Mangrove Tree Distribution
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Global mangrove distributions have fluctuated throughout human and
geological Geology () is a branch of natural science concerned with Earth and other astronomical objects, the features or rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other E ...
history. The area covered by
mangrove A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in severa ...
s is influenced by a complex interaction between land position,
rain Rain is water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor and then fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water f ...
fall
hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is call ...
,
sea level Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardis ...
,
sedimentation Sedimentation is the deposition of sediments. It takes place when particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the ...
,
subsidence Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement, which distinguishes it from slope mov ...
, storms and pest-predator relationshipsEslami-Andargoli, L., Dale, P. et al. (2009). "Mangrove expansion and rainfall patterns in Moreton Bay, Southeast Queensland, Australia."
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science ''Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal on ocean sciences, with a focus on coastal regions ranging from estuaries up to the edge of the continental shelf. It's published by Elsevier on behalf of the Estuarine ...
85(2): 292–298.
). In the last 50 years, human activities have strongly affected mangrove distributions, resulting in declines or expansions of worldwide mangrove area. Mangroves provide several important ‘free services’ including
coast The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in n ...
al stabilization,
juvenile fish Fish go through various life stages between fertilization and adulthood. The life of a fish start as spawned eggs which hatch into immotile larvae. These larval hatchlings are not yet capable of feeding themselves and carry a yolk sac whic ...
habitats, and the filtration of sediment and nutrientsValiela, I., Bowen, J. L. & York, J. K. 2001. Mangrove forests: one of the world's threatened major tropical environments. BioScience, 51, 807–815.Dierberg, F. E. & Kiattisimkul, W. 1996. Issues, impacts, and implications of shrimp aquaculture in Thailand. Environmental Management, 20, 649–666.Morrisey, D., Beard, C., Morrison, M., Craggs, R. & Lowe, M. 2007. The New Zealand Mangrove: Review of the Current State Of Knowledge. Auckland Regional Council.). Mangrove loss has important implications for coastal
ecological Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
systems and human communities dependent on healthy mangrove ecosystems. This article presents an overview of global
mangrove forest Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones. Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangroves cannot withstand fre ...
biome A biome () is a biogeographical unit consisting of a biological community that has formed in response to the physical environment in which they are found and a shared regional climate. Biomes may span more than one continent. Biome is a broader ...
trends in mangrove ecoregions distribution, as well as the cause of such changes. As of 2012, mangroves are found in 105 nations globally. Although distributed across 105 nations, the top 10 mangrove holding nations contain approximately 52% of the global mangrove stock with Indonesia alone containing between 26% and 29% of the entire global mangrove stock. The largest continuous area of mangrove forest is likely in-and-around the Sundarbans National Park in India and the Sundarbans Mangrove Forests in Bangladesh, which are both recognized by UNESCO as World Heritage Sites. Although existing almost exclusively in the tropics and near-tropics, warm ocean currents support mangrove forests as far north as Walsingham Nature Reserve (Idwal Hughes Nature Reserve) in Bermuda and as far south as Snake Island, Australia.


Overview

Mangroves can be found in over one hundred countries and territories in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. The largest percentage of mangroves is found between the 5° N and 5° S latitudes. Approximately 75% of world's mangroves are found in just 15 countries. Estimates of mangrove area based on remote sensing and global data tend to be lower than estimates based on literature and surveys for comparable periods. In 2018, the Global Mangrove Watch Initiative released a global baseline based on remote sensing and global data for 2010. They estimated the total mangrove forest area of the world as of 2010 at , spanning 118 countries and territories. Following the conventions for identifying geographic regions from the
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar sites (wetlands). It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. It i ...
, researchers also reported that
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
has the largest share (38.7%) of the world's mangroves, followed by
Latin America Latin America or * french: Amérique Latine, link=no * ht, Amerik Latin, link=no * pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived ...
and the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean ...
(20.3%)
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
(20.0%),
Oceania Oceania (, , ) is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of and a population of around 44.5 million ...
(11.9%), and
Northern America Northern America is the northernmost subregion of North America. The boundaries may be drawn slightly differently. In one definition, it lies directly north of Middle America (including the Caribbean and Central America).Gonzalez, Joseph. 20 ...
(8.4%).


By geographical region


Africa

There are important mangrove swamps in
Kenya ) , national_anthem = " Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"() , image_map = , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Nairobi , coordinates = , largest_city = Nairobi , ...
,
Tanzania Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...
, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...
(DRC), and
Madagascar Madagascar (; mg, Madagasikara, ), officially the Republic of Madagascar ( mg, Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, links=no, ; french: République de Madagascar), is an island country in the Indian Ocean, approximately off the coast of East Afric ...
, with swamps in the latter even admixing at the coastal verge with dry deciduous forests. Nigeria has Africa's largest mangrove coverage, spanning . Oil spills and leaks have destroyed much of this in the last 50 years, damaging the local fishing economy and water quality. Along the coast of the
Red Sea The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
, both on the
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning the North Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via a land bridg ...
ian side and in the
Gulf of Aqaba The Gulf of Aqaba ( ar, خَلِيجُ ٱلْعَقَبَةِ, Khalīj al-ʿAqabah) or Gulf of Eilat ( he, מפרץ אילת, Mifrátz Eilát) is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabian ...
, mangroves composed primarily of ''Avicennia marina'' and ''Rhizophora mucronata'' grow in about 28 stands that cover about . Almost all Egyptian mangrove stands are now protected. There are
mangroves A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evolution in sever ...
off the east coast of
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa. It is bounded to the south by of coastline that stretch along the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans; to the north by the neighbouring coun ...
extending as far south as the Tylomnqa River (). Some mangrove stands exist in the
St Lucia Saint Lucia ( acf, Sent Lisi, french: Sainte-Lucie) is an island country of the West Indies in the eastern Caribbean. The island was previously called Iouanalao and later Hewanorra, names given by the native Arawaks and Caribs, two Amerindi ...
estuary An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea. Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environm ...
within
iSimangaliso Wetland Park iSimangaliso Wetland Park (previously known as the Greater St. Lucia Wetland Park) is situated on the east coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, about 235 kilometres north of Durban by road. It is South Africa's third-largest protected are ...
.


North America


Central America and the Caribbean

Mangroves occur on the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of
Belize Belize (; bzj, Bileez) is a Caribbean and Central American country on the northeastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a wa ...
,
Costa Rica Costa Rica (, ; ; literally "Rich Coast"), officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( es, República de Costa Rica), is a country in the Central American region of North America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the no ...
,
El Salvador El Salvador (; , meaning " The Saviour"), officially the Republic of El Salvador ( es, República de El Salvador), is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south ...
,
Guatemala Guatemala ( ; ), officially the Republic of Guatemala ( es, República de Guatemala, links=no), is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico; to the northeast by Belize and the Caribbean; to the east by Hon ...
,
Honduras Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. The republic of Honduras is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Oce ...
,
Nicaragua Nicaragua (; ), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (), is the largest country in Central America, bordered by Honduras to the north, the Caribbean to the east, Costa Rica to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Managua is the coun ...
, and
Panama Panama ( , ; es, link=no, Panamá ), officially the Republic of Panama ( es, República de Panamá), is a transcontinental country spanning the southern part of North America and the northern part of South America. It is bordered by Co ...
. Mangroves can also be found in many of the
Antilles The Antilles (; gcf, label=Antillean Creole, Antiy; es, Antillas; french: Antilles; nl, Antillen; ht, Antiy; pap, Antias; Jamaican Patois: ''Antiliiz'') is an archipelago bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the south and west, the Gulf of Mex ...
including
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
,
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribb ...
, and
Hispaniola Hispaniola (, also ; es, La Española; Latin and french: Hispaniola; ht, Ispayola; tnq, Ayiti or Quisqueya) is an island in the Caribbean that is part of the Greater Antilles. Hispaniola is the most populous island in the West Indies, and th ...
, as well as other islands in the
West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greate ...
such as
the Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the a ...
.


= Belize

= The nation of
Belize Belize (; bzj, Bileez) is a Caribbean and Central American country on the northeastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a wa ...
has the highest overall percentage of forest cover of any of the Central American countries. Belize's mangrove cover assumes the form not only of mangrove forest, but also of scrubs, savannas, and other vegetation types. A 2010 satellite-based study of Belize's mangroves by the
World Wildlife Fund The World Wide Fund for Nature Inc. (WWF) is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961 that works in the field of wilderness preservation and the reduction of human impact on the environment. It was formerly named the W ...
(WWF) and the Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and the Caribbean found, in 2010, that mangroves covered roughly , or 3.4% of Belize's territory. In 1980, by contrast, mangrove cover stood at — also 3.4% of Belize's territory, although, based on the work of mangrove researcher Simon Zisman, Belize's mangrove cover in 1980 was estimated to represent 98.7% of the precolonial extent of those ecosystems. Belize's mangrove cover in 2010 was thus estimated to represent 96.7% of the precolonial cover. Assessing changes in Belize's mangrove cover over a 30-year period was possible because of Belize's participation in the Regional Visualization and Monitoring System, a regional observatory jointly implemented by CATHALAC, RCMRD, ICIMOD, NASA, USAID, and other partners.


Continental United States

Red Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–740 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a secondar ...
and
white White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no hue). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully reflect and scatter all the visible wavelengths of light. White ...
mangrove communities are confined to
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and ...
south of 29°N (see Florida mangroves). Black mangroves can be found up to 30°N on the east coast of Florida, and in isolated sections of the wider
Gulf Coast The Gulf Coast of the United States, also known as the Gulf South, is the coast, coastline along the Southern United States where they meet the Gulf of Mexico. The list of U.S. states and territories by coastline, coastal states that have a shor ...
, including
Texas Texas (, ; Spanish: ''Texas'', ''Tejas'') is a state in the South Central region of the United States. At 268,596 square miles (695,662 km2), and with more than 29.1 million residents in 2020, it is the second-largest U.S. state by ...
. The trimming of mangroves in Florida is regulated, and altering a mangrove without a permit (e.g., removing or cutting the plant so much that it dies or is defoliated) is prohibited and carries a fine.


Mexico

In Mexico, four species of mangrove predominate: ''
Rhizophora mangle ''Rhizophora mangle'', the red mangrove, is distributed in estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics. Its viviparous "seeds", in actuality called propagules, become fully mature plants before dropping off the parent tree. These are disperse ...
,
Laguncularia racemosa ''Laguncularia racemosa'', the white mangrove, is a species of flowering plant in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae. It is native to the coasts of western Africa from Senegal to Cameroon, the Atlantic Coast of the Americas from Bermuda and ...
,
Avicennia germinans ''Avicennia germinans'', the black mangrove, is a shrub or small tree growing up to 12 meters (39 feet) in the acanthus family, Acanthaceae. It grows in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, on both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, ...
'', and ''
Conocarpus erectus ''Conocarpus erectus'', commonly called buttonwood or button mangrove, is a mangrove shrub in the family Combretaceae. This species grows on shorelines in tropics, tropical and subtropics, subtropical Pantropical, regions around the world. Range ...
''. During an inventory conducted by CONABIO between 2006 and 2008, of mangrove were counted. Of this total, 55% are located in the
Yucatán Peninsula The Yucatán Peninsula (, also , ; es, Península de Yucatán ) is a large peninsula in southeastern Mexico and adjacent portions of Belize and Guatemala. The peninsula extends towards the northeast, separating the Gulf of Mexico to the north ...
. Significant mangals include the Marismas Nacionales-San Blas mangroves found in
Sinaloa Sinaloa (), officially the Estado Libre y Soberano de Sinaloa ( en, Free and Sovereign State of Sinaloa), is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided into 18 municipalities and ...
and
Nayarit Nayarit (), officially the Free and Sovereign State of Nayarit ( es, Estado Libre y Soberano de Nayarit), is one of the 31 states that, along with Mexico City, comprise the Federal Entities of Mexico. It is divided in 20 municipalities and its ...
.


South America

Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, Brazil is the world's fifth-largest country by area ...
contains approximately of mangrove forests, or 15% of the world's total.
Ecuador Ecuador ( ; ; Quechua: ''Ikwayur''; Shuar: ''Ecuador'' or ''Ekuatur''), officially the Republic of Ecuador ( es, República del Ecuador, which literally translates as "Republic of the Equator"; Quechua: ''Ikwadur Ripuwlika''; Shuar: ' ...
has substantial remaining mangrove forests in the provinces of El Oro, Guayas, Manabi, and Esmeraldas, with limited forest remaining in Santa Elena. The northern portion of Esmeraldas province has a large pristine mangrove forest that is preserved as the Reserva Ecológica Cayapas-Mataje (REMACAN) and is an original Ramsar site. This forest is the most preserved within Ecuador and likely the most pristine forest along the Pacific Coast of the Americas. The only other major mangrove holding in Esmeraldas is in-and-around the community of Muisne and the Rio Muisne Estuary Swampland Wildlife Refuges. The mangroves in-and-around the estuaries of Muisne have decreased in area from from the period between 1971 and 2005. During this time, commercial shrimp aquaculture has become the dominant land-cover within this estuary environment. On the border of Esmeraldas province and Manabí province is a formerly large area of mangrove within Cojimies Estuary. The mangroves in this estuary are some of the most degraded in Ecuador with only 19% of 1971 mangrove area remaining as of 1998, although mangrove has recovered since this date. Within Manabí the major mangrove holding estuary is the Chone estuary situated near the city of Bahía de Caráquez. Again, Chone has undergone substantial mangrove
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...
since the advent of commercial aquaculture in Ecuador. However, mangrove loss appears to have halted in this estuary and mangrove regrowth driven by local fisherman is now occurring.Hamilton, S. & S. Collins (2013
Las respuestas a los medios de subsistencia deforestación de los manglares en las provincias del norte de Ecuador
Bosque 34:2
Peru , image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg , image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg , other_symbol = Great Seal of the State , other_symbol_type = National seal , national_motto = "Firm and Happy f ...
has two small regions of mangrove located in the
Department of Tumbes Tumbes () is a coastal department and region in northwestern Peru bordering Ecuador. Due to the region's location near the Equator it has a warm climate, with beaches that are considered among the finest in Peru. Despite its small area, the reg ...
, north-west of the country on the Ecuadorian Border, and also in the
Piura region Piura () is a coastal department and region in northwestern Peru. The region's capital is Piura and its largest port cities, Paita and Talara, are also among the most important in Peru. The area is known for its tropical and dry beaches. It ...
, where the "Manglares de Vice" in the Sechura Province of Piura is the southernmost region of the Pacific to hold mangroves.
Venezuela Venezuela (; ), officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela ( es, link=no, República Bolivariana de Venezuela), is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in th ...
's northern Caribbean island,
Margarita A margarita is a cocktail consisting of Tequila, triple sec, and lime juice often served with salt on the rim of the glass. The drink is served shaken with ice (on the rocks), blended with ice (frozen margarita), or without ice (straight u ...
, possesses mangrove forests in the Parque nacional Laguna de La Restinga. Venezuela has 4% of the world's mangroves, with an extension of .
Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the ...
possesses large mangrove forests on both its Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The Mangrove forests of
Suriname Suriname (; srn, Sranankondre or ), officially the Republic of Suriname ( nl, Republiek Suriname , srn, Ripolik fu Sranan), is a country on the northeastern Atlantic coast of South America. It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the nor ...
have a height of and are found mainly in the coastal area. There are six types of mangroves, namely two types of ''
Avicennia germinans ''Avicennia germinans'', the black mangrove, is a shrub or small tree growing up to 12 meters (39 feet) in the acanthus family, Acanthaceae. It grows in tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas, on both the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, ...
'' (parwa or black mangroves), three types of ''
Rhizophora mangle ''Rhizophora mangle'', the red mangrove, is distributed in estuarine ecosystems throughout the tropics. Its viviparous "seeds", in actuality called propagules, become fully mature plants before dropping off the parent tree. These are disperse ...
'' (mangro or red mangroves) and a small mangrove species ''
Laguncularia racemosa ''Laguncularia racemosa'', the white mangrove, is a species of flowering plant in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae. It is native to the coasts of western Africa from Senegal to Cameroon, the Atlantic Coast of the Americas from Bermuda and ...
'' (akira or tjila, white mangrove).


Asia

Mangroves occur on Asia's south coast, throughout the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographical region in Southern Asia. It is situated on the Indian Plate, projecting southwards into the Indian Ocean from the Himalayas. Geopolitically, it includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, In ...
, in all
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia, also spelled South East Asia and South-East Asia, and also known as Southeastern Asia, South-eastern Asia or SEA, is the geographical south-eastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of mainland ...
n countries, and on islands in the Indian Ocean,
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bo ...
,
Arabian Sea The Arabian Sea ( ar, اَلْبَحرْ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Bahr al-ˁArabī) is a region of the northern Indian Ocean bounded on the north by Pakistan, Iran and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by the Gulf of Aden, Guardafui Channe ...
,
Bay of Bengal The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean, bounded on the west and northwest by India, on the north by Bangladesh, and on the east by Myanmar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India. Its southern limit is a line bet ...
,
South China Sea The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by the shores of South China (hence the name), in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Ph ...
,
East China Sea The East China Sea is an arm of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from East China. It covers an area of roughly . The sea’s northern extension between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula is the Yellow Sea, separated ...
and the Pacific. The mangal is particularly prevalent in the deltas of large Asian rivers.


Indonesia

In the
Indonesian Archipelago The islands of Indonesia, also known as the Indonesian Archipelago ( id, Kepulauan Indonesia) or Nusantara, may refer either to the islands comprising the country of Indonesia or to the geographical groups which include its islands. History ...
, mangroves occur around much of
Papua province Papua is a province of Indonesia, comprising the northern coast of Western New Guinea together with island groups in Cenderawasih Bay to the west. It roughly follows the borders of Papuan customary region of Tabi Saireri. It is bordered by ...
,
Sumatra Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the sixth-largest island in the world at 473,481 km2 (182,812 mi.2), not including adjacent i ...
,
Borneo Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and e ...
,
Sulawesi Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sulu ...
, Maluku and the surrounding islands. Indonesia has around of mangrove forests, but 48% is categorized as 'moderately damaged' and 23% as 'badly damaged'.


Japan

The most extensive mangrove forests of the
Ryukyu Islands The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Taiwan: the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sakishima Islands (further divided into the Miyako and Yaeyama Islands), with Yon ...
in East China Sea occur on
Iriomote Island is the largest of the Yaeyama Islands of Japan, and the second largest in Okinawa Prefecture after Okinawa Island itself. The island has an area of and a 2005 population of 2,347. The island does not have an airstrip, and most visitors — ov ...
of the
Yaeyama Islands The Yaeyama Islands (八重山列島 ''Yaeyama-rettō'', also 八重山諸島 ''Yaeyama-shotō'', Yaeyama: ''Yaima'', Yonaguni: ''Daama'', Okinawan: ''Yeema'', Northern Ryukyuan: ''Yapema'') are an archipelago in the southwest of Okinawa P ...
,
Okinawa is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan. Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan, has a population of 1,457,162 (as of 2 February 2020) and a geographic area of 2,281 Square kilometre, km2 (880 sq mi). ...
,
Japan Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
. Seven types of mangroves are recognised on Iriomote Island. The northern limit of mangrove forests in the Indomalaya Ecozone is considered to be Tanegashima Island,
Kyushu is the third-largest island of Japan's five main islands and the most southerly of the four largest islands ( i.e. excluding Okinawa). In the past, it has been known as , and . The historical regional name referred to Kyushu and its surround ...
, Japan.


Malaysia

On the
Malay Peninsula The Malay Peninsula ( Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The ar ...
, mangroves cover an estimated , while most of the remaining mangroves in
Malaysia Malaysia ( ; ) is a country in Southeast Asia. The federal constitutional monarchy consists of thirteen states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo's East Mal ...
are on the island of
Borneo Borneo (; id, Kalimantan) is the third-largest island in the world and the largest in Asia. At the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia, in relation to major Indonesian islands, it is located north of Java, west of Sulawesi, and e ...
.


Philippines

The
Philippines The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no), * bik, Republika kan Filipinas * ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas * cbk, República de Filipinas * hil, Republ ...
, with the fifth longest coastline in the world, holds at least 50% of known mangrove species and is considered one of the top 15 most mangrove-rich countries. Philippine mangrove forests cover an estimated of coastline as of 2003, which comprise 3% of the total forest cover remaining in the country. The island with the largest mangrove cover is
Mindanao Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
, with 29% of the national total. Mindanao and
Palawan Palawan (), officially the Province of Palawan ( cyo, Probinsya i'ang Palawan; tl, Lalawigan ng Palawan), is an archipelagic province of the Philippines that is located in the region of Mimaropa. It is the largest province in the country in t ...
also have the largest pristine old-growth mangrove forests (at and , respectively). The islands suffering from the most extensive mangrove deforestation are
Luzon Luzon (; ) is the largest and most populous island in the Philippines. Located in the northern portion of the Philippines archipelago, it is the economic and political center of the nation, being home to the country's capital city, Manila, as ...
and
Mindoro Mindoro is the seventh largest and eighth-most populous island in the Philippines. With a total land area of 10,571 km2 ( 4,082 sq.mi ) and has a population of 1,408,454 as of 2020 census. It is located off the southwestern coast of Luz ...
. The provinces with the highest mangrove coverage are
Palawan Palawan (), officially the Province of Palawan ( cyo, Probinsya i'ang Palawan; tl, Lalawigan ng Palawan), is an archipelagic province of the Philippines that is located in the region of Mimaropa. It is the largest province in the country in t ...
(22.2%),
Sulu Sulu (), officially the Province of Sulu ( Tausūg: ''Wilāya sin Lupa' Sūg''; tl, Lalawigan ng Sulu), is a province of the Philippines in the Sulu Archipelago and part of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). Its cap ...
(8%),
Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Norte ( Cebuano: ''Amihanang Zamboanga''; Subanon: ''Utara Sembwangan''; tl, Hilagang Zamboanga), officially the Province of Zamboanga del Norte, is a province in the Philippines situated within the Zamboanga Peninsula region in ...
and
Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga del Sur ( Cebuano: ''Habagatang Zamboanga;'' Subanen: ''S'helatan Sembwangan/Sembwangan dapit Shelatan''; Chavacano: ''Zamboanga del Sur''; tl, Timog Zamboanga; mdh, Pagabatan Sambuanga), officially the Province of Zamboanga del Sur, ...
(9.86%),
Surigao del Norte Surigao del Norte ( Surigaonon: ''Probinsya nan Surigao del Norte''; ceb, Amihanang Surigao; Tagalog: ''Hilagang Surigao''), officially the Province of Surigao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Caraga region of Mindanao. ...
and
Surigao del Sur Surigao del Sur ( Surigaonon: ''Probinsya nan Surigao del Sur''; ceb, Habagatang Surigao; tl, Timog Surigao), officially the Province of Surigao del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Caraga region in Mindanao. Its capital is T ...
(6.8%),
Eastern Samar Eastern Samar (Waray-Waray: ''Sinirangan Samar''; tl, Silangang Samar), officially the Province of Eastern Samar, is a province in the Philippines located in the Eastern Visayas region. Its capital is the city of Borongan. Eastern Samar occu ...
and Western Samar (6.1%),
Quezon Quezon, officially the Province of Quezon ( tl, Lalawigan ng Quezon), is a province in the Philippines located in the Calabarzon region on Luzon. Kalilayan was the first known name of the province. It was later renamed Tayabas. In honor of the ...
(5.5%),
Tawi-Tawi Tawi-Tawi, officially the Province of Tawi-Tawi ( tl, Lalawigan ng Tawi-Tawi; Tausug: ''Wilaya' sin Tawi-Tawi''; Sinama: ''Jawi Jawi/Jauih Jauih''), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim ...
(4.4%),
Bohol Bohol (), officially the Province of Bohol ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bohol; tl, Lalawigan ng Bohol), is an island province of the Philippines located in the Central Visayas region, consisting of the island itself and 75 minor surrounding islands. ...
(3.69%), and
Basilan Basilan, officially the Province of Basilan ( cbk, Provincia de Basilan; yka, Wilayah Basilanin; tsg, Wilaya' sin Basilan; fil, Lalawigan ng Basilan), is an island province of the Philippines located primarily in the Bangsamoro Autonomous Reg ...
(2.97%). 19% of the total mangrove area are within
protected areas Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural, ecological or cultural values. There are several kinds of protected areas, which vary by level of protection depending on the ena ...
. These protected areas include the
Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park The Northern Sierra Madre Natural Park is the largest protected area of the Philippines covering the northern range of the Sierra Madre mountains of eastern Luzon. The park is located in the eastern part of the province of Isabela in Cagayan Va ...
(eastern Luzon),
Bakhawan Eco-Park The Bakhawan Eco-Park is a mangrove forest located in Kalibo, Aklan, Philippines. The mangrove reforestation project started in 1990 when the local government and several non-government organizations transformed the muddy shoreline of Barangay ...
(
Panay Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and has a total population of 4,542,926 as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City o ...
), Malampaya Sound, Malampaya Sound Protected Landscape and Seascape (northwestern Palawan), El Nido Managed Resource Protected Area (northwestern Palawan), Rasa Island, Rasa Island Wildlife Sanctuary (central Palawan), Siargao, Siargao Island Protected Landscape and Seascape (Siargao), Tañon Strait, Tañon Strait Protected Seascape (Negros Island, Negros and Cebu), Biri Larosa Protected Landscape and Seascape (northern Samar), Dumanquilas Bay, Dumanquilas Bay Protected Landscape and Seascape (western Mindanao), Mt. Guiting-Guiting Natural Park (Sibuyan Island, Romblon), and the Calauit Safari Park (Calauit Island, Calamian Islands). In the 1920s, the Philippines had a mangrove cover estimated at between to . It dropped to a low of by 1994. The leading cause for mangrove deforestation in the Philippines is the commercial development of the areas for aquaculture. Between 1968 and 1983, of mangrove forest were lost to the creation of cultured ponds for farming fish, shrimp, and other aquatic resources. Urbanization is also the main cause of the loss of the formerly extensive mangrove forests in the Manila Bay. Due to conservation measures it rose back to the current level by 2003 and mangrove populations are considered "relatively stable" by the World Bank. Several mangrove conservation and reforestation efforts have been completed. Some of the early ones failed due to the use of the wrong species for the wrong habitats and pests damaging monoculture reforestation sites. More successful reforestation efforts have identified that a key factor was community involvement and the education of local villages of the importance of mangrove forests to maintaining fish stocks, providing a natural barrier to typhoons and tsunamis, and providing habitats for migratory birds. Mangrove-friendly aquaculture technology is also disseminated by the government via training by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR). Another recent approach is the promotion of mangrove forest ecotourism. In line with mangrove promotion, development, and rehabilitation efforts in coastal areas, species diversity and the degree of impact of natural and anthropogenic activities on mangroves in nine coastal barangays of Mulanay, Quezon, Philippines were assessed. Results revealed that all nine barangays had low species diversity index. Taxonomic identification revealed eleven mangrove species - ''Avicennia marina, Avicennia rumphiana, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops decandra, Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Xylocarpus granatum, and Xylocarpus moluccensis'' belonging to five families. Impact analysis revealed that Patabog registered moderate impact, San Isidro and Canuyep with high impact, and Sta. Rosa, Sto. Niño, Buntayog, Amuguis and Ibabang Yuni were greatly affected by combined natural disturbances and anthropogenic activities. In 1991, the cutting and harvesting of all mangrove species was banned under List of Philippine laws, Republic Act 7161. The conversion of mangrove forest areas for fishpond development was also banned under Republic Act 8550 (the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998). Enforcement of these laws remain problematic. The ban also affects small communities which previously partnered with the government to grow and harvest mangrove forests for timber, firewood, and other purposes.


Taiwan

The three most important mangrove forests of Taiwan are: Tamsui River in New Taipei, Zhonggang River (:zh:中港溪, zh) in Miaoli County and the Sicao Wetlands in Tainan. Four types of mangrove exist in Taiwan. Some places have been developed as scenic areas, such as the Timber rafting, log raft routes in Sihcao.


Vietnam

In Vietnam, mangrove forests grow along the southern coast, including two forests: the Cần Giờ Mangrove Forest biosphere reserve and the U Minh Thượng National Park, U Minh mangrove forest in the sea and coastal region of Kiên Giang Province, Kiên Giang, Cà Mau Province, Cà Mau and Bạc Liêu Province, Bạc Liêu provinces. The mangrove forests of the Bay of Kompong Som (''maki'') in Cambodia are of major ecological and cultural importance, as the human population relies heavily on the crabs and fish that live in the roots.


Middle East


Arabian Peninsula

The wide and shallow shelf on Yemen's
Red Sea The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
coast consists of unconsolidated sediments, which support 11 species of seagrasses up to offshore on the shoreward side of sand spits, islands and reefs. Fragmented mangrove patches cover around along the coast ( wide along a stretch). The mangrove forest of Kamaran island was logged in the early 20th century, and the timber used for construction in Aden. The mangrove forests along the shoreline of the United Arab Emirates are an integral part of its coastal ecosystem. The Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, Environment Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD) is currently working on rehabilitation, conservation and protection of mangrove forests in seven key sites in Abu Dhabi including: Saadiyat Island, Jubail Island, Marawah Marine Biosphere Reserve (which also comprises Bu Tinah Island), Bu Sayeef Protected Area, Ras Gharab, the Eastern Corniche and Ras Ghanada. Oman supports large areas of mangroves near Muscat, in particular at Shinas, Qurm Park and Mahout Island. In Arabic, mangrove trees are known as ''qurm'' (), thus the mangrove area in Oman is known as Qurm Park. A small mangrove area is present in the Kingdom of Bahrain.


Iran

Mangrove forests are present in Iran between 25°11′N to 27°52′N, in the northern parts of the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bo ...
and Sea of Oman. Pockets of the biome extend (from southwest to southeast) along the shores of the maritime provinces Bushehr, Hormozgan, and Sistan and Balouchestan. Forests on and near the island of Qeshm in the Persian Gulf are dominated by the species ''Avicennia marina'', known locally as the "hara" or "harra" tree, and cover an area of approximately . This area is protected as the UNESCO Mangrove forests of Qeshm, Hara Biosphere Reserve, where commercial use is restricted to fishing (mainly shrimp), tourist boat trips, and limited mangrove cutting for animal feed.


South Asia


=India

= As per the ISFR 2017 report, the total area of mangrove cover of India is , ( positively changed with respect to 2015 mangrove cover assessment) which contributes 3.3% to the global mangrove cover. The deltas of the Ganges, Mahanadi River Delta, Mahanadi, Krishna River, Krishna, Godavari River, Godavari, and Kaveri rivers contain mangrove forests. Backwaters in Kerala have high density of mangrove forest on the shores. Indian mangroves consist of 46 species (4 of which are natural hybrids) belonging to 22 genera and 14 families, representing about 57% of the world's mangrove species. The following table shows the prevalence of mangroves in the states of India and the total area covered by them in square kilometers. The Pichavaram mangroves in Tamil Nadu is India's one of the largest mangrove forests. The Bhitarkanika Mangroves Forest of Odisha, by the Bay of Bengal, is India's second largest mangrove forest. Other major mangals occur on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Gulf of Kutch in Gujarat.


Baratang Island

The Baratang Island mangroves are located within the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The mangrove swamps of Baratang Island are situated between Middle Andaman Island, Middle and South Andaman Island.


Bhitarkanika

The Bhitarkanika mangroves form India's second largest forest, located in the state of Odisha. Bhitarkanika is created by the two river deltas of Brahmani and Baitarani river and one of the important Ramsar Wetland in India. It is also the home of saltwater crocodiles and nesting olive ridley sea turtles.


Godavari-Krishna

The Godavari-Krishna mangroves lie in the delta of the Godavari and Krishna River, Krishna rivers in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Mangroves ecoregion is under protection for Calimere Wildlife and Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary.


Mumbai

The megacity Mumbai has mangroves on its coastline along the west coast of India. A total of 10 mangrove species were reported in this area, dominated by ''Avicennia marina''. These mangroves support a rich diversity of life forms, especially molluscs. The mangrove area in Mumbai City District is 2 km2, and in Mumbai Suburban District is 64 km2. Mumbai's single largest mangrove belt is the western bank of Thane Creek. The Government of Maharashtra has declared much of the area on the western bank of Thane Creek as the Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary. Mangrove areas on the government lands are governed by the Maharashtra Forest Department. An extensive area of mangroves on the private lands in Vikhroli has been conserved by Soonabai Pirojsha Godrej Marine Ecology Centre, Vikhroli, Mumbai.


Pichavaram

The Pichavaram mangroves are situated at Pichavaram near Chidambaram in the state of Tamil Nadu. Pichavaram ranks amongst the most exquisite scenic spots in Tamil Nadu and has many species of aquatic birds.


Sundarbans

The Sundarbans in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta extend from the Hooghly River in West Bengal to the Baleswar River in Bangladesh, covering an area of about . This area comprises closed and open mangrove forests, agriculturally used land, mudflats and barren land. It is intersected by tide, tidal streams and channels. Four protected areas in the Sundarbans, viz Sundarbans National Park, Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary, Sundarbans West, Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary, Sundarbans South and Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuaries are enlisted as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Biodiversity includes at least 27 mangrove species, 40 mammal, 35 reptile and 260 bird species. More than 2.5 million people are estimated to live in the vicinity of the Sundarbans, making them one of the world's most densely populated areas. It is the largest mangrove region and the largest single block of tidal halophytic mangrove forest in the world. Sundri (''Heritiera fomes'') trees provide durable hard timber. Palm, coconut, keora, agar, also grow in some parts of the delta. India's mangrove forests are habitat for saltwater crocodile (''Crocodylus porosus''), turtles, and snakes. This region is part of the Great Sundarbans and covers a National Park, Tiger reserve and a Biosphere Reserve. Sundarbans was designated a Ramsar site on May 21, 1992. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Sundarbans serves a crucial function as a protective flood barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around Kolkata against the result of cyclone activity. Sundarbans is home to many different species of birds, mammals, insects, reptiles and fish. It is estimated that there may be found more than 120 species of fish and over 260 species of birds and more than fifty species of reptiles and eight amphibians.


=Maldives

= Mangroves occur in certain muddy swampy islands of Maldives.


=Pakistan

= Pakistani mangroves are located mainly along the Indus River Delta, delta of the Indus River (the Indus River Delta-Arabian Sea mangroves ecoregion). Major mangrove forests are found on the coastline of the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan. In Karachi, land reclamation projects have led to the cutting down of mangrove forests for commercial and urban development. On 22 June 2013, Sindh Forest Department, Govt. of Sindh, Pakistan, with the help of 300 local coastal volunteer planters set the Guinness World Record by planting 847,250 mangrove saplings at Kharo Chan, Thatta, Sindh, Pakistan in a little over 12 hours. This is the highest number of saplings planted within a day under the Guinness World Record category of "Maximum Number of Trees Planted in a Day". Sindh Forest Department, Government of Sindh Mangrove has played pioneer role for the conservation and protection of the mangroves in the Indus Delta since late 1950s when it was handed over the areas. A breakthrough success is the re-introduction of ''Rhizophora mucronata'' into the Indus Delta, which had become extinct there. More recently, a threatened mangrove shrub, ''Ceriops tagal'', has also been successfully re-introduced. A third species, ''Aegiceras corniculatum'', is under trials at the nursery stage. A major initiative is currently underway in Sindh to rehabilitate degraded mangrove mudflats. Since 2010 alone, around of former mangrove forest have been planted and rehabilitated. During this period, through concerted efforts and a rigorous conservation policy adopted by the Sindh Forest Department, the government of Sindh and the federal government, a mangrove resource base of around has been created, with the support of local coastal communities. International organizations like IUCN and WWF are also playing critical role to support this initiative. Other achievements include: (1) Declaring all the mangrove forests in the Indus Delta as Protected Forests in December 2010; Constitution of a Mangrove Conservation Committee at the provincial level which includes all stakeholders as members and overall awareness of the importance of mangroves and its ecosystem.


Oceania


Australia and New Guinea

Australia and Papua New Guinea both rank in the top five mangrove holding nations globally. More than five species of Rhizophoraceae grow in Australasia, with particularly high biodiversity on the island of New Guinea and northern Australia. As of 2012, Australia has slightly below of mangroves and Papua New Guinea has just under approximately ±12% (CI 0.9, n = 7) of mangrove.


New Zealand

New Zealand also has mangrove forests extending to around 38°S (similar to Australia's latitudinal limit): the southernmost examples are at Raglan, New Zealand, Raglan Harbour (37°48′S) on the west coast and Ohiwa Harbour (near Ōpōtiki, 38°00′S) on the east coast. Avicennia marina ''australasica'' is the only mangrove in New Zealand.


Pacific Islands

Twenty-five species of mangrove are found on various Pacific islands, with extensive mangrove forests on some. Mangroves on Guam, Palau, Kosrae and Yap have been badly affected by development. Mangroves are not native to Hawaii, but the Rhizophora mangle, red and Bruguiera sexangula, oriental mangroves have been introduced and are now Naturalisation (biology), naturalized. Both species are considered invasive species, invasive and classified as pests by the University of Hawaii Botany Department.


Mangrove declines


Global trends

In the last five decades, worldwide mangrove area has fallen across all regions.Alongi, D. M. 2002. Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests. Environmental Conservation, 29, 331–349.FAO 2007. The World's Mangroves 1980–2005. FAO Forestry Paper. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) no.153 Different data sources or survey methods make estimates more problematic, as many nations have high variations of mangrove change.Barbier, E. & Sathirathai, S. 2004. Shrimp farming and mangrove loss in Thailand, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Publishing. Percentage of original area lost per year * Asia: 1.52% * Africa: 1.25% * Australia: 1.99% * Americas: 3.62% * The World: 2.07% (based on data from) ''(Annual loss rates calculated from the mean number of years between original area and present area for each region: 24, 25, 7, 11, and 17 years for Asia, Africa, Australia, the Americas, and the world, respectively.) '' From 2000 to 2012, the global mangrove deforestation rate was between 0.16% and 0.39% annually but as high as 3.58% to 8.08% in Southeast Asia. The most recent and comprehensive global assessment of mangrove distribution was conducted by Hamilton and Casey (2016) and provides a high-resolution global database of mangrove loss at the 1 arc-second level at annual intervals from 2000 to 2012 with estimates for 2013 and 2014. In the 1980s and 1990s the greatest amount of loss occurred, while in the period of 2000 to 2005 the rate has fallen significantly across all regions. Some projections estimate that worldwide mangrove area will decline by a further 25% by 2025, particularly in developing nations.McLeod, E. & Salm, R. V. 2006. Managing mangroves for resilience to climate change. Gland, Switzerland: The World Conservation Union (IUCN) It is estimated that since 1970, 28% of mangrove lost has been directly displaced by commercial aquaculture.


Role of perception

People's perception of mangrove ecosystems has been instrumental in the loss of mangroves. Commonly, they have been undervalued and considered ‘wastelands’ with low productivity (,Krauss, K. W., Lovelock, C. E., McKee, K. L., Lopez-Hoffman, L., Ewe, S. M. L. & Sousa, W. P. 2008. Environmental drivers in mangrove establishment and early development: A review. Aquatic Botany, 89, 105–127.). Concerns for the fate of mangroves have historically been restricted to Scientific community, scientific communities, with little transfer of knowledge to Local community, local communities and governments. Mangroves are a Common-pool resource, common pool resource, creating difficulties in enforcing restrictions on exploitative activities.Idrus, M. R. 2009. Hard habits to break : investigating coastal resource utilisations and management systems in Sulawesi, Indonesia : a thesis submitted in partial of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Science at the University of Canterbury. More recently, perceptions have shifted to a broader acknowledgment within communities and governments of the value of mangroves in coastal ecosystems and local communities. The declining rate of mangrove loss since 2000 across all regions is indicative of this, bringing forth an increasing number of Conservation biology, conservation projects and legislation.


Causes of decline

A variety of factors have led to the declining trends in mangrove distribution (refer to table fig of causes). These factors are predominantly human impact on the environment, anthropogenic in origin, as mangrove destruction is positively Correlation and dependence, correlated to human population density. Up to 35% of mangrove forests worldwide have been lost since 1980, reflecting the increased pressure from high population densities residing at the
coast The coast, also known as the coastline or seashore, is defined as the area where land meets the ocean, or as a line that forms the boundary between the land and the coastline. The Earth has around of coastline. Coasts are important zones in n ...
. Mangrove losses to climate change are considered a probable long term threat to future distribution. Despite a wide variety of factors linked to mangrove loss (insert figure of causes), the main drivers of recent (i.e. after 1980) mangrove destruction are linked to four main activities: urban sprawl, tourism, agriculture and aquaculture.Farnsworth, E. J. & Ellison, A. M. 1997. The global conservation status of mangroves. Ambio, 328–334. The causes of declines in mangrove areas vary between regions. In
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an are ...
, the
Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean ...
and
Latin America Latin America or * french: Amérique Latine, link=no * ht, Amerik Latin, link=no * pt, América Latina, link=no, name=a, sometimes referred to as LatAm is a large cultural region in the Americas where Romance languages — languages derived ...
, aquaculture and tourism development are the greatest threat. In
Oceania Oceania (, , ) is a geographical region that includes Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Spanning the Eastern and Western hemispheres, Oceania is estimated to have a land area of and a population of around 44.5 million ...
, tourism development is the greatest threat while in
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, conversion of mangroves for agricultural and urban development is most apparent. Aquaculture – This activity is considered the greatest contributor to worldwide mangrove loss. Since the 1980s, shrimp aquaculture dramatically increased, replacing mangroves with ponds and degrading surrounding areas with associated pollution. Aquaculture has dramatically affected some regions. For example, 50–80% of mangroves were lost in Asia in the past decades. Asia, the Caribbean and Latin America have been most affected by aquaculture Urban expansion – As population density increases at the coast, areas of mangrove forest have been replaced to provide urban and industrial lands. Tourism – infrastructure supporting tourism often requires the reclamation of substantial tracts of mangrove forests. In the Americas and Oceania, tourism is a major driver of mangrove loss. Where tourism is a main contributor to an economy (such as Pacific Island nations), construction of resorts and related infrastructures have reduced mangrove area in past decades. Agriculture – Conversion of mangrove forests for agriculture has occurred across all regions historically, freeing up land for activities such as rice or salt production. Charcoal: in Myanmar, the cutting down of mangroves to turn into charcoal for sale in China and Thailand continues unabated.


Mangrove loss case study: shrimp aquaculture in South-east Asia

In many South-east Asian nations, shrimp aquaculture has been instrumental in mangrove loss, particularly in the 1980s and 1990s. Due to high economic returns, shrimp farming was promoted to improve economic conditions in many countries. The social and economic benefits of shrimp farming are substantial. Shrimp farms are located close to the coast to reduce costs by using Tide, tidal energy and short canal lengths to the coast. Consequently, vast tracts of mangrove forest have been replaced by numerous ponds. Compounding mangrove losses is the short life span of individual ponds (5–10 years), imposing a shifting cultivation pattern to shrimp farming. After 1980, shrimp farming became far more intensive, with high productivity (per unit area) ponds proliferating across the landscape. Dramatic reductions in mangrove forests were reported with shrimp pond intensification. In Thailand, mangrove forests literally halved between 1975 and 1993Aksornkoae, S. & Tokrishna, R. 2004. Overview of shrimp farming and mangrove loss in Thailand. In: Barbier, E. & Sathirathai, S. (eds.) Shrimp farming and mangrove loss in Thailand. Cheltenham Edward Elgar Publishing. The impact of such losses has been linked to the disruption of
ecological Ecology () is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans, and their physical environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere level. Ecology overlaps wi ...
and economic functioning of mangroves. For example, loss of income for local Thai fishermen has been reported due to reduced catches from the degradation of Juvenile (organism), juvenile fish habitat. Some consider that the number of shrimp farms in South-east Asia peaked in the late 1990s, with the rate of mangrove loss declining accordingly. This decline is in part due to increased Conservation biology, conservation and Restoration ecology, restoration projects, and improved management practices.


Global climate change and mangrove loss

Increases in temperature, , precipitation, storms, and sea level are likely to threaten mangroves in the future. Sea level rise is considered the greatest climate change related threat to mangrove regions. The natural ability of mangroves to ‘keep up’ with rising
sea level Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical datuma standardis ...
through peat or sediment accumulation could be exceeded, leading to mangrove die back.Ellison, J. C. 1993. Mangrove retreat with rising sea-level, Bermuda.
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science ''Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal on ocean sciences, with a focus on coastal regions ranging from estuaries up to the edge of the continental shelf. It's published by Elsevier on behalf of the Estuarine ...
, 37, 75–87.
Low island mangroves are most at risk, as demonstrated in Bermuda, where sea level rise has exceeded peat accumulation rates periodically, resulting in landward die back of mangrove stands. Climate change may reduce global mangrove area by 10–15%, but it is a long term, less significance threat to the current 1–2% annual loss from human activities.


Mangrove expansions


Global trends

Several nations have experienced an expansion of their mangrove area. These expansions include human activities promoting seaward or landward expansion from climatic or other local factors, as well as conservation and reforestation programmes. Globally, this stability and expansion is far outweighed by the magnitude of mangrove loss from human activities.


Seaward expansion and human activity

Seaward mangrove expansion is considered a natural response to high inputs of sediment and nutrients from human activity in adjacent Catchment area (human geography), catchments;.Harty, C. 2009. Mangrove planning and management in New Zealand and South East Australia – A reflection on approaches. Ocean and Coastal Management, 52, 278–286.Lovelock, C. E., Feller, I. C., Ellis, J., Schwarz, A. M., Hancock, N., Nichols, P. & Sorrell, B. 2007. Mangrove growth in New Zealand estuaries: The role of nutrient enrichment at sites with contrasting rates of sedimentation. Mangroves naturally encourage sediment deposition by slowing Ocean current, currents and attenuating Wind wave, waves. However, with high sediment inputs, the elevation of intertidal flats can rise above the low tide limit of the original mangrove forest, resulting in a seaward expansion of new mangrove habitat. Once new mangroves establish, they too begin to trap more sediment, raising the tidal flat elevation and generating more mangrove habitat. Seaward expansions are likely in regions with modified catchments (i.e. deforestation or urban development) with high topography where high sediments loads are delivered to mangroves at the coast. Extremely high rates of sediment input can exceed tolerance thresholds and induce mangrove die backs. Excess sedimentation is the primary control, but nutrients (i.e. from agricultural runoff) can enhance mangrove expansion, particularly when combined with high levels of
sedimentation Sedimentation is the deposition of sediments. It takes place when particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the ...
. Seaward expansions highlight the interconnectivity of mangrove ecosystems to adjacent catchments and the need to consider catchment alteration when managing mangroves.


Case study: New Zealand mangroves

In New Zealand (NZ), temperate mangroves (Avicennia marina) are common in estuaries, harbours and tide, tidal creeks north of 38° latitude. Following European colonization, mangrove area declined, but since the 1970s rapid, ongoing seaward expansion has occurred in many areas.Park, S. 2004. Aspects of Mangrove Distribution and Abundance in Tauranga Harbour. Whakatane: Environment Bay of Plenty, 2004/16. For example, in the last 50 years mangrove area has expanded 120% in Tuaranga Harbour. Such expansion is strongly correlated with elevated rates of sediment deposition. Drainage basin, Catchment activities such as
deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...
and more recently, urban development have been blamed for the expansion. Considerable debate over whether to protect or remove NZ mangroves exist. Proponents for protection cite the ecological and coastal protection values of mangrove stands, while removal advocates aim to restore recreational values and prevent encroachment into non-mangrove ecosystems. A shift in the management strategy of regional councils from protection to mangrove ‘management’ has occurred recentlyDe Luca, S. 2009. Mangrove Management – Balancing Values. Coastal News, NZ no. 42. Removals may take place when human amenities or non-mangrove habitats are deemed threatened by mangrove encroachment. Some researchers caution comparisons being made between NZ and tropical mangroves, suggesting NZ mangroves are unique in their ecology and require a tailored management approach.


Landward expansion

In contrast to seaward expansions in NZ, landward expansions are documented in a number of regions (Thailand, Australia, and Hawaii).Saintilan, N. & Wilton, K. 2001. Changes in the distribution of mangroves and saltmarshes in Jervis Bay, Australia. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 9, 409–420.Chimner, R. A., Fry, B., Kaneshiro, M. Y. & Cormier, N. 2006. Current Extent and Historical Expansion of Introduced Mangroves on O'ahu, Hawai'i1. Pacific Science, 60, 377–383 The cause of landward expansions is not always clear. In Eastern Australia expansions have replaced salt marshes with various suggestions for the cause of landward expansion (increased rainfall, changes in hydrology, to local subsidence). Expansions in Hawaii are thought to be the result of invasions by Invasive species, exotic mangrove species.


Expansion through conservation and restoration

More recently, awareness of the economic, social, and ecological values of mangroves have led to an increase in the number of initiatives to protect and restore mangrove areas. Broader recognition of the connection of mangroves to coastal food chains, coastal protection and socio-economic welfare has driven recent conservation. For example, Bangladesh has undertaken extensive coastal afforestation (mass plantings) projects since 1966, leading to an increase in mangrove area in recent decades;Saenger, N. A. 1993. Land from the sea: the mangrove afforestation program of Bangladesh. Ocean & Coastal Management, 20, 23–39 2005;. Many nations with mangroves have signed on to the 1971 Ramsar Convention on wetlands in the last two decades, making a commitment to wetland preservation.Ramsar. 1971. Ramsar Convention on Wetlands [Online]. Available: http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-about-about-ramsar/main/ramsar/1-36%5E7687_4000_0__ [Accessed April 2010]. However, the adoption of protective legislation is not evenly spread. For instance, community initiatives to protect mangroves are common in Africa but little legislation exists compared to other regions, such as Asia.


Poleward Expansion

Poleward expansion of mangrove species has been observed on many coast lines in the world including US East and West coast, as well as Australia. This is arguably related to climate change. Average lowest temperatures have been increasing due to climate change, and this trend allows the survival of propagules during winter and germinate in warmer seasons. In areas that were too cold for mangrove species to grow, mangrove's survival could results in invasive species. In New South Wales in Australia, area coverage of salt marsh has declined due to poleward expansion of mangrove species.


Challenges, limitations and future suggestions

Much attention has been given to mangroves by the scientific community, as well as a largely universal acknowledgement among communities and governments of the ecological and economic values. Despite this awareness, global mangrove area continues to decline through human activities. A lack of communication between biologists, effected residents, and governments could partly account for this. Calls have been made for greater collaboration between international researchers and residents of affected nations. Efforts to assess changes in worldwide mangrove distribution have been hindered by a lack of long term data, or limited to no data at all for some nations. Without accurate data on distributions, an accurate forecast of mangrove loss or expansion becomes problematic. This in turn may hinder the progress of Conservation biology, conservation projects. Despite large volumes of scientific literature on mangroves, many uncertainties still exist. These include how mangroves will respond to increases in greenhouse gases and sea level, sustainable yields for silviculture, the difference in ecological functioning between tropical and temperate species, and why within the same species we get seaward and landward expansions. Obtaining this knowledge will help nations to better predict future mangrove behavior, and administer appropriate management policies.


Summary

Mangrove loss has been a worldwide trend for the last 50 years due primarily to human impact on the environment, anthropogenic activities that compete for land area. Expansions in mangrove area do occur, but have a limited ability to offset the extensive losses. Recently the rate of loss has been declining due to a greater awareness of mangrove values, with legislation and conservation projects becoming more commonplace. It can only be hoped that this declining rate of loss continues, allowing future generations to appreciate the many benefits of mangroves.


See also

* Mangrove – ''Mangrove Forest biome'' * :Mangrove ecoregions, Mangrove ecoregions * Ecological values of mangrove * Coastal biogeomorphology * Coastal erosion


References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mangrove tree distribution Mangroves, * Aquatic ecology Effects of climate change Mangrove ecoregions, *