Macro-Pama-Nyungan is an umbrella term used to refer to a proposed
Indigenous Australian
Indigenous Australians or Australian First Nations are people with familial heritage from, and membership in, the ethnic groups that lived in Australia before British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal peoples o ...
language family. It was coined by the Australian linguist
Nicholas Evans
Nicholas Benbow Evans (26 July 1950 – 9 August 2022) was a British journalist, screenwriter, television and film producer and novelist.
Biography
Nicholas Benbow Evans was born in Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, son of Anthony Evans, director o ...
in his 1996 book ''Archaeology and linguistics: Aboriginal Australia in global perspective'', co-authored by Patrick McConvell. The term arose from
Evans' theory suggesting that two of the largest Indigenous Australian language families share a common origin, and should therefore be classified as a singular
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
under "Macro-Pama-Nyungan".
The two main families that Evans refers to are the
Macro-Gunwinyguan family from
Northern Australia
The unofficial geographic term Northern Australia includes those parts of Queensland and Western Australia north of latitude 26° and all of the Northern Territory. Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie p ...
, and the most widespread
Pama–Nyungan family that spans across mainland and
Southern Australia
The term Southern Australia is generally considered to refer to the states and territories of Australia of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, the Australian Capital Territory and South Australia. The part of Western Australia south of lat ...
. The different theories regarding Australian linguistic prehistory and Australian language family evolution are widely debated, therefore Macro-Pama-Nyungan is an inconclusive language family classification that is often dissented by linguists in the Aboriginal Australian language community.
As of May 2020, the legitimacy of the Macro-Pama-Nyungan classification and supporting theories remain open to question since language reconstruction of Indigenous Australian language families is in its early stages.
The proposed language families included in this proposal are:
Macro-Pama-Nyungan term and origins
The term "Macro-Pama-Nyungan", or otherwise interchangeably referred to as 'Gunwinyguan-Tangkic-Karrwan (Garrwan)-Pama-Nyungan', was first coined in the 1997 book ''Archaeology and linguistics: Aboriginal Australia in global perspective'', by the Australian linguist
Nicholas Evans
Nicholas Benbow Evans (26 July 1950 – 9 August 2022) was a British journalist, screenwriter, television and film producer and novelist.
Biography
Nicholas Benbow Evans was born in Bromsgrove, Worcestershire, son of Anthony Evans, director o ...
, co-authored by Patrick McConvell. It refers to a proposed classification of a large Indigenous Australian language family sharing a common linguistic origin that geographically spreads across the continent from
Arnhem Land
Arnhem Land is a historical region of the Northern Territory of Australia, with the term still in use. It is located in the north-eastern corner of the territory and is around from the territory capital, Darwin. In 1623, Dutch East India Company ...
in
Northern Australia
The unofficial geographic term Northern Australia includes those parts of Queensland and Western Australia north of latitude 26° and all of the Northern Territory. Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie p ...
to
Southwestern Australia.
Evans explores this claim of a higher-level "Macro-Pama-Nyungan" Indigenous Australian language family classification in several of his works. His most notable books are ''The Cradle of the Pama-Nyungans: Archaeological and Linguistic Speculations'', published in 1997 co-authored by Rhys Jones, and ''The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region'' published in 2003 and edited by
Evans. In his works,
Evans uses the Macro-Pama-Nyungan term to propose that the majority of Indigenous languages across
Australia have a common origin and share an inheritance with a common linguistic ancestor.
According to
Evans, the Macro-Pama-Nyungan language family is made up of the
Gunwinyguan languages
The Gunwinyguan languages (Gunwinjguan, Gunwingguan), also core Gunwinyguan or Gunwinyguan proper, are a possible branch of a large language family of Australian Aboriginal languages in Arnhem Land, northern Australia. The most populous language ...
from Arnhem Land in
Northern Australia
The unofficial geographic term Northern Australia includes those parts of Queensland and Western Australia north of latitude 26° and all of the Northern Territory. Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie p ...
, the
Tangkic languages
The Tangkic languages form a small language family of Australian Aboriginal languages spoken in northern Australia.
The Tangkic languages are Lardil (Leerdil) and its special register Damin
Damin ( in the practical orthography of Lar ...
from
Mornington Island
Mornington Island, also known as Kunhanhaa, is an island in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the Shire of Mornington, Queensland, Australia. It is the northernmost and largest of 22 islands that form the Wellesley Islands group. The largest town, ...
in the
Wellesley Islands of
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
, the
Garrwan (or Karrwan) languages from
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
and the
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Au ...
, and the larger
Pama–Nyungan language family that geographically covers approximately 90% of the Australian continent. The grouping of the
Gunwinyguan,
Tangkic and
Garrwan language families from
northern Australia
The unofficial geographic term Northern Australia includes those parts of Queensland and Western Australia north of latitude 26° and all of the Northern Territory. Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie p ...
forms the "macro" extension of
Pama–Nyungan language family to form the Macro-Pama-Nyungan term. The larger
Pama–Nyungan family includes around 300
Aboriginal languages, mainly located across southern parts of
Australia.
Prior to this, the American linguist
Kenneth L. Hale
Kenneth Locke Hale (August 15, 1934 – October 8, 2001), also known as Ken Hale, was an American linguist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who studied a huge variety of previously unstudied and often endangered languages—especially ...
establishes the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
classification in the year 1964 in his work ''Classification of Northern Paman Languages.'' He concludes that the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
is "one relatively closely interrelated family
hat
A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mech ...
had spread and proliferated over most of the continent, while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast". In the book edited by
Evans, ''The non-Pama-Nyungan languages of northern Australia: comparative studies of the continent's most linguistically complex region'',
Evans refers to
Hale's
Pama–Nyungan classification, and claims that out of the dozen other families concentrated along
Northern Australia
The unofficial geographic term Northern Australia includes those parts of Queensland and Western Australia north of latitude 26° and all of the Northern Territory. Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie p ...
,
Gunwinyguan,
Tangkic and
Garrwan are three
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
that do in fact have a close relation to the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
, and should therefore be classified under one large Macro-Pama Nyungan
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
.
Evans uses the
Pama–Nyungan offshoot model from the article written by
Geoffrey O'Grady, ''Preliminaries to a proto Nuclear Pama-Nyungan stem list'' to propose that
Pama–Nyungan is an offshoot
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
sharing immediate ancestry with these three
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
subgroups.
Evans identifies the
Garrwan language as a close sister of the
Pama–Nyungan languages
The Pama–Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages, containing 306 out of 400 Aboriginal languages in Australia. The name "Pama–Nyungan" is a merism: it derived from the two end-points of the rang ...
, due to the
morphological and
phonological
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
elements found in the
Garrwan language that link
Pama–Nyungan languages
The Pama–Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages, containing 306 out of 400 Aboriginal languages in Australia. The name "Pama–Nyungan" is a merism: it derived from the two end-points of the rang ...
to the stages when the
Proto-Pama–Nyungan languages split from its predecessors.
Evans also refers to
O'Grady
''O'Grady'' (stylized as ''O*gRAdY'') is an American animated television series created by Tom Snyder, Carl W. Adams, and Holly Schlesinger for Noggin's teen-oriented programming block, The N. The show was animated at Snyder's Soup2Nuts stu ...
's grouping of the
Gunwinyguan and
Tangkic languages with the
Pama–Nyungan language group as 'nuclear
Pama–Nyungan', in order to make the higher-level Macro-Pama-Nyungan
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
classification.
Considering that the vast majority of
Australian Aboriginal languages have become extinct with no living speakers and that many of the remaining
Australian Aboriginal languages are also endangered to some degree, many linguists acknowledge that language family classification is an inconclusive debate that needs further exploration and research since Indigenous Australian language family reconstruction is in its early stages, and the legitimacy of chosen reconstruction methods is widely debated.
Linguistic Expansion Theories

With limited reconstruction work having been done on
Pama–Nyungan and
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
and their subgroups, further study of the linguistic
stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers ( strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
of
loanword
A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because t ...
s is needed to provide a foundation for hypotheses to be made about the sociocultural and environmental prehistory of Indigenous
Australia.
There is considerable debate over which of the linguistic elements found across language groups are attributed to a shared inheritance from a common ancestor, and which elements are attributed to more recent contact between linguistic groups. These two points form two theories surrounding the extent to which
Pama–Nyungan languages are proposed to have spread across
Australia, leading to the ongoing classification and declassification debate over the possibility of a legitimate Macro-Pama-Nyungan
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
.
The first theory suggests that the size and spread of the
Pama–Nyungan language family is attributed to
demic diffusion resulting from climatic changes, causing people to seek refuge in inhabitable areas. The timing of
Pama–Nyungan language family expansion as the largest
hunter-gatherer language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
in the world has possible origins in the
Gulf Plains region, with four possible timings for
demic diffusion put forth. The first is upon initial colonisation of
Australia, the second as
late Pleistocene
The Late Pleistocene is an unofficial age in the international geologic timescale in chronostratigraphy, also known as Upper Pleistocene from a stratigraphic perspective. It is intended to be the fourth division of the Pleistocene Epoch within ...
, the third as early
Holocene
The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togeth ...
, and the fourth as after the
Last Glacial Maximum
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), also referred to as the Late Glacial Maximum, was the most recent time during the Last Glacial Period that ice sheets were at their greatest extent.
Ice sheets covered much of Northern North America, Northern Eu ...
.
The second theory suggests that social and technological advantages and the intensification and spread of
agricultural
Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...
techniques facilitated the large-scale replacement of
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
languages during the mid-
Holocene
The Holocene ( ) is the current geological epoch. It began approximately 11,650 cal years Before Present (), after the Last Glacial Period, which concluded with the Holocene glacial retreat. The Holocene and the preceding Pleistocene togeth ...
, originating from the
Gulf Plains region. Linguists Bouckaert,
Bowern, and Atkinson state that "Pama-Nyungan languages were carried as a part of an expanding package of cultural innovations that probably facilitated the absorption and assimilation of existing hunter-gatherer groups", acknowledging possible associations with the introduction of the
dingo
The dingo (''Canis familiaris'', ''Canis familiaris dingo'', ''Canis dingo'', or '' Canis lupus dingo'') is an ancient (basal) lineage of dog found in Australia. Its taxonomic classification is debated as indicated by the variety of scient ...
, new
lithic technologies and social institutions.
According to the ''Diversification of the Pama–Nyungan language family'' tree presented in figure 2 of ''The origin and expansion of Pama–Nyungan languages across Australia'' by Bouckaert,
Bowern and Atkinson, the earliest three subgroups to break off from the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
were the Western branch, the Southern group and the Tangkic branch. These groups collectively expand across
South Australia
South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. It covers some of the most arid parts of the country. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories ...
,
Western Australia
Western Australia (commonly abbreviated as WA) is a state of Australia occupying the western percent of the land area of Australia excluding external territories. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north and west, the Southern Ocean to ...
, the
Northern Territory
The Northern Territory (commonly abbreviated as NT; formally the Northern Territory of Australia) is an Australian territory in the central and central northern regions of Australia. The Northern Territory shares its borders with Western Au ...
,
Victoria, the majority of
New South Wales
)
, nickname =
, image_map = New South Wales in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of New South Wales in AustraliaCoordinates:
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, es ...
and the Southeast
Queensland
)
, nickname = Sunshine State
, image_map = Queensland in Australia.svg
, map_caption = Location of Queensland in Australia
, subdivision_type = Country
, subdivision_name = Australia
, established_title = Before federation
, established_ ...
coast. Bouckaert,
Bowern and Atkinson acknowledge the existence of patterns consistent with language group settlement along
watercourse
A stream is a continuous body of surface water flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long large streams ...
s that could indicate
rivers
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases, a river flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of wat ...
and
coastline areas as possible launching points for group and language
fission
Fission, a splitting of something into two or more parts, may refer to:
* Fission (biology), the division of a single entity into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate entities resembling the original
* Nuclear fissio ...
, however this is not supported by the migration model put forth in the same journal article.
Language Family Classification
Due to the extinction of many
Indigenous Australian languages
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
, there is limited access to linguistic evidence. Linguists have therefore used geographic, genetic, archaeological and linguistic methods to form language family reconstructions and associations.
The legitimacy of these methods is questioned amongst linguists and has formed a widespread debate on the classification and declassification of certain
Indigenous Australian
Indigenous Australians or Australian First Nations are people with familial heritage from, and membership in, the ethnic groups that lived in Australia before British colonisation. They consist of two distinct groups: the Aboriginal peoples o ...
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
and their subgroups.
Whether the three
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
Gunwinyguan,
Tangkic and
Garrwan can be classified as Macro-Pama-Nyungan as proposed by
Evans is inconclusive due to the legitimacy of relational strength to the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
.
Evans' classification of the
Gunwinyguan family is unclear due to the use of unestablished, non-traditional
linguistic reconstruction
Linguistic reconstruction is the practice of establishing the features of an unattested ancestor language of one or more given languages. There are two kinds of reconstruction:
* Internal reconstruction uses irregularities in a single language ...
methods. Linguist Rebecca Green argues that the shared irregularities in verb
morphology indicate that
Gunwinyguan is in fact part of the Macro-Pama-Nyungan family, and linguist Harvey refers to
Evans' position on grammatical grounds that "these languages have been in and out of Pama-Nyungan throughout the history of classification" as justification to support the Macro-Pama-Nyungan classification.
Evans proposes that the
Gunwinyguan family could be a sister to the Macro-Pama-Nyungan family that contains
Tangkic,
Garrwan and core
Pama–Nyungan. Of these three subgroups,
Tangkic is considered one of the earliest formed branches of the Greater-Pama-Nyungan
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
, and
Bowern acknowledges that some linguists suggest
Tangkic has close relations to the
Pama–Nyungan Yolŋu languages
Yolŋu Matha (), meaning the 'Yolŋu tongue', is a linguistic family that includes the languages of the Yolngu (also known as the Yolŋu and Yuulngu languages), the indigenous people of northeast Arnhem Land in northern Australia. The ''ŋ' ...
. McConvell and
Bowern mention the linguistic geography hypothesis put forward by
Hale stating that the
Pama–Nyungan family originates from the base of the
Gulf of Carpentaria
The Gulf of Carpentaria (, ) is a large, shallow sea enclosed on three sides by northern Australia and bounded on the north by the eastern Arafura Sea (the body of water that lies between Australia and New Guinea). The northern boundary ...
, and note that according to
Evans, this places
Pama–Nyungan families in close proximity to the
Garrwan and
Tangkic families.
Macro-Pama-Nyungan Dissent
The Macro-Pama-Nyungan claim is an inconclusive
language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
classification, yet Aboriginal Australian linguists acknowledge the possible legitimacy of the claim. Due to the lack of evidence and questionable methods used to make
linguistic reconstruction
Linguistic reconstruction is the practice of establishing the features of an unattested ancestor language of one or more given languages. There are two kinds of reconstruction:
* Internal reconstruction uses irregularities in a single language ...
s and associations between
language families
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
and their subgroups, the Macro-Pama-Nyungan claim is widely dissented among linguists in the Aboriginal Australian language community.
In ''Historical linguistics in Australia: trees, networks and their implications,''
Bowern states that the Macro-Pama-Nyungan language tree model used by
Evans is "based on very little evidence" due to the fact that "a single shared innovation defines each of these nodes". Bouckaert,
Bowern and Atkinson state that there are several
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
groups that separate and disprove the proposed relationship between the
non-Pama-Nyungan
The Indigenous languages of Australia number in the hundreds, the precise number being quite uncertain, although there is a range of estimates from a minimum of around 250 (using the technical definition of 'language' as non-mutually intellig ...
Garrwan family and the
Pama–Nyungan Yolŋu family that has been put forth in the Aboriginal Australian language community.
Bowern argues that the
Gunwinyguan family contains a number of
Arnhem Land languages that are not considered to be closely related to the
Pama–Nyungan language family
A language family is a group of languages related through descent from a common ''ancestral language'' or ''parental language'', called the proto-language of that family. The term "family" reflects the tree model of language origination in his ...
, disputing
Gunwinyguan,
Tangkic and
Garrwan as classifiable under Macro-Pama-Nyungan. In regard to
Evans' claims that
Gunwinyguan could possibly be a sister to the Macro-Pama-Nyungan family, McConvell and
Bowern both note that
Gunwinyguan cannot be classed as both a sister to the Macro-Pama-Nyungan family and as a part of the
Arnhem
Arnhem ( or ; german: Arnheim; South Guelderish: ''Èrnem'') is a Cities of the Netherlands, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality situated in the eastern part of the Netherlands about 55 km south east of Utrecht. It i ...
family subgroup simultaneously.
Footnotes
Citations
References
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Macro-Pama-Nyungan languages
Australian Aboriginal languages
Pama–Nyungan languages
Proposed language families