1816. It was established by the War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302). Until ...
. Though Charles preferred the Netherlands to many of his possessions, his many kingdoms (and many wars) required him to travel throughout Europe. His great victory at Pavia over Francis I in 1525 in which he took the French King prisoner and then freed him in exchange for his sons as hostages, led once more to French invasion of the Low Countries. Francis reneged on promises to renounce overlordship of Artois, Flanders and the Franche-Cômté, much less return the much-desired Burgundian core territory, the Duchy itself centered at
Dijon Dijon (, ; ; in Burgundian language (Oïl), Burgundian: ''Digion'') is a city in and the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Côte-d'Or Departments of France, department and of the Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Regions of France, region in eas ...
, as soon as he was safely back in France. Once again, Margaret proved a remarkably capable ruler of the Netherlands, holding off the forces of the
League of Cognac The War of the League of Cognac (1526–1530) was fought between the Habsburg dominions of Charles V—primarily the Holy Roman Empire and Spain—and the League of Cognac, an alliance including the Kingdom of France, Pope Clement VII, the R ...
– i.e. the French (1526–29) and then negotiating the "Paix de Dames/ Ladies Peace". Journeying to
Cambrai Cambrai (, ; ; ), formerly Cambray and historically in English Camerick or Camericke, is a city in the Nord department and in the Hauts-de-France region of France on the Scheldt river, which is known locally as the Escaut river. A sub-pref ...
again, Margaret reunited with
Louise of Savoy Louise of Savoy (11 September 1476 – 22 September 1531) was a French noble and regent, Duchess ''suo jure'' of Auvergne (province), Auvergne and House of Bourbon, Bourbon, Duchess of Nemours and the mother of King Francis I of France, Francis I ...
, her sister-in-law and mother of Francis I. They negotiated the end of a war that France could no longer sustain; the Habsburgs lost Burgundy proper forever, but France gave up its claims to legal overlordship of Flanders,
Artois Artois ( , ; ; Picard: ''Artoé;'' English adjective: ''Artesian'') is a region of northern France. Its territory covers an area of about 4,000 km2 and it has a population of about one million. Its principal cities include Arras (Dutch: ...
and the "Free"
County of Burgundy The Free County of Burgundy (; ) was a medieval and early modern feudal polity ruled by a count from 982 to 1678. It became known as Franche-Comté (the ''Free County''), and was located in the modern region of Franche-Comté. It belonged to th ...
(
Franche-Comté Franche-Comté (, ; ; Frainc-Comtou dialect, Frainc-Comtou: ''Fraintche-Comtè''; ; also ; ; all ) is a cultural and Provinces of France, historical region of eastern France. It is composed of the modern departments of France, departments of Doub ...
).


Economy

Margaret had an aptitude for business, and maintained the prosperity of the Netherlands. She negotiated the restoration of the 1496 trade agreement known as the
Intercursus Magnus The was a major and long-lasting commercial treaty signed in February 1496 by King Henry VII of England and Duke Philip IV of Burgundy. Other signatories included the commercial powers of Venice, Florence, the Netherlands, and the Hanseatic Lea ...
with England, which was favorable to Flemish textile interests and brought huge profits. Because of the trade, industry and wealth of the regions and cities she oversaw, the Low Countries was an important source of income for the Imperial treasury. In 1524, she signed a trade agreement with
Frederick I of Denmark Frederick I ( Danish and ; ; ; 7 October 1471 – 10 April 1533) was King of Denmark and Norway. He was the last Catholic monarch to reign over Denmark and Norway, when subsequent monarchs embraced Lutheranism after the Protestant Reformatio ...
(the condition was that Holland would not support
Christian II A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words ''Christ'' and ''Ch ...
) that ensured the regular supply of grain into the Netherlands. Christian later managed to get the support from Charles V thanks to the efforts of his secretary
Cornelis de Schepper Cornelis de Schepper, Cornelis Duplicius de Schepper or Cornelius de Schepper (1503?-1555) was a Flemish mathematician, counselor and ambassador for the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, Ferdinand I of Austria and Mary of Hungary, governor of the Neth ...
, but Margaret refused to follow even Charles's order and insisted on placing the economical interests of the Netherlands above dynastic interests (Christian was the husband of
Isabella of Austria Isabella of Austria (''Isabel''; 18 July 1501 – 19 January 1526), also known as Elizabeth, was born an Archduchess of Archduchy of Austria, Austria and Infanta of Castile from the House of Habsburg, and subsequently became List of Danish consor ...
, thus brother-in-law to Charles sister of Charles and nephew-in-law to Margaret). Margaret provided funds and war supplies for her nephew's troops, especially against King
Francis I of France Francis I (; ; 12 September 1494 – 31 March 1547) was King of France from 1515 until his death in 1547. He was the son of Charles, Count of Angoulême, and Louise of Savoy. He succeeded his first cousin once removed and father-in-law Louis&nbs ...
and the
German Protestants Protestantism (), a branch of Christianity, was founded within Germany in the 16th-century Reformation. It was formed as a new direction from some Roman Catholic principles. It was led initially by Martin Luther and later by John Calvin. Histor ...
. In following years, Habsburg forces consolidated their hold over
Tournai Tournai ( , ; ; ; , sometimes Anglicisation (linguistics), anglicised in older sources as "Tournay") is a city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia located in the Hainaut Province, Province of Hainaut, Belgium. It lies by ...
,
Friesland Friesland ( ; ; official ), historically and traditionally known as Frisia (), named after the Frisians, is a Provinces of the Netherlands, province of the Netherlands located in the country's northern part. It is situated west of Groningen (p ...
,
Utrecht Utrecht ( ; ; ) is the List of cities in the Netherlands by province, fourth-largest city of the Netherlands, as well as the capital and the most populous city of the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of Utrecht (province), Utrecht. The ...
, and
Overijssel Overijssel (; ; ; ) is a Provinces of the Netherlands, province of the Netherlands located in the eastern part of the country. The province's name comes from the perspective of the Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht, Episcopal principality of Utrecht ...
, which became part of the Habsburg Netherlands.


Internal conflict

Although the Low Countries was not previously centralized, Margaret's reign was a period of relative peace for the Netherlands. The exception was the beginning of the
Protestant Reformation The Reformation, also known as the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation, was a time of major theological movement in Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the papacy and ...
, especially in the north. The first
martyrs A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...
,
Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos Jan van Essen and Hendrik Vos or Voes, were the first two Lutherans executed by the Council of Brabant for their adherence to Reformation doctrine. They were burned at the stake in Brussels on 1 July 1523. Background Essen and Vos were friars ...
, were burnt at the stake in
Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...
in 1523.


Court

Margaret ended up raising her nephew and nieces in her palace in Mechelen, known as the "Court of Savoy". She was visited by the great humanists of her time, including
Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus ( ; ; 28 October c. 1466 – 12 July 1536), commonly known in English as Erasmus of Rotterdam or simply Erasmus, was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic priest and Catholic theology, theologian, educationalist ...
, Adrian of Utrecht (later
Pope Adrian VI Pope Adrian VI (; ; ; ), born Adriaan Florensz Boeyens (2 March 1459 – 14 September 1523), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 9 January 1522 until his death on 14 September 1523. The only Dutch people, Du ...
), and
Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim (; ; 14 September 1486 – 18 February 1535) was a German Renaissance polymath, physician, legal scholar, soldier, knight, theologian, and occult writer. Agrippa's ''Three Books of Occult Philosophy'' pub ...
. Agrippa dedicated his arguably feminist work "Declamation on the Nobility and Preeminence of the Female Sex" to her. The Governor was so impressed with diplomat Sir Thomas Boleyn's charm that she offered his daughter
Anne Boleyn Anne Boleyn (; 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was List of English royal consorts, Queen of England from 1533 to 1536, as the Wives of Henry VIII, second wife of King Henry VIII. The circumstances of her marriage and execution, by beheading ...
(future Queen consort of England) a temporary place in her household; she was there from the spring of 1513 to the late summer of 1514, when she moved to Paris. Margaret reported to her father that she was "so presentable and so pleasant, considering her youthful age, that I am more beholden to you for sending her to me, than you to me." Once she was declared Governor of the Netherlands, Margaret purchased the
Hof van Savoye The Hof van Savoye (Court of House of Savoy#Expansion, retreat and prosperity, Savoy) or Palace of Margaret of Austria is an early 16th-century building in Mechelen, Belgium. It was one of the first Renaissance architecture, Renaissance buildi ...
, located in the Korte Maagdenstraat (Short Virgins Street) in
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
, which was to be her main residence. She found the existing palace too small and started an ambitious expansion campaign in 1507. From 1517 to 1530, the architect
Rombout II Keldermans Rombout II Keldermans (ca. 1460 in Mechelen – 15 December 1531 in Antwerp), was an important architect from the Gothic period, born from a family of architects and sculptors (see Keldermans family). He was city architect of Mechelen and c ...
furthered the project along the Keizerstraat (Emperor Street) and modified what became the rear wing, which faces the Palace of Margaret of York.


Patronage of the arts

Margaret owned or controlled a very significant art collection, which she expanded considerably; the ownership of works inherited by her or Charles V from their Burgundian ancestors is not always clear. Most of this was left to Charles and her niece and successor as governor,
Mary of Hungary Mary, also known as Maria of Anjou (, , ; 137117 May 1395), queen regnant, reigned as Queen of Hungary and List of dukes and kings of Croatia, Croatia between 1382 and 1385, and from 1386 until her death. She was the daughter of Louis I of Hun ...
, and in 1558 inherited by
Philip II of Spain Philip II (21 May 152713 September 1598), sometimes known in Spain as Philip the Prudent (), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and List of Sicilian monarchs, Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He ...
, to become part of the
Spanish Royal collection The Spanish royal collection of art was almost entirely built up by the monarchs of the Habsburg family who ruled Spain from 1516 to 1700, and then the House of Bourbon, Bourbons (1700–1868, with a brief interruption). They included a number of ...
, with some eventually going to the Habsburg imperial collections in Vienna. Many of the Flemish paintings of before 1530 in the
Prado The Museo del Prado ( ; ), officially known as Museo Nacional del Prado, is the main Spanish national art museum, located in central Madrid. It houses collections of European art, dating from the 12th century to the early 20th century, based on ...
in Madrid passed through the collection. The smaller collection in her palace in Mechelen is unusually well understood through surviving inventories, made in 1499, 1516 and 1523–24. The last of these locates the room, and sometimes the exact position, of works, and includes frank opinions on the quality of the more important that suggest Margaret herself made them. The 1523–24 inventory records a total of 385 paintings, sculptures, tapestries and embroideries (not counting prints and drawings), 132 exotic natural objects and artefacts such as Aztec feather work and carved coral. These, one of the earliest collections of objects from the
New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...
, came via
Hernán Cortés Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (December 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions o ...
, who presented Charles V with treasures received from the Aztec King Moctezuma in 1519. Several of these treasures were sent to Mechelen as a gift from her nephew in 1523. Clocks, board games and "curiosities" made up 47 items, and there were 380 items in her library, including manuscripts, printed books and charts such as genealogies. Then there was a good quantity of metal items such as dining "plate", much of it
silver-gilt Silver-gilt or gilded/gilt silver, sometimes known in American English by the French language, French term vermeil, is silver (either pure or sterling silver, sterling) which has been gilding, gilded. Most large objects made in goldsmithing tha ...
. The collection was carefully laid out as a "proto-museum", and it appears Margaret often gave notable visitors guided tours herself. There was a large number of portraits of Margaret's Burgundian ancestors, her Habsburg contemporaries, and her two husbands and their relatives. There were also seven portraits of members of the
Tudor dynasty The House of Tudor ( ) was an English and Welsh dynasty that held the throne of England from 1485 to 1603. They descended from the Tudors of Penmynydd, a Welsh noble family, and Catherine of Valois. The Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of Eng ...
, and
Louis XII of France Louis XII (27 June 14621 January 1515), also known as Louis of Orléans was King of France from 1498 to 1515 and King of Naples (as Louis III) from 1501 to 1504. The son of Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Marie of Cleves, he succeeded his second ...
and his daughter
Claude of France Claude of France (13 October 1499 – 26 July 1524) was Queen of France from 1 January 1515 as the wife of King Francis I and Duchess of Brittany in her own right from 9 January 1514 until her death in 1524. She was the eldest daughter of Ki ...
, as well as portraits of some of her officials. Most of all these were probably gifts from the sitters, just as Margaret gave copies of her own portraits. Much the most famous painting in her collection was the ''
Arnolfini Portrait ''The Arnolfini Portrait'' (or ''The Arnolfini Wedding'', ''The Arnolfini Marriage'', the ''Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his Wife'', or other titles) is an oil painting on oak panel by the Early Netherlandish painter Jan van Eyck, dated 14 ...
'', a 1434 oil on
panel painting A panel painting is a painting made on a flat panel of wood, either a single piece or a number of pieces joined together. Until canvas became the more popular support medium in the 16th century, panel painting was the normal method, when not pain ...
by the
Early Netherlandish Early Netherlandish painting is the body of work by artists active in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th-century Northern Renaissance period, once known as the Flemish Primitives. It flourished especially in the ...
painter
Jan van Eyck Jan van Eyck ( ; ; – 9 July 1441) was a Flemish people, Flemish painter active in Bruges who was one of the early innovators of what became known as Early Netherlandish painting, and one of the most significant representatives of Early Nort ...
, now in the
National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of more than 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current di ...
, London. It is a full-length double portrait, believed to depict the Italian merchant Giovanni di Nicolao Arnolfini and his wife, presumably in their residence at the
Flemish Flemish may refer to: * Flemish, adjective for Flanders, Belgium * Flemish region, one of the three regions of Belgium *Flemish Community, one of the three constitutionally defined language communities of Belgium * Flemish dialects, a Dutch dialec ...
city of
Bruges Bruges ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders, in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is in the northwest of the country, and is the sixth most populous city in the country. The area of the whole city amoun ...
. It was the first item in the 1516 inventory, described as "a large picture which is called Hernoul le Fin with his wife in a chamber, which was given to Madame by Don Diego, whose arms are on the cover of the said picture; done by the painter Johannes." A note in the margin says "It is necessary to put on a lock to close it: which Madame has ordered to be done." The identification of the sitter rests entirely on this and a similar note in the later inventory of 1523-24 (where Arnolfini is now "Arnoult Fin"). This was inherited by
Mary of Hungary Mary, also known as Maria of Anjou (, , ; 137117 May 1395), queen regnant, reigned as Queen of Hungary and List of dukes and kings of Croatia, Croatia between 1382 and 1385, and from 1386 until her death. She was the daughter of Louis I of Hun ...
, and then
Philip II of Spain Philip II (21 May 152713 September 1598), sometimes known in Spain as Philip the Prudent (), was King of Spain from 1556, King of Portugal from 1580, and King of Naples and List of Sicilian monarchs, Sicily from 1554 until his death in 1598. He ...
, remaining in the Spanish royal collection until looted in the
Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
by the French, and then apparently re-looted from them by the British. Although she lived during the less distinguished end of the period of
Early Netherlandish painting Early Netherlandish painting is the body of work by artists active in the Burgundian Netherlands, Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th-century Northern Renaissance period, once known as the Flemish Primitives. It flour ...
, she had several painters at her court, including the
Master of the Legend of the Magdalen The Master of the Legend of the Magdalen (sometimes called the Master of the Magdalen Legend) was an Early Netherlandish painter active from circa 1483 to 1527. He has not been identified. His Notname (name of convenience) was coined by the art h ...
and Pieter van Coninxloo, mainly portrait painters (it is possible they were the same person). Seven versions survive of her portrait in widow's costume (the ''deuil blanc'' or "white mourning" veils) by Bernaert van Orley of about 1515-1520; the
prime version In the art world, if an artwork exists in several versions, the one known or believed to be the earliest is called the prime version. Many artworks produced in media such as painting or carved sculpture which create unique objects are in fact r ...
is believed to be that at Brou, while others would have been sent as gifts to her relations, other rulers and perhaps friends. Van Orley, arguably the leading Brussels painter of the day, became her court artist in 1518. The workshop version of the portrait in the British
Royal Collection The Royal Collection of the British royal family is the largest private art collection in the world. Spread among 13 occupied and historic List of British royal residences, royal residences in the United Kingdom, the collection is owned by King ...
(loaned to the
National Portrait Gallery, London The National Portrait Gallery (NPG) is an art gallery in London that houses a collection of portraits of historically important and famous British people. When it opened in 1856, it was arguably the first national public gallery in the world th ...
) is "probably" the same as that recorded in a 1543 inventory of
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his Wives of Henry VIII, six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. ...
. The German sculptor Conrad Meit worked for her for many years, and was greatly involved in her main architectural project, the monastery at Brou. He carved the effigies on her tomb, and several other portraits of her, including intimate small busts in pearwood.


Library

Like other women in the royal houses of France, Spain and Burgundy Margaret possessed a very rich library for the period, in her case including a group of
illuminated manuscript An illuminated manuscript is a formally prepared manuscript, document where the text is decorated with flourishes such as marginalia, borders and Miniature (illuminated manuscript), miniature illustrations. Often used in the Roman Catholic Churc ...
s that are supreme masterpieces in several styles. She was an important patron of the Ghent–Bruges school of manuscript painters, at the peak of their achievement in the first years of the 16th century, and inherited or was given key works from earlier periods. She inherited most of the books of her step-grandmother
Margaret of York Margaret of York (3 May 1446 – 23 November 1503), also known as Margaret of Burgundy, was Duchess of Burgundy from 1468 to 1477 as the third wife of Charles the Bold, and after his death (1477) acted as a protector of the Burgundian State. ...
, Duchess of Burgundy, and others from her mother, including the
Hours of Mary of Burgundy The Hours of Mary of Burgundy ()Inglis, I is a book of hours, a form of devotional book for Laity, lay-people, completed in Flanders around 1477, and now in the National Library of Austria. It was probably commissioned for Mary of Burgundy, Mary, ...
(now
National Library of Austria The Austrian National Library (, ) is the largest library in Austria, with more than 12 million items in its various collections. The library is located in the Neue Burg Wing of the Hofburg in center of Vienna. Since 2005, some of the collection ...
). She returned from her period in Savoy with the famous
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry The (; ), or , is an illuminated manuscript that was created between and 1416. It is a book of hours, which is a Christians, Christian devotional book and a collection of prayers said at canonical hours. The manuscript was created for John, ...
, which had belonged to (and was added to by)
Charles I, Duke of Savoy Charles I (28 March 1468 – 13 March 1490), called the Warrior, was the Duke of Savoy from 1482 to 1490 and titular king of Cyprus, Jerusalem, and Armenia from 1485 to 1490. Life Charles was son of Amadeus IX, Duke of Savoy, and Yolande o ...
(d. 1490), father of Philibert's first wife. Already in 1499 an inventory recorded six
books of hours A book is a structured presentation of recorded information, primarily verbal and graphical, through a medium. Originally physical, electronic books and audiobooks are now existent. Physical books are objects that contain printed material, mo ...
, a
missal A missal is a liturgical book containing instructions and texts necessary for the celebration of Mass throughout the liturgical year. Versions differ across liturgical tradition, period, and purpose, with some missals intended to enable a priest ...
, and a
breviary A breviary () is a liturgical book used in Christianity for praying the canonical hours, usually recited at seven fixed prayer times. Historically, different breviaries were used in the various parts of Christendom, such as Aberdeen Breviar ...
. She also collected poetry, historical and ethical treatises, which included the works of
Christine de Pizan Christine de Pizan or Pisan (, ; born Cristina da Pizzano; September 1364 – ), was an Italian-born French court writer for King Charles VI of France and several French royal dukes, in both prose and poetry. Christine de Pizan served as a cour ...
. She was given the incomplete
Sforza Hours The Sforza Hours (British Library, London, Add. MS 34294), is a richly illuminated book of hours initiated by Bona Sforza, widow of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, around 1490, who commissioned the illuminator . The book remained in an unfinished ...
(now
British Library The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom. Based in London, it is one of the largest libraries in the world, with an estimated collection of between 170 and 200 million items from multiple countries. As a legal deposit li ...
) by
Bona of Savoy Bona of Savoy, Duchess of Milan (10 August 1449 – 23 November 1503) was Duchess of Milan as the second spouse of Galeazzo Maria Sforza, Duke of Milan. She served as regent of Milan during the minority of her son 1476–1481. Life Early life ...
, widowed
Duchess of Milan Lady of Milan Early consorts ''The name wives and consorts of the early Della Torre lords of Milan are not known. But Napoleone della Torre may have been married to a Margherita di Baux.'' House of Visconti, 1277–1302 House of della T ...
, who had commissioned it around 1490; Margaret had her court artist Gerard Horenbout complete it, probably in 1517–20, several years after she received it in Savoy. It is thought very likely that the Spinola Hours (
Getty Museum The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in Los Angeles, California, United States, housed on two campuses: the Getty Center and Getty Villa. It is operated by the J. Paul Getty Trust, the world's wealthies ...
) was commissioned by her in the 1510s. In his travel journal of 1517–1518, the Italian canon
Antonio de Beatis Antonio de Beatis was an Italian canon (priest), canon best known for his travel diary of 1517–1518, a work of major value in art history. Life De Beatis was born in Molfetta, but the date of his birth is unknown. He served as a secretary to Car ...
described Margaret's "highly decorated library for women. The books are all written in French and bound in velvet with silver-gilt clasps". She possessed several '' chansonniers'' that contained works by
Josquin des Prez Josquin Lebloitte dit des Prez ( – 27 August 1521) was a composer of High Renaissance music, who is variously described as French or Franco-Flemish. Considered one of the greatest composers of the Renaissance, he was a central figure of the ...
,
Johannes Ockeghem Johannes Ockeghem ( – 6 February 1497) was a Franco-Flemish composer and singer of early Renaissance music. Ockeghem was a significant European composer in the period between Guillaume Du Fay and Josquin des Prez, and he was—with his colle ...
,
Jacob Obrecht Jacob Obrecht (also Hobrecht; 1457/8
and
Pierre de la Rue Pierre de la Rue ( – 20 November 1518) was a Franco-Flemish composer and singer of the Renaissance. His name also appears as Piersson or variants of Pierchon and his toponymic, when present, as various forms of de Platea, de Robore, or de Vic ...
, who was her favourite composer. Margaret ordered several splendid music manuscripts from Pierre Alamire to send as gifts to her relatives and political relations. ;Margaret's manuscripts File:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Janvier.jpg, January calendar page,
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry The (; ), or , is an illuminated manuscript that was created between and 1416. It is a book of hours, which is a Christians, Christian devotional book and a collection of prayers said at canonical hours. The manuscript was created for John, ...
; the household of
John, Duke of Berry John of Berry or John the Magnificent (French language, French: ''Jean de Berry'', ; 30 November 1340 – 15 June 1416) was Duke of Berry and Rulers of Auvergne, Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. His brothers were King Charles ...
(right in blue), exchanging New Year gifts, 1410s File:Hours of Mary of Burgundy Virgin and Child.jpg,
Hours of Mary of Burgundy The Hours of Mary of Burgundy ()Inglis, I is a book of hours, a form of devotional book for Laity, lay-people, completed in Flanders around 1477, and now in the National Library of Austria. It was probably commissioned for Mary of Burgundy, Mary, ...
(now
National Library of Austria The Austrian National Library (, ) is the largest library in Austria, with more than 12 million items in its various collections. The library is located in the Neue Burg Wing of the Hofburg in center of Vienna. Since 2005, some of the collection ...
), Folio 14v: The Virgin in a church with
Mary of Burgundy Mary of Burgundy (; ; 13 February 1457 – 27 March 1482), nicknamed the Rich, was a member of the House of Valois-Burgundy who ruled the Burgundian lands, comprising the Duchy of Burgundy, Duchy and Free County of Burgundy, County of Burgundy a ...
at her devotions, c. 1477 File:Folio-233v-Birago-King-Davi.jpg,
Sforza Hours The Sforza Hours (British Library, London, Add. MS 34294), is a richly illuminated book of hours initiated by Bona Sforza, widow of Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, around 1490, who commissioned the illuminator . The book remained in an unfinished ...
, first campaign c. 1490, '' King David in Penitence'', by Giovanni Pietro Birago File:Master of the Lübeck Bible - David in Prayer - Google Art Project.jpg,
Master of the Lübeck Bible Master, master's or masters may refer to: Ranks or titles In education: *Master (college), head of a college *Master's degree, a postgraduate or sometimes undergraduate degree in the specified discipline *Schoolmaster or master, presiding office ...
, Scenes from the life of
King David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damas ...
, Spinola Hours, perhaps 1513–1521


Portraits

File:Margaret of Austria Pieter van Coninxloo.jpg, Attributed to Pieter van Coninxloo, c. 1500; the portrait sent to
Henry VII of England Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), also known as Henry Tudor, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henr ...
File:Margarethe of Austria Savoy.jpeg, Before 1525 File:Meester van 1499 - Margaret of Austria in Worship of the Virgin - 1973-A - Museum of Fine Arts Ghent (MSK).jpg, At prayer, "Master of 1499", a Southern Netherlands artist, 1510s;
Museum of Fine Arts, Ghent The Museum of Fine Arts (, MSK) an art museum in Ghent, Belgium, is situated at the East side of the Citadelpark (near the Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst). The museum's collection consists of some 9000 artworks, dating from the Middle Ages to ...
File:Archduchess Margaret of Austria by Conrat Meit (cropped).JPG, Small painted relief by Conrat Meit File:Bourg-en-Bresse (01) Église Saint-Nicolas-de-Tolentin de Brou Vitrail (baie 02) 566.jpg, Margaret at prayer, window at Brou, after 1525 File:Hofkirche 83.jpg, Bronze statue at her father's cenotaph, Innsbruck, 1522 File:Eglise de Brou5 marguerite d'autriche.jpg, The lower effigy on her tomb, Conrat Meit File:Museum Hof van Busleyden Mechelen 51.jpg, Plaster study, c. 1845, for the Mechelen statue File:Margaret of austria statue.jpg, Statue of 1849 in the market square of
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
,
St. Rumbold's Cathedral St. Rumbold's Cathedral (; ) is the Roman Catholic metropolitan archiepiscopal cathedral in Mechelen, Belgium, dedicated to Saint Rumbold, Christian missionary and martyr who founded an abbey nearby. His remains are rumoured to be buried insid ...
behind


Death and burial

On 15 November 1530, Margaret stepped on a piece of broken glass. She initially thought little of the injury but gangrene set in and the leg had to be amputated. She decided to arrange all her affairs first, designating Charles V as her sole heir and writing him a letter in which she asked him to maintain peace with France and England. On the night of 30 November, the doctors came to operate on her. They gave her a dose of opium to lessen the pain, but it was reportedly so strong that she would not wake up again. She died between midnight and one o'clock. She was succeeded as governor by Charles's sister Mary of Hungary (or of Austria), then 25, another widow who was recalled after her husband
Louis II of Hungary Louis II (; ; ; ; 1 July 1506 – 29 August 1526) was King of Hungary, King of Croatia, Croatia and King of Bohemia, Bohemia from 1516 to 1526. He died during the Battle of Mohács fighting the Ottoman Empire, Ottomans, whose victory led to the Ot ...
was killed in the Battle of Mohacs against the Turks in 1526. Margaret was buried alongside her second husband at
Bourg-en-Bresse Bourg-en-Bresse (; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Ain department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region in Eastern France. Located northeast of Lyon, it is the capital of the ancient Provinces of France, province of Bresse (). I ...
, in the mausoleum of the
Royal Monastery of Brou The Royal Monastery of Brou is a religious complex located at Bourg-en-Bresse in the Ain département, central France. Made out of monastic buildings in addition to a church, they were built at the beginning of the 16th century by Margaret of Aust ...
that she previously commissioned. Her very elaborate tomb was by Conrat Meit, her court sculptor for many years. It has two reclining effigies, the upper in formal regalia as Duchess of Savoy, and the lower as if asleep, with her hair down. There is a standing bronze statue of Margaret of Austria in the group around the
cenotaph A cenotaph is an empty grave, tomb or a monument erected in honor of a person or group of people whose remains are elsewhere or have been lost. It can also be the initial tomb for a person who has since been reinterred elsewhere. Although t ...
of her father
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I (22 March 1459 – 12 January 1519) was King of the Romans from 1486 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1508 until his death in 1519. He was never crowned by the Pope, as the journey to Rome was blocked by the Venetians. He proclaimed hi ...
, in the Hofkirche, Innsbruck, which also has a relief panel of her return from France after the French marriage proposal collapsed. Clive Holland remarks that it must have required courage to place the scene next to depictions of the father's triumphs, as at the time the rejection was a bitter experience for them both. There is a statue of 1849 of Margaret next to
St. Rumbold's Cathedral St. Rumbold's Cathedral (; ) is the Roman Catholic metropolitan archiepiscopal cathedral in Mechelen, Belgium, dedicated to Saint Rumbold, Christian missionary and martyr who founded an abbey nearby. His remains are rumoured to be buried insid ...
in
Mechelen Mechelen (; ; historically known as ''Mechlin'' in EnglishMechelen has been known in English as ''Mechlin'', from where the adjective ''Mechlinian'' is derived. This name may still be used, especially in a traditional or historical context. T ...
, Belgium.


Heraldry

File:Coat of arms of Margaret of Austria (single lady).svg, Arms as a single lady (before 1496) File:Coat of arms of Margaret of Austria (princess of Spain).svg, Arms as princess of Spain (1496-1501) File:Coat of arms of Margaret of Austria (duchess of Savoy).svg, Arms as duchess of Savoy (after 1501) File:Coat of arms of Margaret of Austria (countess of Burgundy).svg, Arms as countess of Burgundy and Artois (after 1509)


Depiction in media

Margaret of Austria is portrayed by Spanish actress
Úrsula Corberó Úrsula Corberó Delgado (born 11 August 1989) is a Spanish actress. She became known in Spain for playing Ruth Gómez in the teen drama series ''Física o Química'' (2008–2010), Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Savoy, Margarita de Austria in ...
in the TV show ''Isabel''. A wildly inaccurate fictionalized version of Margaret can be found in the play ''The Unhappy Penitent'' by Catharine Trotter, where she appears as the character 'Margarite'. In the play, Margarite is in love with
René II, Duke of Lorraine René II (2 May 1451 – 10 December 1508) was Count of Vaudémont from 1470, Duke of Lorraine from 1473, and Duke of Bar from 1483 to 1508. He claimed the crown of the Kingdom of Naples and the County of Provence as the Duke of Calabria ...
, although there is no indication that the two ever met. Also, the
Duke of Brittany This is a list of rulers of Brittany. In different epochs the rulers of Brittany were kings, princes, and dukes. The Breton ruler was sometimes elected, sometimes attained the position by conquest or intrigue, or by hereditary right. Hereditary ...
is in love with Margarite, but he died in 1488, when the historical Margaret was eight. He was the father of
Anne of Brittany Anne of Brittany (; 25/26 January 1477 – 9 January 1514) was reigning Duchess of Brittany from 1488 until her death, and Queen of France from 1491 to 1498 and from 1499 to her death. She was the only woman to have been queen consort of Fran ...
, later Margaret's replacement, who came to France to marry Charles VIII; her father's death without a male heir is what spurred the various betrothals of Anne. In ''The White Princess'' series she is portrayed by Zazie Hayhurst.


Ancestry


Notes


References

*Brown, Kendall W.
Margaret of Austria (1480–1530) Women in History Encyclopedia
* Campbell, Lorne, ''The Fifteenth Century Netherlandish Paintings'', London: National Gallery, 1998, * Eichberger, Dagmar, "Margaret of Austria’s Treasures: An early Habsburg Collection in the Burgundian Netherlands", in ''Museo Imperial: El coleccionismo artístico de los Austrias en el siglo XVI'', 2013, Fernando Villaverde Ediciones * *Hand, Joni M., ''Women, Manuscripts and Identity in Northern Europe, 1350-1550'', 2017, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 9781351536530, 1351536532
google books
* Kren, Thomas and McKendrick, Scot (eds.), ''Illuminating the Renaissance: The Triumph of Flemish Manuscript Painting in Europe'', Los Angeles, Getty Publications, 2003, ( * * * *Seidel, Linda, "Poor Little Rich Girl(?): Margaret of Austria and the Arnolfini Portrait", in ''Different Visions: New Perspectives on Medieval Art 8'' (2022)
doionline
*Van Loo, Bart, ''The Bugundians: A Vanished Empire'', 2021, Head of Zeus, ;Music *''Margarete – Maximilian I. Musik um 1500,''
Capilla Flamenca Capilla Flamenca is a vocal and instrumental early music consort based in Leuven, Belgium. The group specialises in 14th to 16th century music from Flanders and takes its name from the historical Flemish chapel (capilla flamenca), the choir of the ...
with La Caccia, Schola Cantorum Cantate Domino Aalst, Schola Gregoriana Lovaniensis, 1998, ORF Shop CD 265 (2 CDs). *''Dulcis Melancholia, Biographie musicale de Marguerite d'Autriche,''
Capilla Flamenca Capilla Flamenca is a vocal and instrumental early music consort based in Leuven, Belgium. The group specialises in 14th to 16th century music from Flanders and takes its name from the historical Flemish chapel (capilla flamenca), the choir of the ...
, 2005 (MEW 0525). *''Dame de Deuil. Musical Offerings for Marguerite of Austria,'' La Morra, 2005 (KTC 4011). , - {{DEFAULTSORT:Margaret Of Austria, Archduchess 1480 births 1530 deaths 15th-century House of Habsburg 16th-century House of Habsburg Austrian princesses Austrian Roman Catholics Princesses of Asturias House of Trastámara 16th-century women regents 16th-century regents Duchesses of Savoy Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands Daughters of emperors Daughters of kings Daughters of duchesses regnant Daughters of dukes Female governors-general First women governors Children of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VIII of France Daughters of counts Daughters of countesses regnant Regents in the Holy Roman Empire