Management of dyslexia depends on a multiple of variables; there is no one specific strategy or set of strategies which will work for all who have dyslexia.
Some teaching is geared to specific reading skill areas, such as phonetic decoding; whereas other approaches are more comprehensive in scope, combining techniques to address basic skills along with strategies to improve comprehension and literary appreciation. Many programs are multisensory in design, meaning that instruction includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile elements; as it is generally believed that such forms of instruction are more effective for dyslexic learners.
The following table shows some of the most crucial variables to consider:
Several
special education
Special education (known as special-needs education, aided education, exceptional education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, special ed., SDC, or SPED) is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates th ...
approaches have been developed for students with dyslexia.
Adaptive technology
Assistive technology (AT) is a term for assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for people with disabilities and the elderly. Disabled people often have difficulty performing activities of daily living (ADLs) independently, or even with ...
, such as specialized computer software, has resulted in recent innovations helpful to many people with dyslexia.
One factor that characterises the field of dyslexia remediation is the stream of
alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities. These controversial treatments include nutritional supplements, special diets,
homeopathy, and
osteopathy
Osteopathy () is a type of alternative medicine that emphasizes physical manipulation of the body's muscle tissue and bones. Practitioners of osteopathy are referred to as osteopaths.
Osteopathic manipulation is the core set of techniques in ...
/
chiropractic
Chiropractic is a form of alternative medicine concerned with the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, especially of the spine. It has esoteric origins and is based on several pseudosci ...
manipulation.
Definition
Dyslexia is characterized by learning difficulties that can include:
Difficulty with oral language:
* Late in talking
* Difficulty in pronouncing words
* Difficulty in acquiring vocabulary or age appropriate grammar
* Difficulty following directions
* Confusion in right/left, before/after, top/bottom, etc.
* Difficulty in learning alphabet
* Difficulty in learning nursery rhymes or songs
* Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems
Difficulty with reading:
* Difficulty learning to read
* Difficulty with phonological awareness (identifying rhyming words or counting syllables)
* Difficulty with phonemic awareness (hearing and manipulating sounds)
* Difficulty with auditory discrimination (distinguishing different sounds in words)
* Difficulty in learning the sounds of letters
* Difficulty remembering names
* Difficulty in remembering the orders of letters
* Misreading common words
* Omitting common words
* Guessing through longer words
* Poor reading comprehension
* Slow, laborious oral reading
Difficulty with written language:
* Trouble organizing ideas on paper
* Many spelling mistakes
* Performs well on spelling tests, but continues to have spelling mistakes in daily work
* Difficulty in proofreading
Writing systems and orthography
![Visual-dyslexia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0e/Visual-dyslexia.jpg)
A
writing system
A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...
is a type of
symbolic system used to represent elements or statements expressible in
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
.
The
orthography
An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.
Most transnational languages in the modern period have a writing system, and ...
of a
language
Language is a structured system of communication. The structure of a language is its grammar and the free components are its vocabulary. Languages are the primary means by which humans communicate, and may be conveyed through a variety of ...
specifies the correct way of using a specific
writing system
A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...
to write the language. Where more than one writing system is used for a language, for example for
Kurdish
Kurdish may refer to:
*Kurds or Kurdish people
*Kurdish languages
*Kurdish alphabets
*Kurdistan, the land of the Kurdish people which includes:
**Southern Kurdistan
**Eastern Kurdistan
**Northern Kurdistan
**Western Kurdistan
See also
* Kurd (dis ...
, there can be more than one orthography.
Alphabetic orthography
Most teaching is geared to remediating specific areas of weakness, such as addressing difficulties with phonetic decoding by providing phonics-based tutoring. Some teaching is geared to specific reading skill areas, such as phonetic decoding; whereas other approaches are more comprehensive in scope, combining techniques to address basic skills along with strategies to improve comprehension and literary appreciation. Many programs are multisensory in design, meaning that instruction includes visual, auditory, and kinesthetic or tactile elements; as it is generally believed that such forms of instruction are more effective for dyslexic learners.
Despite claims of some programs to be "research based", there is very little empirical or quantitative research supporting the use of any particular approach to reading instruction as compared to another when used with dyslexic children.
Torgesen (2004) emphasized the importance of explicit instruction for remediation as well as the need for intensity that is completely different from regular classroom instruction. To make gains in reading, students need highly structured, sequential interactive activities and close monitoring, directly connecting the known with the new, with sufficient time for practice of new skills to build automaticity and fluency. The size of the instructional group is also important, ideally between 1:1 and 1:3.
Interventions in a Latin alphabet writing system
There is little empirical or quantitative research supporting the use of any particular program for reading instruction when used with dyslexic children.
[
In 2007 the researchers Joseph Torgesen and Richard Wagner have shown that, when teaching children with reading disabilities, programs including systematic and explicit instruction in phoneme awareness and grapheme-phoneme correspondence are far more successful than programs that do not.
][ Wolf, Maryanne (2007). Proust and the Squid. HarperCollins publishers. p. 175. .]
Academic remediations
With early identification and treatment is key to helping individuals with dyslexia achieve in academic and life. Appropriate remedial instruction is a structured literacy approach:
* Phonology – is the study of sound structure in the spoken word. These skills included rhyming, counting words in a spoken sentence, and clapping syllables in spike words. The ability to segment words into their compound sounds, phonemes.
* Sound-Symbol Association – once awareness of phonemes of spoken language, the learner must map the phonemes to symbols (printed letters). This skill must be taught in two directions: visual to auditory (reading) and auditory to visual (spelling).
* Syllable Instruction – a syllable is a unit or written language with one vowel sound. Instructions must included the 6 basic syllable types in English (closed, vowel-consonant-e, open, consonant-le, r-controlled, and vowel pair).
* Morphology – morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in any language. The study of base words, roots, prefixes and suffixes.
* Syntax – set of principles that dictate sequence and function of words in sentences. This concepts includes grammar, sentence variation, and mechanics of language.
* Semantics – aspect of language with focus on meaning.
* Systematic – an organization of material that follows a logical pattern of the language
* Cumulative – the steps of teaching is based on previous concepts.
* Explicit Instruction – requires the deliberate teaching of all concepts with student-teacher interactions.
If the disorder persists in adolescence, the student is transferred to the special applied labour education program and suspended from examinations.
Classroom accommodations
Although there are no treatments or quick cures for dyslexia there are many techniques that can be used to assist dyslexic students in the classroom while reading skills are being remediated. These include such things as:
* Oral testing
* Untimed tests
* Audiobooks
* Eliminate or reduce spelling tests
* Minimizing the need to read out loud
* Allow students to record the Teacher explaining homework (for example on a Dictaphone) to ensure an accurate account of the homework is made.
* Accept dictated homework
* Reduce homework load
* Grade on content, not spelling nor handwriting
* Reduce copying tasks
* Avoid or reduce essay tests
* Providing teacher handouts to supplement the notes taken
* Using materials that are not visually overcrowded
* To increase motivation, giving assignments in areas in which the student has a strong interest, for example, sports stories, biographies of inventors or rock musicians, or fiction about teenage issues.
* Use an appropriate layout, including a larger font size, larger line spacing (1.5) and a clear font – sans-serif fonts are usually recommended.
* Some dyslexic people are sensitive to the colour of the paper and may find off-white, pale green or pale purple paper can make reading easier.
* Wearing specially tinted glasses.
* Using appropriate font size. Research does not suggest that the use of specially-tailored fonts helps with dyslexia.
Individuals with dyslexia need a teacher adept at "individualized" instruction to learn to read. This need can be met in a standard classroom setting if the teacher has the experience and time to dedicate to such instruction, but the need for one-on-one instruction sometimes requires use of a private Orton-Gillingham tutor or other dyslexia tutor.
Recent developments
Accessible publishing
Accessible publishing is an approach to publishing and book design whereby books and other texts are made available in alternative formats designed to aid or replace the reading process. It is particularly relevant for people who are blind, visu ...
works to make reading easier for all who struggle with the standard one-size-fits-all method of book publishing. Accessible publishing works with publishers and Print on Demand
Print on demand (POD) is a printing technology and business process in which book copies (or other documents, packaging or materials) are not printed until the company receives an order, allowing prints of single or small quantities. While oth ...
technology which allows the reader to choose how the books will be published. Available format variations include choosing the font size (from 11 point font through to 28 point font), whether the font is bold, italic or regular, and choosing the amount of line spacing. There are also a variety of special fonts being developed for dyslexia, eye tracking problems and other conditions. Although some individuals with dyslexia report improved ease of reading with different fonts, these reports are anecdotal; there is little empirical evidence to support the use of "dyslexia fonts".
Accessible publishers, such as ReadHowYouWant, also work to make books available in Braille
Braille (Pronounced: ) is a tactile writing system used by people who are visually impaired, including people who are blind, deafblind or who have low vision. It can be read either on embossed paper or by using refreshable braille disp ...
, e-books
An ebook (short for electronic book), also known as an e-book or eBook, is a book publication made available in digital form, consisting of text, images, or both, readable on the flat-panel display of computers or other electronic devices. Alt ...
, audiobook
An audiobook (or a talking book) is a recording of a book or other work being read out loud. A reading of the complete text is described as "unabridged", while readings of shorter versions are abridgements.
Spoken audio has been available in sc ...
s and DAISY.
New formats such as streamline text have been developed that help dyslexic people to track (move from one line to the next) more fluently. These work by adding 'sign-posts' into the text to show where to go next.
Teachers are also using audiobooks as a way of teaching textbooks in an engaging way to those with dyslexia. In the UK, one of the biggest charities is Listening Books, which offers members a streaming service over the internet. An Australian company, ReadHowYouWant is working to make all published books available in audiobook
An audiobook (or a talking book) is a recording of a book or other work being read out loud. A reading of the complete text is described as "unabridged", while readings of shorter versions are abridgements.
Spoken audio has been available in sc ...
form. In the United States, the nonprofit Learning Ally
Learning Ally, which was previously named Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic (RFB&D), is a non-profit volunteer organization operating nationwide in the United States. It produces and maintains a library of educational accessible audiobooks for ...
offers the world's largest library of human-narrated audio textbooks, and a second organization, Bookshare
Bookshare is an online library of accessible ebooks for people with print disabilities, such as visual impairment, severe dyslexia, and cerebral palsy. An initiative of Benetech, a social enterprise organization based in Palo Alto, California, it ...
, offers a wide selection of synthetic-read audiobooks. These audiobooks work well for individuals who have word reading accuracy and fluency difficulties (i.e. dyslexics).
Individuals with dyslexia require more practice to master skills in their areas of deficit. In the circumstances where typically developing children need 30 to 60 hours training, the number of hours that has resulted in optimistic conclusions concerning the remediation of dyslexia is between 80 and 100 hours, or less if the intervention is started sufficiently early. Only approximately 20% of adults with early reading difficulties have acquired fluent reading skills in adulthood.
Functional MRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area o ...
(fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area ...
) studies have shown neurological changes in dyslexic children and adults who have used phonological interventions, with improved performance on tests of phonemic awareness and text decoding.
fMRI
Functional magnetic resonance imaging or functional MRI (fMRI) measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. This technique relies on the fact that cerebral blood flow and neuronal activation are coupled. When an area ...
studies have also shown changes in the brain and spelling improvement of dyslexic children taught spelling
Spelling is a set of conventions that regulate the way of using graphemes (writing system) to represent a language in its written form. In other words, spelling is the rendering of speech sound (phoneme) into writing (grapheme). Spelling is one ...
phonetically in an orthographic manner.
A 2012 study has shown that the usage of an FM system drives neural plasticity in children with dyslexia. An FM system is a personal assistive listening device, consisting of a wireless microphone worn by the teacher, and a wireless receiver similar to a Bluetooth receiver worn on the ears by the pupil. Measurements of the brain's response to speech sounds showed that the children who wore the device for one year responded more consistently to the very soft and rapidly changing elements of sounds that help distinguish one consonant from another (cat, bat, pat etc.). That improved stability was linked with reading improvement based on standardized measures of readability – which, as a long-term benefit, points to brain plasticity.
National statutory provision and support structures
Each country has adopted and developed a writing system
A writing system is a method of visually representing verbal communication, based on a script and a set of rules regulating its use. While both writing and speech are useful in conveying messages, writing differs in also being a reliable fo ...
of choice.
Each country has their own Statutes relating to the provision of Education, and special educational needs. The statutory provision framework of support in each country is usually complemented by many independent and voluntary support agencies providing more specialised information and support.
See also
* Accessible publishing
Accessible publishing is an approach to publishing and book design whereby books and other texts are made available in alternative formats designed to aid or replace the reading process. It is particularly relevant for people who are blind, visu ...
* Alternative therapies for developmental and learning disabilities
* Inclusion (disability rights)
Inclusion, in relation to persons with Disability, disabilities, is defined as including individuals with disabilities in everyday activities and ensuring they have access to resources and opportunities in ways that are similar to their non-d ...
* Elkonin boxes
Elkonin boxes are an instructional method used in the early elementary grades especially in children with reading difficulties and inadequate responders in order to build phonemic awareness by segmenting words into individual sounds. They are named ...
* Special education
Special education (known as special-needs education, aided education, exceptional education, alternative provision, exceptional student education, special ed., SDC, or SPED) is the practice of educating students in a way that accommodates th ...
* :Dyslexia research
* :Dyslexia researchers
References
External links
Dyslexia, Diagnosis and Treatment
Mayo Clinic.
{{Dyslexia
Neurology procedures
D
Communication disorders