![Bagobos, Davao, Mindanao (1913)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Bagobos%2C_Davao%2C_Mindanao_%281913%29.png)
The Lumad are a group of
Austronesian indigenous people
Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct ethnic groups whose members are directly descended from the earliest known inhabitants of a particular geographic region and, to some extent, maintain the language and culture of those original people ...
in the southern
Philippines
The Philippines (; fil, Pilipinas, links=no), officially the Republic of the Philippines ( fil, Republika ng Pilipinas, links=no),
* bik, Republika kan Filipinas
* ceb, Republika sa Pilipinas
* cbk, República de Filipinas
* hil, Republ ...
. It is a
Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the
autonym
Autonym may refer to:
* Autonym, the name used by a person to refer to themselves or their language; see Exonym and endonym
* Autonym (botany), an automatically created infrageneric or infraspecific name
See also
* Nominotypical subspecies, in zo ...
officially adopted by the delegates of the Lumad Mindanao Peoples Federation (LMPF) founding assembly on 26 June 1986 at the Guadalupe Formation Center, Balindog,
Kidapawan
Kidapawan, officially the City of Kidapawan ( ceb, Dakbayan sa Kidapawan; hil, Dakbanwa sang Kidapawan; Maguindanaon: ''Kuta nu Kidapawan'', Jawi: كوتا نو كيدڤاوان; Obo Monuvu: ''Ingod to Kidapawan''), is a 3rd class component c ...
,
Cotabato
Cotabato or North Cotabato ( hil, Aminhan Cotabato; ceb, Amihanang Cotabato; Maguindanaon: ''Pangutaran Kutawatu'', Jawi: ڤڠوترن كوتاواتو; fil, Hilagang Cotabato), officially the Province of Cotabato, is a landlocked province in ...
, Philippines.
Usage of the term was accepted in Philippine jurisprudence when
President
President most commonly refers to:
*President (corporate title)
*President (education), a leader of a college or university
*President (government title)
President may also refer to:
Automobiles
* Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Corazon Aquino
Maria Corazon "Cory" Sumulong Cojuangco-Aquino (; ; January 25, 1933 – August 1, 2009) was a Filipina politician who served as the 11th president of the Philippines from 1986 to 1992. She was the most prominent figure of the 1986 People P ...
signed into law
Republic Act 6734, where the word was used in Art. XIII sec. 8(2) to distinguish Lumad ethnic communities from the islands of
Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
.
Mindanao is home to a substantial part of the country's indigenous population, around 15% of the Philippine's total population of over 100 million.
[National Statistics Office. “Statistics on Filipino Children.” Journal of Philippine Statistics, vol. 59, no. 4, 2008, p. 119.]
History
The name ''Lumad'' grew out of the political awakening among tribes during the
martial law
Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory.
Use
Marti ...
regime of
President
President most commonly refers to:
*President (corporate title)
*President (education), a leader of a college or university
*President (government title)
President may also refer to:
Automobiles
* Nissan President, a 1966–2010 Japanese ful ...
Ferdinand Marcos
Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos Sr. ( , , ; September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino politician, lawyer, dictator, and kleptocrat who was the 10th president of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. He ruled under martial ...
. It was advocated and propagated by the members and affiliates of Lumad-Mindanao, a coalition of all-Lumad local and regional organizations that formalized themselves as such in June 1986 but started in 1983 as a multi-sectoral organization. Lumad-Mindanao's main objective was to achieve self-determination for their member-tribes or, put more concretely, self-governance within their ancestral domain in accordance with their culture and customary laws. No other Lumad organization had the express goal in the past.
Representatives from 15 tribes agreed in June 1986 to adopt the name; there were no delegates from the three major groups of the
T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Philippines, indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, ...
, the Teduray. The choice of a
Cebuano word was a bit ironic but they deemed it appropriate as the Lumad tribes do not have any other
common language
A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, vehicular language, or link language, is a language systematically used to make communication possible between groups ...
except Cebuano. This marked the first time that these tribes had agreed to a common name for themselves, distinct from that of other Mindanao native groups: the
Muslim
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abrah ...
Moro people
The Moro people or Bangsamoro people are the 13 Muslim-majority ethnolinguistic Austronesian groups of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan, native to the region known as the Bangsamoro (lit. ''Moro nation'' or ''Moro country''). As Muslim-majority ...
s of southwestern Mindanao; and the sea-faring
Visayans
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
of coastal areas in northern and eastern Mindanao (
Butuanon,
Surigaonon, and
Kagay-anon, collectively known as the "Dumagat" or "Sea People" by the Lumad). All of which, in turn are distinct from the (mostly Visayan) migrant majority of modern Mindanao.
On 2 March 2021, the
National Commission on Indigenous Peoples
The National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP) is the agency of the national government of the Philippines that is responsible for protecting the rights of the indigenous peoples of the Philippines. The commission is composed of seven comm ...
issued a resolution denouncing the use of the term ''lumad'' when referring to Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICC) and Indigenous Peoples (IPs). The resolution stated that elders, leaders, and members of different ICCs and IPs in Mindanao requested that they not be called "lumad", and instead want to be referred to by their respective ethnolinguistic group names.
However, anthropologists and historians pointed out errors in the commission's resolution, particularly with regard to the origin and usage of the term Lumad.
Scholars and Lumad leaders stated that the resolution stems from a lack of historical awareness and the commission's ignorance of Lumad struggles in Mindanao.
Ethnic groups
![Map of Lumad in Mindanao Islands](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Map_of_Lumad_in_Mindanao_Islands.png)
The Lumad include groups such as the Erumanen ne Menuvu', Matidsalug Manobo, Agusanon Manobo, Dulangan Manobo, Dabaw Manobo, Ata Manobo, B'laan, Kaulo, Banwaon, Bukidnon, Teduray, Lambangian, Higaunon, Dibabawon, Mangguwangan, Mansaka, Mandaya, K'lagan,
Subanen,
Tasaday
The Tasaday () are a Philippine indigenous people of the Lake Sebu area in Mindanao. They are considered to belong to the Lumad group, along with the other indigenous groups on the island. They attracted widespread media attention in 1971, when ...
,
Tboli, Mamanuwa, Tagakaolo, Talaandig, Tagabawa, Ubu', Tinenanen, Kuwemanen, K'lata and Diyangan. Considered as "vulnerable groups", they live in
hinterland
Hinterland is a German word meaning "the land behind" (a city, a port, or similar). Its use in English was first documented by the geographer George Chisholm in his ''Handbook of Commercial Geography'' (1888). Originally the term was associated ...
s, forests, lowlands, and coastal areas.
The term ''lumad'' excludes the
Butuanons and
Surigaonons, even though these two groups are also native to Mindanao. This is due to their
Visayan ethnicity and lack of close affinity with the Lumad. The
Moros
In Greek mythology, Moros /ˈmɔːrɒs/ or Morus /ˈmɔːrəs/ (Ancient Greek: Μόρος means 'doom, fate') is the 'hateful' personified spirit of impending doom, who drives mortals to their deadly fate. It was also said that Moros gave peop ...
like the
Maguindanaon,
Maranao
The Maranao people (Maranao: mәranaw Filipino: ''Maranaw''), also spelled Meranao, Maranaw, and Mëranaw, is the term used by the Philippine government to refer to the southern indigenous people who are the "people of the lake", a predomin ...
,
Tausūg,
Sama-Bajau
The Sama-Bajau include several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exonym ...
,
Yakan Yakan may refer to:
* Yakan people, a community of the Philippines
* Yakan language, a language of the Philippines
* Cape Yakan, in Russia
People with the name
* Adly Yakan Pasha (1864–1933), Egyptian politician
* Fathi Yakan (1933–2009), Le ...
, etc. are also excluded, despite being also native to Mindanao and despite some groups being closely related ethnolinguistically to the Lumad. This is because unlike the Lumad, the Moros converted to Islam during the 14th to 15th centuries. This can be confusing since the word ''lumad'' literally means "native" in
Bisayan languages
The Bisayan languages or Visayan languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages spoken in the Philippines. They are most closely related to Tagalog and the Bikol languages, all of which are part of the Central Philippine languages. Mo ...
.
Bagobo
The Bagobo are one of the largest subgroups of the Manobo peoples. They comprise three subgroups: the Tagabawa, the Klata (or Guiangan), and the Ovu (also spelled Uvu or Ubo) peoples. The Bagobo were formerly nomadic and farmed through ''kaingin'' "
slash-and-burn
Slash-and-burn agriculture is a farming method that involves the cutting and burning of plants in a forest or woodland to create a field called a swidden. The method begins by cutting down the trees and woody plants in an area. The downed vegeta ...
" methods. Their territory extends from the
Davao Gulf
Davao Gulf is a gulf situated in the southeastern portion of Mindanao in the Philippines. It has an area of or about 520,000 hectares. Davao Gulf cuts into the island of Mindanao from the Philippine Sea. It is surrounded by all five provinces in ...
to
Mount Apo
Mount Apo, also known locally as Apo Sandawa, is a large solfataric, dormant stratovolcano on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. With an elevation of above sea level, it is the highest-mountain in the Philippine Archipelago, Mindanao and 2 ...
. They are traditionally ruled by chieftains (''matanum''), a council of elders (''magani''), and ''
mabalian'' or female shamans. The supreme spirit in their indigenous ''
anito
''Anito'', also spelled ''anitu'', refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associati ...
'' religions is Eugpamolak Manobo or Manama.
Blaan
The
Blaan is an indigenous group that is concentrated in
Davao del Sur
Davao del Sur ( ceb, Habagatang Dabaw; ), officially the Province of Davao del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Digos City. Davao City is the largest city in terms of area and populat ...
and
South Cotabato
South Cotabato ( hil, Bagatnan Cotabato; ceb, Habagatang Cotabato; Maguindanaon: ''Pagabagatan Kutawatu'', Jawi: ڤاڬابڬتن كوتاواتو; tl, Timog Cotabato), officially the Province of South Cotabato, is a province in the Philippine ...
. They practice indigenous rituals while adapting to the way of life of modern Filipinos.
Bukidnon
The Bukidnon are one of the seven tribes in the
Bukidnon
Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bukidnon; fil, Lalawigan ng Bukidnon; hil, Kapuroan sang Bukidnon; Binukid and Higaonon: ''Probinsya ta Bukidnon''), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the ...
plateau
In geology and physical geography, a plateau (; ; ), also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side. Often one or more sides ha ...
of
Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
. ''Bukidnon'' means 'that of the mountains or highlands' (i.e., 'people of the mountains or highlands'), despite the fact that most Bukidnon tribes settle in the lowlands.
The name Bukidnon itself used to describe the entire
province
A province is almost always an administrative division within a country or sovereign state, state. The term derives from the ancient Roman ''Roman province, provincia'', which was the major territorial and administrative unit of the Roman Empire ...
in a different context (it means 'mountainous lands' in this case) or could also be the
collective name of the permanent residents in the province regardless of ethnicity.
The Bukidnon people believe in one god, Magbabaya (Ruler of All), though there are several minor gods and goddesses that they worship as well. Religious rites are presided by a ''baylan'' whose ordination is voluntary and may come from any sex. The Bukidnons have rich musical and oral traditions which are celebrated annually in
Malaybalay city's Kaamulan Festival
Kaamulan Festival is an ethnic cultural festival held annually in Malaybalay City, Bukidnon in the Philippines from the second half of February to March 10, the anniversary date of the foundation of Bukidnon as a province in 1917. It is held to ce ...
, with other tribes in Bukidnon (the Manobo tribes, the Higaonon, Matigsalug, Talaandig, Umayamnom, and the Tigwahanon).
The Bukidnon Lumad is distinct from and should not be confused with the
Visayan
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
Suludnon
The Suludnon, also known as the Panay-Bukidnon, Pan-ayanon, or Tumandok, are a culturally indigenous Visayan group of people who reside in the Capiz-Lambunao mountainous area and the Antique-Iloilo mountain area of Panay in the Visayan islands o ...
people of
Panay
Panay is the sixth-largest and fourth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total land area of and has a total population of 4,542,926 as of 2020 census. Panay comprises 4.4 percent of the entire population of the country. The City o ...
and a few indigenous peoples scattered in the Visayas area who are also alternatively referred to as "Bukidnon" (also meaning "highland people").
Higaonon
The Higaonon is located on the provinces of
Bukidnon
Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bukidnon; fil, Lalawigan ng Bukidnon; hil, Kapuroan sang Bukidnon; Binukid and Higaonon: ''Probinsya ta Bukidnon''), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the ...
,
Agusan del Norte
Agusan del Norte, officially the Province of Agusan del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Agusan; Butuanon: ''Probinsya hong Agusan del Norte''; tl, Hilagang Agusan), is a province in the Caraga region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Cabadba ...
,
Agusan del Sur
Agusan del Sur, officially the Province of Agusan del Sur ( ceb, Habagatang Agusan; Butuanon: ''Probinsya hong Agusan del Sur''; tl, Timog Agusan), is a province in Caraga region, Mindanao, Philippines. Its capital is the municipality of Prosp ...
,
Misamis Oriental
Misamis Oriental ( ceb, Sidlakang Misamis; tl, Silangang Misamis), officially the Province of Misamis Oriental, is a province located in the region of Northern Mindanao in the Philippines. Its capital, largest city and provincial center is th ...
,
Camiguin
Camiguin, officially the Province of Camiguin ( ceb, Probinsya sa Camiguin; tl, Lalawigan ng Camiguin; Kamigin: ''Probinsya ta Kamigin''), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bohol Sea, about off the northern coast of Min ...
(used to be Kamiguing), Rogongon in
Iligan City
Iligan, officially the City of Iligan ( ceb, Dakbayan sa Iligan; fil, Lungsod ng Iligan; Maranao: ''Inged a Iligan''), is a 1st class highly urbanized city in the region of Northern Mindanao, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has ...
, and
Lanao del Norte
Lanao del Norte ( Cebuano: ''Amihanang Lanao''; tl, Hilagang Lanao; Maranao: ''Pangotaraan Ranao''), officially the Province of Lanao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Northern Mindanao region. Its capital is Tubod.
T ...
. The Higaonons have a rather traditional way of living. Farming is the most important economic activity.
The word Higaonon is derived from the word "Higa" in the Higaonon dialect which means coastal plains and "Gaon" meaning ascend to the mountains. Taken together, Higaonon, means the people of the coastal plains that ascended to the mountains. Higaonons were formerly coastal people of the provinces as mentioned who resisted the Spanish occupation. Driven to the hills and mountains these people continued to exist and fought for the preservation of the people, heritage, and culture.
The Higaonon people believe in a variety of deities, namely:
*Magbabayà (The Ruler of All) – The supreme god who has minor gods and goddesses beneath him to do specific jobs and take care of certain things, he is also the god of the west.
*Domalondong – The god of the north.
*Ongli – The god of the south.
*Tagolambong – The god of the east.
*Ibabasok – He watches over the crops and their growth in a simple ceremony at the center of the rice field.
*Dagingon – They worship this deity in an elaborated celebration complete with songs and dances which will last for nine nights during planting and after harvest seasons.
*Bulalakaw – The spirit who watches the rivers and takes care of the fishermen's catch.
*Tumpaa Nanapiyaw or Intumbangol – Watches the base of the earth night and day lest it crumbles.
*Tagabugtà – The spirit who watches the farm or the forest
Kalagan
The Kalagan, also spelled K'lagan or (by the Spanish) Caragan, are a subgroup of the Mandaya-Mansaka people who speak the
Kalagan language
Kalagan is an Austronesian dialect cluster of the Davao Region of Mindanao in the Philippines. It is also spoken in a few parts of Caraga, still in Mindanao.
Distribution
''Ethnologue'' lists the following locations for Kalagan.
*Davao del Sur ...
. They comprise three subgroups which are usually treated as different tribes: the Tagakaulo, the Kagan, and the Kallao people of Samal. They are native to areas within
Davao del Sur
Davao del Sur ( ceb, Habagatang Dabaw; ), officially the Province of Davao del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Digos City. Davao City is the largest city in terms of area and populat ...
,
Compostela Valley
Davao de Oro, officially the Province of Davao de Oro ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Davao de Oro; tgl, Lalawigan ng Davao de Oro), is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Nabunturan. It used to be part of t ...
,
Davao del Norte
Davao del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Dabaw; tl, Hilagang Davao), officially the Province of Davao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital and largest city is Tagum. The province also includes ...
(including
Samal Island
Samal, officially the Island Garden City of Samal (IGaCOS; fil, Pulong Harding Lungsod ng Samal, ceb, Pulong Harding Dakbayan sa Samal) is a 4th class component city in the province of Davao del Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 censu ...
),
Davao Oriental
Davao Oriental ( Cebuano: ''Sidlakang Dabaw''; tl, Silangang Davao), officially the Province of Davao Oriental, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is city of Mati, and it borders the province o ...
, and
North Cotabato
Cotabato or North Cotabato ( hil, Aminhan Cotabato; ceb, Amihanang Cotabato; Maguindanao language, Maguindanaon: ''Pangutaran Kutawatu'', Jawi alphabet, Jawi: ڤڠوترن كوتاواتو; fil, Hilagang Cotabato), officially the Province of Co ...
; between the territories of the
Blaan people
The Blaan people, are one of the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". According to a 2021 genetic study, the Blaan people als ...
and the coastline. The
Caraga
Caraga, officially the Caraga Administrative Region (or simply known as Caraga Region) and designated as Region XIII, is an administrative region in the Philippines occupying the northeastern section of Mindanao. The region was created through ...
region is named after them. Their name means "spirited people" or "brave people", from ''
kalag'', ("spirit" or "soul"). They were historically composed of small warring groups. Their population, as of 1994, is 87,270.
Kamigin
A subgroup of the
Manobo people
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
from the island of
Camiguin
Camiguin, officially the Province of Camiguin ( ceb, Probinsya sa Camiguin; tl, Lalawigan ng Camiguin; Kamigin: ''Probinsya ta Kamigin''), is an island province in the Philippines located in the Bohol Sea, about off the northern coast of Min ...
. They speak the
Kamigin language
The Kamigin language, ''Kinamigin'' (Quinamiguin) is a Manobo language spoken on the island of Camiguin in the Philippines. It is declining as most inhabitants have shifted to Cebuano.
Grammar
''Ethnologue'' lists the following grammatical feat ...
and are closely related to the Manobo groups from
Surigao del Norte
Surigao del Norte ( Surigaonon: ''Probinsya nan Surigao del Norte''; ceb, Amihanang Surigao; Tagalog: ''Hilagang Surigao''), officially the Province of Surigao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Caraga region of Mindanao. ...
.
Mamanwa
The Mamanwa is a
Negrito
The term Negrito () refers to several diverse ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts of Southeast Asia and the Andaman Islands. Populations often described as Negrito include: the Andamanese peoples (including the Great Andamanese, the Onge, ...
tribe often grouped together with the Lumad. They come from
Leyte
Leyte ( ) is an island in the Visayas group of islands in the Philippines. It is eighth-largest and sixth-most populous island in the Philippines, with a total population of 2,626,970 as of 2020 census.
Since the accessibility of land has be ...
,
Agusan del Norte
Agusan del Norte, officially the Province of Agusan del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Agusan; Butuanon: ''Probinsya hong Agusan del Norte''; tl, Hilagang Agusan), is a province in the Caraga region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Cabadba ...
, and
Surigao provinces in Mindanao; primarily in
Kitcharao
Kitcharao, officially the Municipality of Kitcharao ( ceb, Lungsod sa Kitcharao; tgl, Bayan ng Kitcharao), is a 4th class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Province, province of Agusan del Norte, Philippines. Accord ...
and
Santiago
Santiago (, ; ), also known as Santiago de Chile, is the capital and largest city of Chile as well as one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is the center of Chile's most densely populated region, the Santiago Metropolitan Region, whose ...
, Agusan del Norte, though they are lesser in number and more scattered and nomadic than the Manobos and Mandaya tribes who also inhabit the region. Like all Negritos, the Mamanwas are phenotypically distinct from the lowlanders and the upland living Manobos, exhibiting curly hair and much darker skin tones.
These peoples are traditionally hunter-gatherers
[Omoto K. 1989. Genetic studies of human populations in the Asia-Pacific area with special reference to the origins of the Negritos. In: Hhba H, Hayami I, Michizuki K, orgs. ''Current Aspects of Biogeography in West Pacific and East Asian Regions''. The University Museum, The University of Tokyo, Nature and Culture: 1.] and consume a wide variety of wild plants, herbs, insects, and animals from tropical rainforests. The Mamanwa are categorized as having the "negrito" phenotype with dark skin, kinky hair, and short stature.
The origins of this phenotype (found in the Agta, Ati, and Aeta tribes in the Philippines) are a continued topic of debate, with recent evidence suggesting that the phenotype convergently evolved in several areas of southeast Asia.
However, recent genomic evidence suggests that the Mamanwa were one of the first populations to leave Africa along with peoples in New Guinea and Australia, and that they diverged from a common origin about 36,000 years ago.
Currently, Mamanwa populations live in sedentary settlements ("barangays") that are close to agricultural peoples and market centers. As a result, a substantial proportion of their diet includes starch-dense domesticated foods.
[https://ucsc.academia.edu/EmeraldSnow/Papers/187939/Life-history_reproductive_maturity_and_the_evolution_of_small_body_size_The_Mamanwa_negritos_of_northern_Mindanao] The extent to which agricultural products are bought or exchanged varies in each Mamanwa settlement with some individuals continuing to farm and produce their own domesticated foods while others rely on purchasing food from market centers. The Mamanwa have been exposed to many of the modernities mainstream agricultural populations possess and use such as cell phones, televisions, radio, processed foods, etc.
The political system of the Mamanwa is informally democratic and age-structured. Elders are respected and are expected to maintain peace and order within the tribe. The chieftain called a ''Tambayon'', usually takes over the duties of counseling tribal members, speaking at gatherings, and arbitrating disagreements. The chieftain may be a man or a woman, which is characteristic of other gender-egalitarian hunter-gatherer societies. They believe in a collection of spirits, which are governed by the
supreme deity ''Magbabaya'', although it appears that their contact with monotheist communities/populations has made a considerable impact on the Mamanwa's religious practices. The tribe produces excellent winnowing baskets, rattan hammocks, and other household containers.
''Mamanwa'' (also spelled ''Mamanoa'') means 'first forest dwellers', from the words ''man'' (first) and ''banwa'' (forest). They speak the
Mamanwa language
The Mamanwa language is a Central Philippine language spoken by the Mamanwa people. It is spoken in the provinces of Agusan del Norte and Surigao del Norte in the Lake Mainit area of Mindanao, Philippines. It had about 5,000 speakers in 1990.
...
(or Minamanwa). They are genetically related to the Denisovans.
Mandaya
![Hat, Mindanao, Mandaya, palm, bamboo, feathers, cotton, fiber and beads, Honolulu](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Hat%2C_Mindanao%2C_Mandaya%2C_palm%2C_bamboo%2C_feathers%2C_cotton%2C_fiber_and_beads%2C_Honolulu.jpg)
"Mandaya" derives from "man" meaning "first," and "daya" meaning "upstream" or "upper portion of a river," and therefore means "the first people upstream". It refers to a number of groups found along the mountain ranges of Davao Oriental, as well as to their customs, language, and beliefs. The Mandaya are also found in Compostela and New Bataan in
Compostela Valley
Davao de Oro, officially the Province of Davao de Oro ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Davao de Oro; tgl, Lalawigan ng Davao de Oro), is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Nabunturan. It used to be part of t ...
(formerly a part of Davao del Norte Province).
Manobo
![The Datto Manib, principal Bagani of the Bagobos, with some wives and followers and two missionaries (c](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/The_Datto_Manib%2C_principal_Bagani_of_the_Bagobos%2C_with_some_wives_and_followers_and_two_missionaries_%28c._1900%2C_Philippines%29.jpg)
Manobo is the
hispanicized
Hispanicization ( es, hispanización) refers to the process by which a place or person becomes influenced by Hispanic culture or a process of cultural and/or linguistic change in which something non-Hispanic becomes Hispanic. Hispanicization is il ...
spelling of the
endonym
An endonym (from Greek: , 'inner' + , 'name'; also known as autonym) is a common, ''native'' name for a geographical place, group of people, individual person, language or dialect, meaning that it is used inside that particular place, group, ...
Manuvu (also spelled Menuvu or Minuvu). Its etymology is unclear; in its current form, it means "person" or "people." It is believed that it is derived from the rootword ''tuvu,'' which means "to grow"/"growth" (thus ''Man
vu'' would be "
ativegrown" or "aboriginal").
The Manobo are probably the most diverse ethnic groups of the Philippines in the relationships and names of the groups that belong to this family of languages. The total current Manobo population is not known, although they occupy core areas from Sarangani island into the Mindanao mainland in the regions of Agusan, Davao, Bukidnon, Surigao, Misamis, and Cotabato. A study by the journal
NCCP-PACT put their population in 1988 at around 250,000. The groups occupy such a wide area of distribution that localized groups have assumed the character of distinctiveness as a separate ethnic grouping such as the Bagobo or the Higaonon, and the Atta. Depending on specific linguistic points of view, the membership of a dialect with a supergroup shifts.
The Manobo possess
Denisovan
The Denisovans or Denisova hominins ) are an extinct species or subspecies of archaic human that ranged across Asia during the Lower and Middle Paleolithic. Denisovans are known from few physical remains and consequently, most of what is known ...
admixture, much like the Mamanwa.
Manobos also hold
Austroasiatic
The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The te ...
ancestry.
Mansaka
![Mansaka Tribeswomen 2015](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Mansaka_Tribeswomen_2015.jpg)
The term "Mansaka" derives from "man" with literal meaning "first" and "saka" meaning "to ascend", and means "the first people to ascend mountains/upstream". The term most likely describes the origin of these people who are found today in
Davao del Norte
Davao del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Dabaw; tl, Hilagang Davao), officially the Province of Davao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital and largest city is Tagum. The province also includes ...
and
Davao de Oro
Davao de Oro, officially the Province of Davao de Oro ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Davao de Oro; tgl, Lalawigan ng Davao de Oro), is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Nabunturan. It used to be part of t ...
and some parts of Davao Oriental, specifically in the Batoto River, the Manat Valley, Caragan,
Maragusan
Maragusan, officially the Municipality of Maragusan ( ceb, Lungsod sa Maragusan; tl, Bayan ng Maragusan), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Davao de Oro, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 64,412 people ...
, the Hijo River Valley, and the seacoasts of Kingking, Maco, Kwambog, Hijo, Tagum, Libuganon, Tuganay, Ising, and Panabo.
Matigsalug
Bukidnon groups are found in the Tigwa-Salug Valley in San Fernando in Bukidnon province, Philippines. Their name means "people along the Salug River (now called the
Davao River
The Davao River is the third largest river by drainage basin on the southern Philippines in the island of Mindanao. It drains an area of over with a total length of . Most of the area is uplands. Average flows within the river near to the mout ...
)." Although often classified under the Manobo ethnolinguistic group, the Matigsalug are a distinct subgroup.
Sangil
The Sangil people (also called Sangir, Sangu, Marore, Sangirezen, or Talaoerezen) are originally from the
Sangihe and
Talaud Islands
The Talaud Islands (Indonesian language, Indonesian: ''Kepulauan Talaud'') also spelled Talaur or Talaut, are a group of islands situated about 225 miles (360 km) northeast of Sulawesi, in Indonesia, north-east of the Sangihe Islands. The Ta ...
(now part of
Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guine ...
) and parts of
Davao Occidental
Davao Occidental ( Cebuano: ''Kasadpang Dabaw''; Filipino: ''Kanlurang Davao''), officially the Province of Davao Occidental, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is the municipality of Malita. To t ...
(particularly in the
Sarangani Islands
Sarangani, officially the Municipality of Sarangani ( ceb, Lungsod sa Sarangani; tl, Bayan ng Sarangani), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Davao Occidental, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 22,515 p ...
),
Davao del Norte
Davao del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Dabaw; tl, Hilagang Davao), officially the Province of Davao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital and largest city is Tagum. The province also includes ...
,
Davao del Sur
Davao del Sur ( ceb, Habagatang Dabaw; ), officially the Province of Davao del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Digos City. Davao City is the largest city in terms of area and populat ...
,
Sultan Kudarat
Sultan Kudarat, officially the Province of Sultan Kudarat ( hil, Kapuoran sang Sultan Kudarat; Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Sultan Kudarat'', Jawi: دايرت نو سلطان كودرت; ceb, Lalawigan sa Sultan Kudarat; tl, Lalawigan ng Sul ...
,
South Cotabato
South Cotabato ( hil, Bagatnan Cotabato; ceb, Habagatang Cotabato; Maguindanaon: ''Pagabagatan Kutawatu'', Jawi: ڤاڬابڬتن كوتاواتو; tl, Timog Cotabato), officially the Province of South Cotabato, is a province in the Philippine ...
, and
North Cotabato
Cotabato or North Cotabato ( hil, Aminhan Cotabato; ceb, Amihanang Cotabato; Maguindanao language, Maguindanaon: ''Pangutaran Kutawatu'', Jawi alphabet, Jawi: ڤڠوترن كوتاواتو; fil, Hilagang Cotabato), officially the Province of Co ...
. Their populations (much like the
Sama-Bajau
The Sama-Bajau include several Austronesian ethnic groups of Maritime Southeast Asia. The name collectively refers to related people who usually call themselves the Sama or Samah (formally A'a Sama, "Sama people"); or are known by the exonym ...
) were separated when borders were drawn between the Philippines and Indonesia during the
colonial era. The Sangil people are traditionally animistic, much like other Lumad peoples. During the colonial era, the Sangil (who usually call themselves "Sangir") in the Sangihe Islands mostly converted to
Protestant Christianity
Protestantism is a Christian denomination, branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Reformation, Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century agai ...
due to proximity and contact with the Christian
Minahasa people
The Minahasans (alternative spelling: Minahassa) are an ethnic group native to the North Sulawesi province of Indonesia, formerly known as North Celebes. The Minahasa people sometimes refer to themselves as Manado people. Although the Minahasan p ...
of
Sulawesi
Sulawesi (), also known as Celebes (), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the world's eleventh-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Mindanao and the Sulu Ar ...
. In the Philippines, most Sangil converted to
Islam
Islam (; ar, ۘالِإسلَام, , ) is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic Monotheism#Islam, monotheistic religion centred primarily around the Quran, a religious text considered by Muslims to be the direct word of God in Islam, God (or ...
due to the influence of the neighboring
Sultanate of Maguindanao
The Sultanate of Maguindanao ( Maguindanaon: ''Kasultanan nu Magindanaw''; Old Maguindanaon: كاسولتانن نو ماڬينداناو; Jawi: کسلطانن ماڬيندناو; Iranun: ''Kesultanan a Magindanao''; ms, Kesultanan Magindana ...
. However, elements of animistic rituals still remain. The Indonesian and Filipino groups still maintain ties and both
Manado Malay
Manado Malay, or simply the Manado language, is a creole language spoken in Manado, the capital of North Sulawesi province in Indonesia, and the surrounding area. The local name of the language is , and the name Minahasa Malay is also used, afte ...
and
Cebuano are spoken in both Indonesian Sangir and Filipino Sangil, in addition to the
Sangirese language
Sangirese, also known as ''Sangihé, Sangi'', and ''Sangih'', is an Austronesian language spoken on the islands linking northern Sulawesi, Indonesia, with Mindanao, Philippines by the Sangirese people.
It belongs to the Philippine group within ...
. The exact population of Sangil people in the Philippines is unknown but is estimated to be around 10,000 people.
Subanon
![Subanen - Mount Malindang](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Subanen_-_Mount_Malindang.jpg)
The Subanons are the first settlers of the Zamboanga peninsula. The family is patriarchal while the village is led by a chief called a Timuay. He acts as the village judge and is concerned with all communal matters.
History has better words to speak for Misamis Occidental. Its principal city was originally populated by the Subanon, a cultural group that once roamed the seas in great number; the province was an easy prey to the marauding sea pirates of Lanao whose habit was to stage lightning forays along the coastal areas in search of slaves. As the Subanon retreated deeper and deeper into the interior, the coastal areas became home to inhabitants from Bukidnon who were steadily followed by settlers from nearby Cebu and Bohol.
Tagabawa
Tagabawa is the language used by the Bagobo-Tagabawa. They are an indigenous tribe in Mindanao. They live in the surrounding areas of
Mt. Apo
Mount Apo, also known locally as Apo Sandawa, is a large solfataric, dormant stratovolcano on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. With an elevation of above sea level, it is the highest-mountain in the Philippine Archipelago, Mindanao and 24 ...
.
Tagakaulo
Tagakaulo is one of the tribes in
Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
. Their traditional territories is in
Davao del Sur
Davao del Sur ( ceb, Habagatang Dabaw; ), officially the Province of Davao del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital is Digos City. Davao City is the largest city in terms of area and populat ...
and the
Sarangani Province
Sarangani, officially the Province of Sarangani ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Sarangani; hil, Kapuoran sang Sarangani; Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Sarangani'', Jawi: دايرت نو سارڠني; fil, Lalawigan ng Sarangani), is a province in the Philipp ...
particularly in the localities of Malalag, Lais, Talaguton Rivers, Sta. Maria, and Malita of Davao Occidental, and Malungon of the Sarangani Province. Tagakaulo means "from the head(waters)". The Tagakaulo tribe originally came from the western shores of the Gulf of
Davao and south of
Mt. Apo
Mount Apo, also known locally as Apo Sandawa, is a large solfataric, dormant stratovolcano on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. With an elevation of above sea level, it is the highest-mountain in the Philippine Archipelago, Mindanao and 24 ...
. a long time ago.
Talaandig
Talaandig are originally from the foothills of
Mount Kitanglad
Mount Kitanglad is an inactive volcano located in the Kitanglad Mountain Range in Bukidnon province on Mindanao island. It is the fourth highest mountain in the Philippines and has an approximate height of . It is located between Malaybalay City ...
in
Bukidnon
Bukidnon(), officially the Province of Bukidnon ( ceb, Lalawigan sa Bukidnon; fil, Lalawigan ng Bukidnon; hil, Kapuroan sang Bukidnon; Binukid and Higaonon: ''Probinsya ta Bukidnon''), is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the ...
, specifically in the municipalities of
Talakag
Talakag, officially the Municipality of Talakag ( Bukid and Higaonon: Banuwa ta Talakag; ceb, Lungsod sa Talakag; tl, Bayan ng Talakag), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Bukidnon, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has ...
and
Lantapan
Lantapan, officially the Municipality of Lantapan ( Bukid and Higaonon
Higaonon is a Manobo language spoken on the island of Mindanao in the Philippines. It is partially (80%) intelligible with Binukid.
Higaonon is spoken in the Butuan River ...
.
Tasaday
The Tasaday is a group of about two dozen people living within the deep and mountainous rainforests of Mindanao, who attracted wide media attention in 1971 when they were first "discovered" by western scientists who reported that they were living at a "stone age" level of technology and had been completely isolated from the rest of Philippine society. They later attracted attention in the 1980s when it was reported that their discovery had in fact been an elaborate
hoax
A hoax is a widely publicized falsehood so fashioned as to invite reflexive, unthinking acceptance by the greatest number of people of the most varied social identities and of the highest possible social pretensions to gull its victims into pu ...
, and doubt was raised both about their status as isolated from other societies and even about the reality of their existence as a separate ethnic group. The question of whether Tasaday studies published in the seventies are accurate is still being discussed.
Teduray
The
Teduray/Tiruray people live in the municipalities of
Datu Blah T. Sinsuat,
Upi
United Press International (UPI) is an American international news agency whose newswires, photo, news film, and audio services provided news material to thousands of newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations for most of the 20th c ...
, and
South Upi in southwestern
Maguindanao Province; and in
Lebak
Lebak, officially the Municipality of Lebak ( hil, Banwa sang Lebak; tl, Bayan ng Lebak; mdh, Inged nu Libak, Jawi Alphabet, Jawi: ايڠايد نو ليبق), is a 1st class municipality of the Philippines, municipality in the Philippine Pr ...
municipality, northwestern
Sultan Kudarat Province
Sultan Kudarat, officially the Province of Sultan Kudarat ( hil, Kapuoran sang Sultan Kudarat; Maguindanaon: ''Dairat nu Sultan Kudarat'', Jawi: دايرت نو سلطان كودرت; ceb, Lalawigan sa Sultan Kudarat; tl, Lalawigan ng Sul ...
. They speak the
Tiruray language
Tiruray or Teduray is an Austronesian language of the southern Philippines. Tiruray is spoken in Datu Blah T. Sinsuat, Upi, the South Upi municipalities, southwestern Former Maguindanao Province, Lebak
Lebak, officially the Municipality ...
, which is related to
Bagobo
The Lumad are a group of Austronesian indigenous people in the southern Philippines. It is a Cebuano term meaning "native" or "indigenous". The term is short for Katawhang Lumad (Literally: "indigenous people"), the autonym officially adopte ...
,
B'laan
The Blaan people, are one of the indigenous peoples of Southern Mindanao in the Philippines. Their name could have derived from "bla" meaning "opponent" and the suffix "an" meaning "people". According to a 2021 genetic study, the Blaan people als ...
, and
T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Philippines, indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, ...
. Coastal Tirurays are mostly farmers, hunters, fishermen, and basket weavers; those living in the mountains engage in dry field agriculture, supplemented by hunting and the gathering of forest products. Tirurays are famous for their craftsmanship in weaving baskets with two-toned geometric designs. While many have adopted the cultures of neighboring
Muslims
Muslims ( ar, المسلمون, , ) are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraha ...
and
Christians
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
people, a high percentage of their population still believe and practice their indigenous customs and rituals.
Tboli
![T'nalak Festival T'boli](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/T%27nalak_Festival_T%27boli.jpg)
The
Tboli are one of the indigenous peoples of South Mindanao. From the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, they are variously known as Tboli, Teboli, Tau Bilil, Tau Bulul or Tagabilil. They term themselves Tboli. Their whereabouts and identity are to some extent confused in the literature; some publications present the Teboli and the Tagabilil as distinct peoples; some locate the Tbolis to the vicinity of the Buluan Lake in the Cotabato Basin or in Agusan del Norte. The Tbolis, then, reside on the mountain slopes on either side of the upper Alah Valley and the coastal area of Maitum, Maasim, and Kiamba. In former times, the Tbolis also inhabited the upper Alah Valley floor.
Tigwahonon
The Tigwahonon are a subgroup of Manobo originally from the
Tigwa River basin near
San Fernando, Bukidnon
San Fernando, officially the Municipality of San Fernando ( ceb, Lungsod sa San Fernando; tl, Bayan ng San Fernando), is a 1st class municipality in the province of Bukidnon, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 63,0 ...
.
Umayamnon
The Umayamnon are originally from the
Umayam River watershed and the headwaters of the
Pulangi River
The Pulangi River ( Cebuano pronunciation IPA uˈlaŋi, also spelled Pulangui, is one of the major tributaries of the Rio Grande de Mindanao, an extensive river system in Mindanao, Philippines. With a length of , it is the longest river in Buk ...
. They are a subgroup of the Manobo.
Languages
The Lumad peoples speak
Philippine languages
The Philippine languages or Philippinic are a proposed group by R. David Paul Zorc (1986) and Robert Blust (1991; 2005; 2019) that include all the languages of the Philippines and northern Sulawesi, Indonesia—except Sama–Bajaw (languages ...
belonging to various branches. These include:
*
Mindanao languages
The Mindanao or Southern Philippine languages are an obsolete proposal for a subgroup of the Austronesian languages comprising the Danao languages, the Manobo languages and Subanon, all of which are spoken in Mindanao, Philippines.
Blust (1991 ...
**
Manobo languages
The Manobo languages are a group of languages spoken in the Philippines. Their speakers are primarily located around Northern Mindanao, Central Mindanao (presently called ) and Caraga regions where they are natively spoken. Some outlying groups ...
**
Subanon language
The Subanen languages (also Subanon and Subanun) are a group of closely related Austronesian languages belonging to the Greater Central Philippine subgroup. Often described as a single language, they are considered by linguists as a dialect clu ...
*
South Mindanao languages
The South Mindanao or Bilic languages are a group of related languages spoken by the Bagobo, B'laan, T'boli, and Tiruray peoples of the southern coast of Mindanao Island in the Philippines. They are not part of the Mindanao language family that ...
*
Mansakan languages
The Mansakan languages are a group of Austronesian languages spoken in the Philippines. Dabawenyo is the principal native language of the Davao region; however, there is a high degree of bilingualism in Cebuano among their speakers. Most speak ...
*
Mamanwa language
The Mamanwa language is a Central Philippine language spoken by the Mamanwa people. It is spoken in the provinces of Agusan del Norte and Surigao del Norte in the Lake Mainit area of Mindanao, Philippines. It had about 5,000 speakers in 1990.
...
*
Sangiric languages
The Sangiric languages are a subgroup of the Austronesian languages spoken in North Sulawesi, Indonesia and several small islands to the north which belong to the Philippines. They are classified as a branch of the Philippine subgroup.
Classifi ...
Musical heritage
Most of the Mindanao Lumad groups have a musical heritage consisting of various types of
Agung ensembles – ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed
gong
A gongFrom Indonesian and ms, gong; jv, ꦒꦺꦴꦁ ; zh, c=鑼, p=luó; ja, , dora; km, គង ; th, ฆ้อง ; vi, cồng chiêng; as, কাঁহ is a percussion instrument originating in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Gongs ...
s which act as a drone without any accompanying melodic instrument.
Social issues
Lumad peoples confront a variety of social issues. Identical with other Indigenous peoples (IPs) across the globe, the IPs in the Philippines represent the country's poorest sector who endure disproportionate access to healthcare, education, and human rights. There are claims that Lumad social issues arise from ethnic grievances that develop into an issue of economic greed. They face loss of ancestral lands due to land grabbing or militarization,
economic and social exclusion, and threats to their traditional culture and identity. Lumad groups contend with displacement,
extrajudicial killings
An extrajudicial killing (also known as extrajudicial execution or extralegal killing) is the deliberate killing of a person without the lawful authority granted by a judicial proceeding. It typically refers to government authorities, whether ...
,
harassment of Lumad rights defenders,
and forced closure of Lumad schools.
Ancestral land rights
Lumads face loss of ancestral lands due to land grabbing or militarization.
Some communities have been forced out of their lands for resisting encroachment by mining, logging, and energy companies.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Lumad controlled an area that now covers 17 of Mindanao's 24 provinces, but by the 1980 census, they constituted less than 6% of the population of Mindanao and
Sulu
Sulu (), officially the Province of Sulu (Tausug language, Tausūg: ''Wilāya sin Lupa' Sūg''; tl, Lalawigan ng Sulu), is a Provinces of the Philippines, province of the Philippines in the Sulu Archipelago and part of the Bangsamoro, Bangsamor ...
. Significant migration to Mindanao of
Visayans
Visayans (Visayan: ''mga Bisaya''; ) or Visayan people are a Philippine ethnolinguistic group or metaethnicity native to the Visayas, the southernmost islands of Luzon and a significant portion of Mindanao. When taken as a single ethnic group, ...
, spurred by government-sponsored resettlement programs, turned the Lumad into minorities. The Bukidnon province population grew from 63,470 in 1948 to 194,368 in 1960 and 414,762 in 1970, with the proportion of indigenous Bukidnons falling from 64% to 33% to 14%.
Lumad have a traditional concept of land ownership based on what their communities consider their ancestral territories. The historian B. R. Rodil notes that 'a territory occupied by a community is a communal private property, and community members have the right of usufruct to any piece of unoccupied land within the communal territory.' Ancestral lands include cultivated land as well as hunting grounds, rivers, forests, uncultivated land, and the mineral resources below the land. River systems indicate the Lumad people's generations of civilization. Water is used as a "hermeneutic" for how Lumads orient themselves in relation to other ethnic groups, the state, modern Filipino culture, and their own cultural customs. Unlike the
Moros
In Greek mythology, Moros /ˈmɔːrɒs/ or Morus /ˈmɔːrəs/ (Ancient Greek: Μόρος means 'doom, fate') is the 'hateful' personified spirit of impending doom, who drives mortals to their deadly fate. It was also said that Moros gave peop ...
, the Lumad groups never formed a revolutionary group to unite them in
armed struggle
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular o ...
against the Philippine government. When the migrants came, many Lumad groups retreated into the mountains and forests.
For the Lumad, securing their rights to their ancestral domain is as urgent as the Moros' quest for
self-determination
The right of a people to self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international law (commonly regarded as a ''jus cogens'' rule), binding, as such, on the United Nations as authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms. It stat ...
. However, much of their land has already been registered in the name of multinational corporations, logging companies, and other wealthy Filipinos, many of whom are, relatively speaking, recent settlers to Mindanao. Mai Tuan, a
T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Philippines, indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, ...
leader explains, "Now that there is a peace agreement for the
MNLF
The Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF; ar, الجبهة الوطنية لتحرير مورو) is a political organization in the Philippines that was founded in 1972. It started as a splinter group of the Muslim Independence Movement. The M ...
, we are happy because we are given food assistance like rice... we also feel sad because we no longer have the pots to cook it with. We no longer have control over our ancestral lands."
Lumad killings
Lumad communities contend with extrajudicial killings
and
red-tagging. Defenders of Indigenous land rights, environmentalists, and human rights activists have also been harassed.
The Lumad are people from various ethnic groups in
Mindanao
Mindanao ( ) ( Jawi: مينداناو) is the second-largest island in the Philippines, after Luzon, and seventh-most populous island in the world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago, the island is part of an island group of ...
island. Residing in their ancestral lands, they are often evicted and displaced because of the
Moro people
The Moro people or Bangsamoro people are the 13 Muslim-majority ethnolinguistic Austronesian groups of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan, native to the region known as the Bangsamoro (lit. ''Moro nation'' or ''Moro country''). As Muslim-majority ...
's claim on the same territory. The Lumad have lost parts of their ancestral land because of a failure to understand the modern land tenure system.
[FIANZA, MYRTHENA L. "Contesting Land and Identity in the Periphery: The Moro Indigenous People of Southern Philippines." https://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu. PSI-SDLAP, n.d. Web. 5 November 2015.] Some NGOs have established schools that teach Indigenous communities how to protect their rights, property, and culture. However, the Lumad communities are located in mountains that are distant from urban areas. These areas are also the sites of
armed conflict
War is an intense armed conflict between states, governments, societies, or paramilitary groups such as mercenaries, insurgents, and militias. It is generally characterized by extreme violence, destruction, and mortality, using regular ...
between the
New People's Army
The New People's Army ( fil, Bagong Hukbong Bayan), abbreviated NPA or BHB, is the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), based primarily in the Philippine countryside. It acts as the CPP's principal organization, aimi ...
(NPA) and the
Armed Forces of the Philippines
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) ( fil, Sandatahang Lakas ng Pilipinas) are the military forces of the Philippines. It consists of three main service branches; the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). The P ...
(AFP). Caught in the conflict, the Lumad people's education, property, and security are endangered by the increasing amount of
violent confrontations by the armed parties.
In
Surigao del Sur
Surigao del Sur (Surigaonon language, Surigaonon: ''Probinsya nan Surigao del Sur''; ceb, Habagatang Surigao; tl, Timog Surigao), officially the Province of Surigao del Sur, is a Provinces of the Philippines, province in the Philippines located ...
, a
barangay
A barangay (; abbreviated as Brgy. or Bgy.), historically referred to as barrio (abbreviated as Bo.), is the smallest administrative division in the Philippines and is the native Filipino term for a village, district, or ward. In metropolitan ...
was evacuated to shelter sites in
Tandag City
Tandag, officially the City of Tandag ( Tandaganon/ Surigaonon: ''Siyudad nan Tandag''; Cebuano: ''Dakbayan sa Tandag''; fil, Lungsod ng Tandag), is a 5th class component city and capital of the province of Surigao del Sur, Philippines. Accordi ...
because of increasing military and NPA activity. There are claims that Lumads account for about 70 percent of the fighting force of the
New People's Army
The New People's Army ( fil, Bagong Hukbong Bayan), abbreviated NPA or BHB, is the armed wing of the Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), based primarily in the Philippine countryside. It acts as the CPP's principal organization, aimi ...
, with the communists collecting
revolutionary tax Revolutionary tax is a major form of funding for violent non-state actors such as guerrilla and terrorist organizations. Those outside the organization may consider it to be a euphemism for "protection money."[Davao Region
Davao Region, formerly called Southern Mindanao ( ceb, Rehiyon sa Davao; fil, Rehiyon ng Davao), is an administrative region in the Philippines, designated as Region XI. It is situated at the southeastern portion of Mindanao and comprises fi ...]
alone according to NCIP chief and former army colonel.
Human rights watchdogs, Indigenous peoples groups, and environmentalists claim that Lumad territories were being militarized by the
Armed Forces of the Philippines
The Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) ( fil, Sandatahang Lakas ng Pilipinas) are the military forces of the Philippines. It consists of three main service branches; the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy (including the Marine Corps). The P ...
and that community leaders and teachers were being detained by the military on suspicion of being rebels. They also say that alternative schools within the communities (aided by NGOs and universities) face closure or demolition, with some buildings converted for military use. They have staged demonstrations to gain the public's attention, calling for a halt to the alleged militarization of Lumad communities. Organizers of the
Lakbayan ng Pambansang Minorya The ''Lakbayan ng Pambansang Minorya'' () is an annual march, rally, and camp-out (''kampuhan'') by minority peoples of the Philippines, including Lumad, Aeta, Mangyan, Moro people, Moro, and Igorot people, Igorot, coming from their respective homel ...
support the Lumad by raising awareness on the plight of Indigenous peoples through protest marches, concerts, cultural festivals, and commemoration of Lumad leaders that have been killed.
The Philippines Commission on Human Rights (CHR) has been investigating the 2015 murder of Lumad leaders and a school official by
paramilitary
A paramilitary is an organization whose structure, tactics, training, subculture, and (often) function are similar to those of a professional military, but is not part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. Paramilitary units carr ...
group Magahat-Bagani (in line with the idea of
CAFGU) created by the AFP to hunt for NPA members. The AFP denied the allegation and attributed the killings to tribal conflict, though the AFP has admitted that CAFGU has Lumad recruits within its ranks while asserting that the NPA has also recruited Lumad for the group. CHR postponed the presentation of their initial report to December 2015 to include reports of subsequent killings and displacement.
Indigenous women leaders organized the Sabokahan Unity of Lumad Women. Being located in the mountains, community evacuations have become the highest form of protest for the Lumad. Communities pack up and move en masse to urban areas to set up camp in evacuation centers. Through this, the Lumad people emphasize to the public, “We are here, and we are not going back until our land is free from troops and corporations, so that we can take back our ancestral land.” Relocating to urban centers allowed Lumad leaders to broadcast their plight to local and international audiences. Shortly after, Lumad people themselves realized they needed to have an umbrella organization through which advocates from around the world could work together, leading to the creation of the Liyang Network. The organization Liyang Network works alongside Lumad communities to amplify the voices of their environmental defenders and highlight Lumad social issues.
Liyang Network organizes forums, webinars, and educational discussions on current sociopolitical issues and their root causes—mainly the needs of Lumad and rural communities.
Under the President Benigno Aquino III administration (2010-2015), a total of 71 Indigenous leaders were killed. Ninety-five cases of attacks against the 87 Indigenous schooling for children were also recorded. More than 40,000 Indigenous peoples—whole communities whose social, political, and economic life had been obstructed—had no choice but to evacuate because their schools were attacked or their leaders had been murdered or incarcerated.
On 8 December 2017, human rights group Karapatan asked the
United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...
to probe Lumad killings, including the killing of eight
T'boli
The Tboli people () are one of the Indigenous peoples of the Philippines, indigenous peoples of South Cotabato in southern Mindanao. In the body of ethnographic and linguistic literature on Mindanao, their name is variously spelt Tboli, T'boli, ...
and
Dulangan Manobo farmers, allegedly by members of the Philippine Army. A pro-AFP and pro-mining datu of the Langilan Manobo people in
Davao del Norte
Davao del Norte ( ceb, Amihanang Dabaw; tl, Hilagang Davao), officially the Province of Davao del Norte, is a province in the Philippines located in the Davao Region in Mindanao. Its capital and largest city is Tagum. The province also includes ...
, during an AFP-sponsored press conference, claimed that the NPA were responsible for the killings and that none of the alleged "militarization" was actually happening.
Another datu accused protesters in Manila of pretending to be Lumad by wearing Lumad clothing.
They have also held anti-NPA rallies in Mindanao. The military has attributed to the NPA the assassination of a Lumad leader sympathetic to the government. Some of which are acknowledged by NPA members.
In 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte threatened to shut down or destroy NGO-funded community schools because of suspicions that they radicalize Lumad students into joining the
NPA communist rebels.
This was supported by some Lumad leaders, who also felt that they were being infiltrated by the NPA and their children being exploited.
In August 2019, after spending time in refugee camps, Lumad evacuees in Surigao del Sur formally returned to their home after army soldiers left their communities.
In December 2019, the Philippines under Duterte became the deadliest for farmers and Indigenous peoples.
Lumad schools
Many Lumad youths live in indigent, hard-to-reach communities.
In the 1980s, the Tribal Filipino Program of Surigao del Sur (TRIFPSS) began a functional literacy program for Indigenous children in these communities.
TRIFPSS established 10 schools in 10 Indigenous people's communities in three municipalities of Surigao del Sur in 1997.
The Alternative Learning Center for Agriculture Livelihood Development (Alcadev), formed in 2004
with support from TRIFPSS,
established community schools for Lumad communities using lessons tailored to suit Indigenous culture and tradition.
The
Department of Education
An education ministry is a national or subnational government agency politically responsible for education. Various other names are commonly used to identify such agencies, such as Ministry of Education, Department of Education, and Ministry of Pub ...
(DepEd) recognized community schools and the Alcadev system through the Indigenous framework of education now observed by alternative tribal schools nationwide.
The policy framework was signed in 2012 by then-Secretary
Armin Luistro
Brother Armin Altamirano Luistro, FSC (born December 24, 1961) is a Filipino Lasallian Brother who served as secretary of the Department of Education of the Philippines under President Benigno Aquino III. Luistro entered De La Salle Scholastica ...
.
In a Bakwit school in Cebu, 22 students, 2 teachers and 2 tribe elders were arrested without a warrant on 15 February 2021, in what was labeled as a “rescue operation”. Philippine media dubbed this raid as "Lumad 26," as they were taken into custody by members of the Philippine National Police's (PNP) Central Visayas office (PRO-7) and charged with illegal detention and kidnapping. Local officials claimed the operation aimed to reunite the children with their parents while human rights groups condemned the raid as part of a pattern of harassment of Indigenous peoples.
Climate change
The Philippines is vulnerable to the effects of
climate change
In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to E ...
and was ranked third globally among countries most at-risk to disasters, according to a 2012 report. Climate change is threatening
food security
Food security speaks to the availability of food in a country (or geography) and the ability of individuals within that country (geography) to access, afford, and source adequate foodstuffs. According to the United Nations' Committee on World F ...
among Lumads whose farmlands are affected by stronger typhoons and more intense droughts.
Climate change is also giving rise to various
health issues, with Lumad communities reporting health problems brought about by rising temperatures and diseases that spread with changing rainfall patterns, such as dengue.
In 2019, Lumad youth and urban poor children joined the
global climate strike to demand protection for environmental activists, protest destructive mining operations within ancestral lands, and promote
climate justice
Climate justice is a concept that addresses the just division, fair sharing, and equitable distribution of the burdens of climate change and its mitigation and responsibilities to deal with climate change. "Justice", "fairness", and "equity" ar ...
.
See also
*
Ethnic groups in the Philippines
The Philippines is inhabited by more than 182 ethnolinguistic groups, many of which are classified as "Indigenous Peoples" under the country's Indigenous Peoples' Rights Act of 1997. Traditionally-Muslim peoples from the southernmost island gr ...
*
Indigenous peoples of the Philippines
The Philippines consist of numerous upland and lowland indigenous ethnolinguistic groups living in the country, with Austronesians making up the overwhelming majority, while full or partial Negritos scattered throughout the archipelago. The highl ...
*
Moro people
The Moro people or Bangsamoro people are the 13 Muslim-majority ethnolinguistic Austronesian groups of Mindanao, Sulu, and Palawan, native to the region known as the Bangsamoro (lit. ''Moro nation'' or ''Moro country''). As Muslim-majority ...
*
Igorot people
The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains ar ...
References
External links
Portraits of Lumad PeopleThe indigenous people of Central and Eastern Mindanao
{{Authority control
Ethnic groups in Mindanao