( Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of

Constantine the Great Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to Constantine the Great and Christianity, convert to Christiani ...

. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, the emperor remaining the supreme commander) of the empire. In Greek sources, the term is translated either as ''

strategos ''Strategos'', plural ''strategoi'', Linguistic Latinisation, Latinized ''strategus'', ( el, στρατηγός, pl. στρατηγοί; Doric Greek: στραταγός, ''stratagos''; meaning "army leader") is used in Greek language, Greek to ...

'' or as '' stratelates''.

Establishment and development of the command

The title of ''magister militum'' was created in the 4th century, when the emperor Constantine the Great deprived the

praetorian prefect The praetorian prefect ( la, praefectus praetorio, el, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders be ...

s of their military functions. Initially two posts were created, one as head of the infantry, as the ''magister peditum'' ("master of foot"), and one for the more prestigious

cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from "cheval" meaning "horse") are soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback. Cavalry were the most mobile of the combat arms, operating as light cavalry ...

, the ''

magister equitum The , in English Master of the Horse or Master of the Cavalry, was a Roman magistrate appointed as lieutenant to a dictator. His nominal function was to serve as commander of the Roman cavalry in time of war, but just as a dictator could be nomi ...

'' ("master of horse"). The latter title had existed since republican times, as the second-in-command to a Roman ''dictator''. Under Constantine's successors, the title was also established at a territorial level: ''magistri peditum'' and ''magistri equitum'' were appointed for every praetorian prefecture (''per Gallias'', ''per Italiam'', ''per Illyricum'', ''per Orientem''), and, in addition, for Thrace and, sometimes, Africa. On occasion, the offices would be combined under a single person, then styled ''magister equitum et peditum'' or ''magister utriusque militiae'' ("master of both forces"). As such they were directly in command of the local mobile field army of the '' comitatenses'', which acted as a rapid reaction force. Other ''magistri'' remained at the immediate disposal of the emperors, and were termed ''in praesenti'' ("in the presence" of the emperor). By the late 4th century, the regional commanders were termed simply ''magister militum''. In the Western Roman Empire, a "commander-in-chief" evolved with the title of ''magister utriusque militiae'' often abbreviated MVM. This powerful office was often the power behind the throne and was held by Stilicho, Flavius Aetius, Ricimer, and others. In the east, there were two senior generals, who were each appointed to the office of ''magister militum praesentalis''. During the reign of Emperor Justinian I, with increasing military threats and the expansion of the Eastern Empire, three new posts were created: the ''magister militum per Armeniam'' in the Armenian and Caucasian provinces, formerly part of the jurisdiction of the ''magister militum per Orientem'', the ''magister militum per Africam'' in the reconquered African provinces (534), with a subordinate ''magister peditum'', and the ''magister militum Spaniae'' (c. 562). In the course of the 6th century, internal and external crises in the provinces often necessitated the temporary union of the supreme regional civil authority with the office of the ''magister militum''. In the establishment of the ''exarchates'' of Ravenna and Carthage in 584, this practice found its first permanent expression. Indeed, after the loss of the eastern provinces to the Muslim conquest in the 640s, the surviving field armies and their commanders formed the first ''

themata The themes or ( el, θέματα, , singular: , ) were the main military/administrative divisions of the middle Byzantine Empire. They were established in the mid-7th century in the aftermath of the Slavic invasion of the Balkans and Muslim con ...

''. Supreme military commanders sometimes also took this title in early medieval Italy, for example in the Papal States and in

Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 ...

, whose Doge claimed to be the successor to the Exarch of Ravenna.

List of ''magistri militum''

Unspecified commands

* 383–385/8: Flavius Bauto, ''magister militum'' under Valentinian IIPLRE I, p. 1114 * 385/8–394: Arbogast, ''magister militum'' under Valentinian II and

Eugenius Eugenius (died 6 September 394) was a usurper in the Western Roman Empire (392–394) against Emperor Theodosius I. While Christian himself, Eugenius capitalized on the discontent in the West caused by Theodosius' religious policies targeting p ...

PLRE I, p. 1114 * 383–388:

Andragathius {{short description, Roman army officer Andragathius was the Magister equitum of Magnus Maximus. He captured and murdered the Roman Emperor Gratian in 383, between Lyons and Grenoble. Andragathius threw himself into the ocean following the defeat o ...

* ?–480:

Ovida Ovida or Odiva (died 481/482) was a late Western Roman general and warlord of likely Gothic origin and the last Roman ruler of Dalmatia. Ovida initially served Julius Nepos, ruler of Roman Dalmatia and later western Roman emperor in Italy from 4 ...

''Comes et magister utriusque militiae''

* 392–408: Flavius Stilicho * 411–421: Flavius Constantius * 422–425:

Castinus Flavius Castinus held the position of ''patricius'' in the court of Roman Emperor Honorius at the time of the Emperor's death, and most likely for some time before. He also served as consul for the year 424. Career In 422 he fought an unsucce ...

* 425–430:

Flavius Constantius Felix Flavius Constantius Felix (died 430) was a general of the Western Roman Empire, who reached the prominent rank of patrician before being killed probably by order of Flavius Aetius. For his consulate, in 428, he issued some consular diptychs, one ...

* 431–432:

Bonifacius Bonifatius (or Bonifacius; also known as Count Boniface; died 432) was a Roman general and governor of the diocese of Africa. He campaigned against the Visigoths in Gaul and the Vandals in North Africa. An ally of Galla Placidia, mother and adv ...

* 432–433: Sebastianus * 433–454: Flavius Aetius * 455–456: Avitus and Remistus * 456: Messianus * 456–472: Ricimer * 472–473:

Gundobad Gundobad ( la, Flavius Gundobadus; french: Gondebaud, Gondovald; 452 – 516 AD) was King of Burgundy, King of the Burgundians (473 – 516), succeeding his father Gundioc of Burgundy. Previous to this, he had been a Patrician (ancient Rome), ...

* 475:

Ecdicius Avitus Ecdicius Avitus (c. 420 – after 475) was an Arverni aristocrat, senator, and ''magister militum praesentalis'' from 474 until 475. As a son of the Emperor Avitus, Ecdicius was educated at ''Arvernis'' (modern Clermont-Ferrand), where he lived a ...

* 475–476: Orestes

''Per Gallias''

* 352–355: Claudius Silvanus * 362–364: Jovinus, ''magister equitum'' under

Julian Julian may refer to: People * Julian (emperor) (331–363), Roman emperor from 361 to 363 * Julian (Rome), referring to the Roman gens Julia, with imperial dynasty offshoots * Saint Julian (disambiguation), several Christian saints * Julian (give ...

and

Jovian Jovian is the adjectival form of Jupiter and may refer to: * Jovian (emperor) (Flavius Iovianus Augustus), Roman emperor (363–364 AD) * Jovians and Herculians, Roman imperial guard corps * Jovian (lemur), a Coquerel's sifaka known for ''Zoboomafo ...

PLRE I, p. 1113 * ?–419: Gaudentius * 425–430: Flavius Aetius * 435–439: Litorius * 452–458: Agrippinus * 458–461: Aegidius * 461/462: Agrippinus * 462-473: Gundioc * ?–472: Bilimer

''Per Hispanias''

* 441–442:

Astyrius Flavius Astyrius or Asturius ( 441–449) was a general and a politician of the Western Roman Empire. Biography Astyrius was the father-in-law of Merobaudes and belonged to an aristocratic family. He followed a military career: between 441 an ...

* 443: Merobaudes * 446:

Vitus Vitus is a Latin given name meaning lively and may refer to: *Saint Vitus (c. 290 – c. 303), a Christian martyr *Vitus of Hungary (died 1297), beatified friar *Vitus (bicycles), a French bicycle manufacturer * ''Vitus'' (film), a 2006 Swiss film ...

''Per Ilyricum''

* ?–350: Vetranio, ''magister peditum'' under ConstansPLRE I, p. 1112 * 361: Iovinus, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 365–375: Equitius, ''magister utriusquae militiae'' under Valentinian I * 395–?

Alaric I Alaric I (; got, 𐌰𐌻𐌰𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃, , "ruler of all"; c. 370 – 410 AD) was the first king of the Visigoths, from 395 to 410. He rose to leadership of the Goths who came to occupy Moesia—territory acquired a couple of decades ...

* 448/9 Agintheus (known from

Priscus of Panium Priscus of Panium (; el, Πρίσκος; 410s AD/420s AD-after 472 AD) was a 5th-century Eastern Roman diplomat and Greek historian and rhetorician (or sophist)...: "For information about Attila, his court and the organization of life generall ...

to have held office as the latter's embassy proceeded towards the court of Attila). * 468–474: Julius Nepos * 477–479: Onoulphus * 479–481:

Sabinianus Magnus Sabinianus Magnus (died 481) was a general of the Eastern Roman Empire, who fought in the rebellion of Theodoric Strabo against Emperor Zeno. Biography Much of the biography of Sabinianus Magnus is known through the Chronicle of Marcellinus Come ...

* 528:

Ascum Ascum ( el, ) was a general of the Byzantine Empire, active early in the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565). He was in command of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum. His name is reported by John Malalas. Both Theophanes the Confessor and Georg ...

* 529–530/1: Mundus (1st time) * 532–536: Mundus (2nd time) * c. 538: Justin * c. 544: Vitalius * c. 550: John * 568–569/70: Bonus * 581–582: Theognis

''Per Orientem''

* c. 347: Flavius Eusebius, ''magister utriusquae militiae'' * 349–359: Ursicinus, ''magister equitum'' under ConstantiusPLRE I, p. 1112 * 359–360: Sabinianus, ''magister equitum'' under Constantius IIPLRE I, p. 1112 * 363–367: Lupicinus, ''magister equitum'' under

and ValensPLRE I, p. 1113 * 371–378: Iulius, ''magister equitum et Peditum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1113 * 383: Richomeres, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 383–388: Ellebichus, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 392: Eutherius, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 393–396: Addaeus, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 395/400: Fravitta * 433–446:

Anatolius Anatolius is both a given name and a surname. Notable people with the name include: Given name * Anatolius of Laodicea (died 283), Bishop of Laodicea in Syria, also known as Anatolius of Alexandria * Anatolius, Vicarius of the Diocese of Asia in 35 ...

* 447–451: Zeno * 460s: Flavius Ardabur Aspar * –469:

Flavius Iordanes Flavius Iordanes was a Roman general and politician. He was holding the office of ''magister militum per Orientem'' when the Western Emperor Anthemius appointed him consul with Messius Phoebus Severus Messius Phoebus Severus (''floruit'' 469–470 ...

* 469–471: Zeno * 483–498:

Ioannes Scytha John the Scythian ( la, Iohannes Scytha, el, ; ''floruit'' 482–498) was a general and a politician of the Eastern Roman Empire who fought against the usurper Leontius (484–488) and in the Isaurian War (492–497). Biography John was an off ...

* c. 503–505:

Areobindus Dagalaiphus Areobindus Flavius Areobindus Dagalaifus Areobindus ( grc-gre, Ἀρεόβινδος; 479–512) was an Eastern Roman general and politician. The scion of a distinguished line, he led troops in the Anastasian War, and served as consul in 506. During an urba ...

* 505–506: Pharesmanes * ?516–?518: Hypatius * ?518–529: Diogenianus * 520–525/526: Hypatius * 527: Libelarius * 527–529: Hypatius * 529–531: Belisarius * 531: Mundus * 532–533: Belisarius * 540:

Buzes Bouzes or Buzes ( el, Βούζης, ''floruit, fl.'' 528–556) was an East Roman (Byzantine) general active in the reign of Justinian I (r. 527–565) in the wars against the Sassanid Persians. Family Bouzes was a native of Thrace. He was like ...

* 542: Belisarius * 543–544: Martinus * 549–551: Belisarius * 555: Amantius * 556: Valerianus * 569:

Zemarchus Zemarchus ( el, Ζήμαρχος, fl. c. 569) was a Byzantine official, diplomat and traveller in the reign of Justin II. Biography In the middle of the 6th century, the Göktürks conquered the Sogdiana and thus gained control of the silk trade, ...

* 572–573:

Marcian Marcian (; la, Marcianus, link=no; grc-gre, Μαρκιανός, link=no ; 392 – 27 January 457) was Roman emperor of the East from 450 to 457. Very little of his life before becoming emperor is known, other than that he was a (personal as ...

* 573: Theodorus * 574: Eusebius * 574/574–577: Justinian * 577–582: Maurice * 582–583:

John Mystacon John, surnamed Mystacon, "the mustachioed", ( el, , '' fl.'' 580–590),. was a prominent East Roman (Byzantine) general in the wars with Sassanid Persia during the reigns of Byzantine emperors Tiberius II (r. 578–582) and Maurice (r. 582–602) ...

* 584–587/588:

Philippicus Philippicus ( la, Filepicus; el, Φιλιππικός, Philippikós) was Byzantine emperor from 711 to 713. He took power in a coup against the unpopular emperor Justinian II, and was deposed in a similarly violent manner nineteen months later. ...

* 588: Priscus * 588–589:

* 589–591: Comentiolus * 591–603: Narses * 603–604

Germanus Germanus or Germanos ( Greek) may refer to: People *Lucius Trebius Germanus, governor of Roman Britain around 126 *Germanus (died c. 290), possibly apocryphal martyr-saint tortured at the Pula Arena *Germanus (4th century), Spanish martyr-saint ...

* 604–605

Leontius Leontius ( el, Λεόντιος, Leóntios; – 15 February 706), was Byzantine emperor from 695 to 698. Little is known of his early life, other than that he was born in Isauria in Asia Minor. He was given the title of ''patrikios'', and ma ...

* 605–610 Domentziolus

''Per Armeniam''

* Sittas *Peter, direct predecessor of John Tzibus * John Tzibus (?–541) * Valerian * Dagisthaeus (?–550) * Bessas (550–554) *

Martin Martin may refer to: Places * Martin City (disambiguation) * Martin County (disambiguation) * Martin Township (disambiguation) Antarctica * Martin Peninsula, Marie Byrd Land * Port Martin, Adelie Land * Point Martin, South Orkney Islands Austral ...

* Justin *

Heraclius the Elder Heraclius the Elder ( el, Ἡράκλειος, ''Herákleios''; died 610) was a Byzantine general and the father of Byzantine emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641). Generally considered to be of Armenian origin Heraclius the Elder distinguished hims ...

(c. 595)

''Per Thracias''

* 377–378:

Saturninus Saturninus may refer to: * Lucius Appuleius Saturninus (died 100 BC), tribune, legislator * Gaius Sentius Saturninus, consul 19 BC, military officer, governor * Marcus Aponius Saturninus (1st century AD), governor of Moesia, and partisan of first ...

, ''magister equitum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1113 * 377–378: Traianus, ''magister peditum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1114 * 378: Sebastianus, ''magister peditum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1114 * 380–383: Flavius Saturninus, ''magister peditum'' under Theodosius IPLRE I, p. 1114 * 392–393: Stilicho, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 412–414: Constans * 441: Ioannes the Vandal, ''magister utriusque militiae'' * 464–467/468: Basiliscus * 468–474:

Armatus Flavius Armatus (died 477), also known as Harmatius, was an Eastern Roman military commander, ''magister militum'' under Emperors Leo I, Basiliscus and Zeno, and consul. He was instrumental in the rebellion of Basiliscus against Zeno, and in his s ...

* 474:

Heraclius of Edessa Heraclius of Edessa (Greek: Ήράκλειος, died 474) was an Eastern Roman Empire general who took part in the failed campaign against the Vandals in 468. Biography Heraclius was born in Edessa, Mesopotamia, according to Theophanes the Confe ...

* 511: Hypatius * 512– 513: Cyrillus * 513– 515:

Alathar Alathar (fl. 513) was an Eastern Roman ''magister militum'' of Hunnish descent. Biography Alathar was appointed ''Magister militum per Thracias'' by Anastasius I Dicorus. He succeeded the deceased Cyrillus in this capacity. It is possible that he ...

* 515: Vitalian * 525-c. 530:

* 530–533:

Chilbudius ChilbudiusMartindale, Jones & Morris (1992), p. 286-287 or ChilbuldiusCameron, Ward-Perkins, Whitby (2000), p. 474 ( el, Χιλβούδιος, ''Khilboudios'') was a Byzantine general, holding the rank of magister militum per Thracias in the early ...

* 550–c. 554: Artabanes * 588: Priscus (1st time) * 593: Priscus (2nd time) * 593–594: Peter (1st time) * 594–c. 598: Priscus (2nd time) * 598–601: Comentiolus * 601–602: Peter (2nd time)

''Praesentalis''

* 351–361:

Arbitio Flavius Arbitio ( fl. 354–366 AD) was a Roman general and Consul who lived in the middle of the 4th century AD. In the Reign of Constantius II Arbitio was a general of Constantine I. Under Constantius II, the son and successor of Constantine ...

, ''magister equitum'' under Constantius IIPLRE I, p. 1112 * 361–363:

Nevitta Nevitta ( 357–363) was a Roman military leader and official in the Roman Empire. His career is closely linked to that of the emperor Julian. He was master of the cavalry and in 362 served as consul. Life Nevitta is first mentioned regarding a b ...

, ''magister equitum'' under

PLRE I, p. 1113 * 363–379:

Victor The name Victor or Viktor may refer to: * Victor (name), including a list of people with the given name, mononym, or surname Arts and entertainment Film * ''Victor'' (1951 film), a French drama film * ''Victor'' (1993 film), a French shor ...

, ''magister equitum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1113 * 366–378:

Flavius Arinthaeus Flavius Arintheus (or Arinthaeus; died AD 378) was a Roman army officer who started his career as a middle-ranking officer and rose to senior political and military positions. He served the emperors Constantius II, Julian, Jovian and Valens. H ...

, ''magister peditum'' under ValensPLRE I, p. 1113 * 364–369:

Flavius Iovinus The gens Flavia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome. Its members are first mentioned during the last three centuries of the Republic. The first of the Flavii to achieve prominence was Marcus Flavius, tribune of the plebs in 327 and 323 BC; ...

, ''magister equitum'' under Valentinian IPLRE I, p. 1113 * 364–366: Dagalaifus, ''magister peditum'' under Valentinian IPLRE I, p. 1113 * 367–372: Severus, ''magister peditum'' under Valentinian IPLRE I, p. 1113 * 369–373: Flavius Theodosius, ''magister equitum'' under Valentinian IPLRE I, p. 1113 * 375–388: Merobaudes, ''magister peditum'' under Valentinian I, Gratian and Magnus Maximus * 388–395: Timasius * 394–408: Stilicho, ''magister equitum et peditum''PLRE I, p. 1114 * 399–400: Gainas * 400: Fravitta * 409: Varanes and ArsaciusPLRE I, p. 152 * 419–: Plinta * 434–449: Areobindus? * 443–451: Apollonius * 450–451:

* 475–477/478:

* 485–:

Longinus Longinus () is the name given to the unnamed Roman soldier who pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and who in medieval and some modern Christian traditions is described as a convert to Christianity. His name first appeared in the apocryphal G ...

* 492–499: John the Hunchback * 518–520: Vitalian * 520–?: Justinian * 528: Leontius * 528–529: Phocas * 520–538/9: Sittas * 536:

* 536: Maxentianus * 546–548: Artabanes * 548/9–552: Suartuas * 562: Constantinianus (uncertain) * 582: Germanus (uncertain) * 585–c. 586: Comentiolus * 626: Bonus (uncertain)

''Per Africam''

Western Empire

* 373–375: Flavius Theodosius, ''magister equitum ''PLRE I, p. 1113 * 386–398: Gildo, ''magister equitum et peditum''

Eastern Empire

* 534–536:

Solomon Solomon (; , ),, ; ar, سُلَيْمَان, ', , ; el, Σολομών, ; la, Salomon also called Jedidiah (Hebrew language, Hebrew: , Modern Hebrew, Modern: , Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yăḏīḏăyāh'', "beloved of Yahweh, Yah"), ...

* 536–539:

* 539–544:

* 544–546: Sergius * 545–546: Areobindus * 546: Artabanes * 546–552:

John Troglita John Troglita ( la, Ioannes Troglita, el, ) was a 6th-century Byzantine general. He participated in the Vandalic War and served in North Africa as a regional military governor during the years 533–538, before being sent east to the wars with t ...

* 578–590: Gennadius

''Magister militae'' in Byzantine and medieval Italy

Venice

* 8th century: Marcellus * 737:

Domenico Leoni Domenico Leoni (Latin: ''Dominicus Leo Abrogatis''; life dates unknown) was a Byzantine ''magister militum per Venetiae'' in charge of Venice in 738. Following the murder of the doge Orso Ipato in 737, the Exarch of Ravenna imposed administration b ...

under Leo III the Isaurian * 738:

Felice Cornicola Felice Cornicola (Latin: ''Felix Cornicula''), also Felicius, was a Byzantine ''magister militum per Venetiae'' of Venice in 739. Following the murder of the doge Orso Ipato in 737, the Exarch of Ravenna imposed administration by annual magistri mi ...

under Leo III the Isaurian * 739: Theodatus Hypatus under Leo III the Isaurian * 741:

Ioannes Fabriacius John Fabriacus (Giovanni Fabriciaco in Italian) was a Byzantine ''magister militum per Venetiae'' in charge of the duchy of Venice in 742. Following the murder of the doge Orso Ipato in 737, the Exarch of Ravenna imposed administration by annual '' ...

under Leo III the Isaurian * 764–787:

Mauricius Galba Maurizio Galbaio (Latin: Mauricius Galba) (died 787) was the seventh traditional, but fifth historical, Doge of Venice from 764 to his death. He was the first great doge, who reigned for 22 years and set Venice on its path to independence and s ...

Later, less formal use of the term

By the 12th century, the term was being used to describe a man who organized the military force of a political or feudal leader on his behalf. In the ''

Gesta Herwardi Hereward the Wake (Traditional pronunciation /ˈhɛ.rɛ.ward/, modern pronunciation /ˈhɛ.rɪ.wəd/) (1035 – 1072) (also known as Hereward the Outlaw or Hereward the Exile) was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman and a leader of local resista ...

'', the hero is several times described as ''magister militum'' by the man who translated the original

Old English Old English (, ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the early Middle Ages. It was brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain, Anglo ...

account into Medieval Latin. It seems possible that the writer of the original version, now lost, thought of him as the ''hereward''' ( and ) – the supervisor of the military force. That this later use of these terms was based on the classical concept seems clear.Gesta Herwardi
The term is used in chapters XII, XIV, XXII and XXIII. Se

for details.

References

Citations

Sources

* * Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (PLRE), Vols. I-III {{DEFAULTSORT:Magister Militum Ancient Roman titles Positions of authority Byzantine military offices Late Roman military ranks Military ranks