Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of
Lutheranism
Lutheranism is one of the largest branches of Protestantism, identifying primarily with the theology of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German monk and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Cathol ...
, which began in 1580 from the writing of the ''
Book of Concord
''The Book of Concord'' (1580) or ''Concordia'' (often referred to as the ''Lutheran Confessions'') is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since ...
'' and ended at the
Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
. Lutheran
orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
was paralleled by similar eras in
Calvinism
Calvinism (also called the Reformed Tradition, Reformed Protestantism, Reformed Christianity, or simply Reformed) is a major branch of Protestantism that follows the theological tradition and forms of Christian practice set down by John Cal ...
and
tridentine Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
after the
Counter-Reformation
The Counter-Reformation (), also called the Catholic Reformation () or the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to the Protestant Reformation. It began with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) a ...
.
Lutheran scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Lutheran orthodoxy. Theologians used the
neo-Aristotelian form of presentation, already popular in academia, in their writings and lectures. They defined the Lutheran faith and defended it against the
polemic
Polemic () is contentious rhetoric intended to support a specific position by forthright claims and to undermine the opposing position. The practice of such argumentation is called ''polemics'', which are seen in arguments on controversial topics ...
s of opposing parties.
History
Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Reformation, Protestant Refo ...
died in 1546, and
Philipp Melanchthon
Philip Melanchthon. (born Philipp Schwartzerdt; 16 February 1497 – 19 April 1560) was a German Lutheran reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lu ...
in 1560. After the death of Luther came the period of the
Schmalkaldic War
The Schmalkaldic War (german: link=no, Schmalkaldischer Krieg) was the short period of violence from 1546 until 1547 between the forces of Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (simultaneously King Charles I of Spain), commanded by the Duk ...
and disputes among
Crypto-Calvinists
Crypto-Calvinism is a pejorative term describing a segment of those members of the Lutheran Church in Germany who were accused of secretly subscribing to Calvinist doctrine of the Eucharist in the decades immediately after the death of Martin Lut ...
,
Philippists
The Philippists formed a party in early Lutheranism. Their opponents were called Gnesio-Lutherans.
Before Luther's death
''Philippists'' was the designation usually applied in the latter half of the sixteenth century to the followers of Phili ...
,
Sacramentarians
The Sacramentarians were Christians during the Protestant Reformation who denied not only the Roman Catholic transubstantiation but also the Lutheran sacramental union (as well as similar doctrines such as consubstantiation).
During the turbule ...
,
Ubiquitarians The Ubiquitarians, also called Ubiquists, were a Protestant sect that held that the body of Christ was everywhere, including the Eucharist. The sect was started at the Lutheran synod of Stuttgart, 19 December 1559, by Johannes Brenz (1499 ...
, and
Gnesio-Lutherans
Gnesio-Lutherans (from Greek γνήσιος nesios genuine, authentic) is a modern name for a theological party in the Lutheran churches, in opposition to the Philippists after the death of Martin Luther and before the Formula of Concord. In t ...
.
Early orthodoxy: 1580–1600
The ''
Book of Concord
''The Book of Concord'' (1580) or ''Concordia'' (often referred to as the ''Lutheran Confessions'') is the historic doctrinal standard of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since ...
'' gave inner unity to Lutheranism, which had many controversies, mostly between
Gnesio-Lutherans
Gnesio-Lutherans (from Greek γνήσιος nesios genuine, authentic) is a modern name for a theological party in the Lutheran churches, in opposition to the Philippists after the death of Martin Luther and before the Formula of Concord. In t ...
and
Philippists
The Philippists formed a party in early Lutheranism. Their opponents were called Gnesio-Lutherans.
Before Luther's death
''Philippists'' was the designation usually applied in the latter half of the sixteenth century to the followers of Phili ...
, in
Roman Catholic
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*'' Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a lette ...
outward pressure and in alleged "
crypto-Calvinist
Crypto-Calvinism is a pejorative term describing a segment of those members of the Lutheran Church in Germany who were accused of secretly subscribing to Calvinist doctrine of the Eucharist in the decades immediately after the death of Martin Lut ...
ic" influence. Lutheran theology became more stable in its theoretical definitions.
High orthodoxy: 1600–1685
Lutheran scholasticism
Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism, which began in 1580 from the writing of the ''Book of Concord'' and ended at the Age of Enlightenment. Lutheran orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism and tridentine ...
developed gradually, especially for the purpose of disputation with the
Jesuits
The Society of Jesus ( la, Societas Iesu; abbreviation: SJ), also known as the Jesuits (; la, Iesuitæ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
, and it was finally established by
Johann Gerhard
Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the ...
(1582-1637).
Abraham Calovius
Abraham Calovius (also Abraham Calov or Abraham Kalau; 16 April 161225 February 1686) was a Lutheran theologian, and was one of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century.
Biography
He was born in Mohrungen (Morąg), Ducal Prussia ...
(1612-1686) represents the climax of the
scholastic paradigm
In science and philosophy, a paradigm () is a distinct set of concepts or thought patterns, including theories, research methods, postulates, and standards for what constitute legitimate contributions to a field.
Etymology
''Paradigm'' comes f ...
in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians include (for example)
Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz (9 November 1522 – 8 April 1586) was an eminent second-generation German, Evangelical Lutheran, Christian theologian, and a Protestant reformer, churchman, and confessor. In the Evangelical Lutheran tradition he is known as ...
,
Aegidius Hunnius
Aegidius Hunnius the Elder (21 December 1550 in Winnenden – 4 April 1603 in Wittenberg) was a Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition and father of Nicolaus Hunnius.
Life
Hunnius went rapidly through the preparatory scho ...
,
Leonhard Hutter
Leonhard Hutter (also ''Hütter'', Latinized as Hutterus; 19 January 1563 – 23 October 1616) was a German Lutheran theologian.
Life
He was born at Nellingen near Ulm. From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strasbourg, Leipzig, Heidelberg ...
(1563-1616),
Nicolaus Hunnius
Nicolaus Hunnius (11 July 1585 – 12 April 1643) was an orthodox Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition.
Hunnius was born at Marburg, the third son of Egidius Hunnius. At the age of fifteen he entered the University of Wi ...
,
Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand
Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand (5 August 1585 - 19 April 1652) was a Danish Lutheran clergyman, theologian and professor who served as Bishop of the Diocese of Zealand from 1638 until his death.
Brochmand was a key founder of the dogmatic system tha ...
,
Salomo Glassius,
Johann Hülsemann
Johann Hülsemann (4 December 1602 – 13 June 1661) was a German Lutheran theologian. He is known as one of the most prominent Lutheran scholasticism, Lutheran scholastic opponents of Georgius Calixtus in the Syncretism#Syncretistic controversy ...
,
Johann Conrad Dannhauer
Johann Conrad Dannhauer (b. at Köndringen (10 m. n. of Freiburg) 24 March 1603; d. at Strasburg 7 November 1666) was an Orthodox Lutheran theologian and teacher of Spener.
Dannhauer began his education in the gymnasium at Strasburg and was ...
,
Valerius Herberger
Valerius Herberger (21 April 1562 – 18 May 1627) was a German Lutheran preacher and theologian.
Life
He was born at Fraustadt, Silesia (now Wschowa in Poland). He studied for three years at Freystadt in Silesia (now Kożuchów in Poland), and ...
,
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt (13 August 1617 – 22 May 1688) was a German Lutheran dogmatician in the Lutheran scholastic tradition.
Quenstedt was born at Quedlinburg, a nephew of Johann Gerhard. He was educated at the University of Helmstedt, 1 ...
,
Johann Friedrich König and
Johann Wilhelm Baier
Johann Wilhelm Baier (11 November 1647 – 19 October 1695) was a German theologian in the Lutheran scholastic tradition. He was born at Nuremberg, and died at Weimar.
He studied philology, especially Oriental, and philosophy at Altdorf from 1 ...
.
The theological heritage of
Philip Melanchthon
Philip Melanchthon. (born Philipp Schwartzerdt; 16 February 1497 – 19 April 1560) was a German Lutheran reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lu ...
arose again in the
Helmstedt
Helmstedt (; Eastphalian: ''Helmstidde'') is a town on the eastern edge of the German state of Lower Saxony. It is the capital of the District of Helmstedt. The historic university and Hanseatic city conserves an important monumental heritage of ...
School and especially in the theology of
Georgius Calixtus
Georg Calixtus, Kallisøn/Kallisön, or Callisen (14 December 1586 – 19 March 1656) was a German Lutheran theologian who looked to reconcile all Christendom by removing all differences that he deemed "unimportant".
Biography
Calixtus was born i ...
(1586-1656), which caused the
syncretistic controversy
The syncretistic controversy was the theological debate provoked by the efforts of Georg Calixt and his supporters to secure a basis on which the Lutherans could make overtures to the Roman Catholic and the Reformed Churches. It lasted from 1640 ...
of 1640–1686. Another theological issue was the
Crypto-Kenotic Controversy of 1619–1627.
Late orthodoxy: 1685–1730
Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from
rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy' ...
and
pietism
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
. Orthodoxy produced numerous
postil
A postil or postill ( la, postilla; german: Postille) was originally a term for Bible commentaries. It is derived from the Latin ''post illa verba textus'' ("after these words from Scripture"), referring to biblical readings. The word first occurs ...
s, which were important devotional readings. Along with hymns, they conserved orthodox Lutheran spirituality during this period of heavy influence from
pietism
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
and
neology
Neology ("study of new hings) was the name given to the rationalist theology of Germany or the rationalisation of the Christian religion. It was preceded by slightly less radical Wolffism.
''Chambers English Dictionary'' of 1872 adds the appli ...
.
Johann Gerhard
Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the ...
,
Heinrich Müller Heinrich Müller may refer to:
* Heinrich Müller (cyclist) (born 1926), Swiss cyclist
* Heinrich Müller (footballer, born 1888) (1888–1957), Swiss football player and manager
* Heinrich Müller (footballer, born 1909) (1909–2000), Austrian ...
and
Christian Scriver
Christian Scriver (2 January 1629 – 5 April 1693) was a German Lutheran minister and devotional writer.
Biography
Christian Scriver was born at Rendsburg in the Duchy of Schleswig, Germany. He entered the University of Rostock in 1647 ...
wrote other kinds of devotional literature.
The last prominent orthodox Lutheran theologian before the Enlightenment and
Neology
Neology ("study of new hings) was the name given to the rationalist theology of Germany or the rationalisation of the Christian religion. It was preceded by slightly less radical Wolffism.
''Chambers English Dictionary'' of 1872 adds the appli ...
was
David Hollatz. A later orthodox theologian,
Valentin Ernst Löscher, took part in a controversy against
Pietism
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
. Mediaeval
mystical
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...
tradition continued in the works of
Martin Moller
Martin Moller (10 November 1547 – 2 March 1606) was a German poet and mysticism, mystic.
Life
Moller was born in Ließnitz (now Kropstädt bei Wittenberg, Saxony-Anhalt) in 1547 and became Cantor (church), cantor in Lwówek Śląski, Lö ...
,
Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt (or Arnd; 27 December 155511 May 1621) was a German Lutheran theologian who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity. Although reflective of the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, he is seen as a forerunner of Pietism, a ...
and
Joachim Lütkemann
Joachim Lütkemann (15 December 1608, Demmin - 18 October 1655, Wolfenbüttel) was a German Lutheran theologian and writer of devotional literature.
Life
Joachim Lütkemann was the son of Samuel Lütkemann, an apothecary from Demmin who had become ...
.
Pietism
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some orthodox devotional literature, such as those of Arndt, Scriver and
Stephan Prätorius
Stephan Praetorius (or Prætorius) (german: Stephan Prätorius) (, Salzwedel, Salzwedel) was a German Lutheran theologian and pastor.
His life and work
Prætorius was born in Salzwedel, Margraviate of Brandenburg. He was educated at the Univer ...
, which have often been later mixed with pietistic literature.
David Hollatz combined
mystic and scholastic elements.
[
]
Content
Scholastic dogmaticians followed the historical order of God's saving acts. First Creation was taught, then the Fall, followed by Redemption, and finished by the Last Things.[Hägglund, Bengt, ''History of Theology''. trans. Lund, Gene, L. St. Louis: Concordia, 1968. p. 302.] This order, as an independent part of the Lutheran tradition, was not derived from any philosophical method. It was followed not only by those using the loci method, but also those using the analytical.[ The usual order of the loci:][
#Holy Scriptures
#Trinity (including ]Christology
In Christianity, Christology (from the Ancient Greek, Greek grc, Χριστός, Khristós, label=none and grc, wiktionary:-λογία, -λογία, wiktionary:-logia, -logia, label=none), translated literally from Greek as "the study of Chr ...
and the doctrine of the Holy Spirit)
#Creation
#Providence
#Predestination
#Image of God
#Fall of Man
#Sin
#Free Will
#Law
#Gospel
#Repentance
#Faith and Justification
#Good Works
#Sacraments
#Church
#Three Estates
#Last Things
Lutheran scholasticism
Background
High Scholasticism in Western Christianity
Western Christianity is one of two sub-divisions of Christianity ( Eastern Christianity being the other). Western Christianity is composed of the Latin Church and Western Protestantism, together with their offshoots such as the Old Catholic ...
aimed at an exhaustive treatment of theology, supplementing revelation by the deductions of reason. Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
furnished the rules according to which it proceeded, and after a while he became the authority for both the source and process of theology.[
]
Initial rejection
Lutheranism began as a vigorous protest against scholasticism, starting with Martin Luther
Martin Luther (; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, theologian, author, hymnwriter, and professor, and Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. He is the seminal figure of the Reformation, Protestant Refo ...
.[ Around the time he became a monk, Luther sought assurances about life, and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in ]Aristotle
Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatetic school of phil ...
and the scholastics William of Ockham
William of Ockham, OFM (; also Occam, from la, Gulielmus Occamus; 1287 – 10 April 1347) was an English Franciscan friar, scholastic philosopher, apologist, and Catholic theologian, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small vill ...
and Gabriel Biel
Gabriel Biel (; 1420 to 1425 – 7 December 1495) was a German scholastic philosopher and member of the Canons Regular of the Congregation of Windesheim, who were the clerical counterpart to the Brethren of the Common Life.
Biel was born in Spe ...
.[ Marty, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 5.] He was deeply influenced by two tutors, Bartholomaeus Arnoldi von Usingen and Jodocus Trutfetter, who taught him to be suspicious of even the greatest thinkers,[ and to test everything himself by experience.][ Marty, Martin. ''Martin Luther''. Viking Penguin, 2004, p. 6.] Philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason
Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, science, ...
, but none about the importance, for Luther, of loving God. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, and he developed a love-hate relationship with Aristotle over the latter's emphasis on reason.[ For Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through ]divine revelation
In religion and theology, revelation is the revealing or disclosing of some form of truth or knowledge through communication with a deity or other supernatural entity or entities.
Background
Inspiration – such as that bestowed by God on the ...
, he believed, and Scripture
Religious texts, including scripture, are texts which various religions consider to be of central importance to their religious tradition. They differ from literature by being a compilation or discussion of beliefs, mythologies, ritual prac ...
therefore became increasingly important to him.[
In particular, Luther wrote theses 43 and 44 for his student Franz Günther to publicly defend in 1517 as part of earning his Baccalaureus Biblicus degree:]It is not merely incorrect to say that without Aristotle no man can become a theologian; on the contrary, we must say: he is no theologian who does not become one without Aristotle
Martin Luther held that it was "not at all in conformity with the New Testament to write books about Christian doctrine." He noted that before the Apostles wrote books, they "previously preached to and converted the people with the physical voice, which was also their real apostolic and New Testament work." To Luther, it was necessary to write books to counter all the false teachers and errors of the present day, but writing books on Christian teaching came at a price. "But since it became necessary to write books, there is already a great loss, and there is uncertainty as to what is meant." Martin Luther taught preaching and lectured upon the books of the Bible
A biblical canon is a set of texts (also called "books") which a particular Jewish or Christian religious community regards as part of the Bible.
The English word ''canon'' comes from the Greek , meaning "rule" or "measuring stick". The use o ...
in an exegetical manner. To Luther, St. Paul was the greatest of all systematic theologians, and his Epistle to the Romans
The Epistle to the Romans is the sixth book in the New Testament, and the longest of the thirteen Pauline epistles. Biblical scholars agree that it was composed by Paul the Apostle to explain that salvation is offered through the gospel of J ...
was the greatest dogmatics textbook of all time.[
Analysis of Luther's works, however, reveals a reliance on scholastic distinctions and modes of argument even after he had dismissed scholasticism entirely. Luther seems to be comfortable with the use of such theological methods so long as the content of theology is normed by scripture, though his direct statements regarding scholastic method are unequivocally negative.
]
Loci method
Beginning of the loci method
In contrast, Philipp Melanchthon
Philip Melanchthon. (born Philipp Schwartzerdt; 16 February 1497 – 19 April 1560) was a German Lutheran reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lu ...
scarcely began to lecture on Romans before he decided to formulate and arrange the definitions of the common theological terms of the epistle in his '' Loci Communes''.
Flourishing of the loci method
Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz (9 November 1522 – 8 April 1586) was an eminent second-generation German, Evangelical Lutheran, Christian theologian, and a Protestant reformer, churchman, and confessor. In the Evangelical Lutheran tradition he is known as ...
, Mathias Haffenreffer
Matthias Hafenreffer (24 June 1561 22 October 1619) was a German orthodox Lutheran theologian in the Lutheran scholastic tradition.
Born at Lorch (Württemberg), Hafenreffer was professor at Tübingen from 1592 until his death in 1617. He was ...
, and Leonhard Hutter
Leonhard Hutter (also ''Hütter'', Latinized as Hutterus; 19 January 1563 – 23 October 1616) was a German Lutheran theologian.
Life
He was born at Nellingen near Ulm. From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strasbourg, Leipzig, Heidelberg ...
simply expanded upon Melanchthon's ''Loci Communes''. With Chemnitz, however, a biblical method prevailed. At Melanchthon's suggestion he undertook a course of self-study. He began by carefully working through the Bible in the original languages while also answering questions that had previously puzzled him. When he felt ready to move on, he turned his attention to reading through the early theologians of the church slowly and carefully. Then he turned to current theological concerns and once again read painstakingly while making copious notes. His tendency was to constantly support his arguments with what is now known as biblical theology
Because scholars have tended to use the term in different ways, Biblical theology has been notoriously difficult to define.
Description
Although most speak of biblical theology as a particular method or emphasis within biblical studies, some scho ...
. He understood biblical revelation to be progressive—building from the earlier books to the later ones—and examined his supporting texts in their literary contexts and historical settings.[
]
Analytic method
Properly speaking, Lutheran scholasticism began in the 17th century, when the theological faculty of Wittenberg
Wittenberg ( , ; Low Saxon language, Low Saxon: ''Wittenbarg''; meaning ''White Mountain''; officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg (''Luther City Wittenberg'')), is the fourth largest town in Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Wittenberg is situated on the Ri ...
took up the scholastic method to fend off attacks by Jesuit theologians of the Second Scholastic Period of Roman Catholicism.
Origin of the analytic method
The philosophical school of neo-Aristotelianism began among Roman Catholics, for example, the universities Padua
Padua ( ; it, Padova ; vec, Pàdova) is a city and ''comune'' in Veneto, northern Italy. Padua is on the river Bacchiglione, west of Venice. It is the capital of the province of Padua. It is also the economic and communications hub of the ...
and Coimbra
Coimbra (, also , , or ) is a city and a municipality in Portugal. The population of the municipality at the 2011 census was 143,397, in an area of .
The fourth-largest urban area in Portugal after Lisbon, Porto Metropolitan Area, Porto, and Bra ...
. However, it spread to Germany by the late 16th century, resulting in a distinctly Protestant system of metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
associated with humanism
Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry.
The meaning of the term "humani ...
. This scholastic system of metaphysics held that abstract concepts
Abstraction in its main sense is a conceptual process wherein general rules and concepts are derived from the usage and classification of specific examples, literal ("real" or "concrete") signifiers, first principles, or other methods.
"An abstr ...
could explain the world in clear, distinct terms. This influenced the character of the scientific method
The scientific method is an empirical method for acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century (with notable practitioners in previous centuries; see the article history of scientific m ...
.[Hägglund, Bengt, ''History of Theology''. trans. Lund, Gene, L. St. Louis: Concordia, 1968. p. 300.]
Jacopo Zabarella
Giacomo (or Jacopo) Zabarella (5 September 1533 – 15 October 1589) was an Italian Aristotelian philosopher and logician.
Life
Zabarella was born into a noble Paduan family. He received a humanist education and entered the University of Padua ...
, a natural philosopher
Natural philosophy or philosophy of nature (from Latin ''philosophia naturalis'') is the philosophical study of physics
Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior throu ...
from Padua, taught that one could begin with a goal in mind and then explain ways to reach the goal.[ Although this was a scientific concept that Lutherans did not feel theology had to follow, by the beginning of the 17th century, Lutheran theologian ]Balthasar Mentzer
Balthazar, or variant spellings, may refer to:
Arts, entertainment and media
* ''Balthazar'' (novel), by Lawrence Durrell, 1958
* ''Balthasar'', an 1889 book by Anatole France
* ''Professor Balthazar'', a Croatian animated TV series, 1967-1978
...
attempted to explain theology in the same way. Beginning with God as the goal, he explained the doctrine of man, the nature of theology, and the way man can attain eternal happiness
''Eternal Happiness'' (Traditional Chinese: 再生緣; literally ''Reincarnated Fate'') is a 2002 TVB television drama from Hong Kong based on a short story of the same name by Qing dynasty novelist Chen Duansheng. ''Eternal Happiness'' was pr ...
with God. This form of presentation, called the analytic method, replaced the loci method
The method of loci is a strategy for memory enhancement, which uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments in order to enhance the recall of information. The method of loci is also known as the memory journey, memory palace, journey m ...
used by Melancthon in his ''Loci Communes''. This method made the presentation of theology more uniform, as each theologian could present Christian teaching as the message of salvation and the way to attain this salvation.[Hägglund, Bengt, ''History of Theology''. trans. Lund, Gene, L. St. Louis: Concordia, 1968. p. 301.]
Flourishing of the analytic and synthetic methods
After the time of Johann Gerhard
Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the ...
, Lutherans lost their attitude that philosophy was antagonistic to theology. Instead, Lutheran dogmaticians used syllogistic
A syllogism ( grc-gre, συλλογισμός, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true.
...
arguments and the philosophical terms common in the neo-Aristotelianism
Aristotelianism ( ) is a philosophical tradition inspired by the work of Aristotle, usually characterized by deductive logic and an analytic inductive method in the study of natural philosophy and metaphysics. It covers the treatment of the socia ...
of the time to make fine distinctions and enhance the precision of their theological method.[Preus, Robert. ]
The Inspiration of Scripture: A Study of the Theology of the 17th Century Lutheran Dogmaticians
'' London: Oliver and Boyd, 1957. Scholastic Lutheran theologians engaged in a twofold task. First, they collected texts, arranged them, supported them with arguments, and gave rebuttals based on the theologians before them. Second, they completed their process by going back to the pre-Reformation scholastics in order to gather additional material which they assumed the Reformation also accepted. Even though the Lutheran scholastic theologians added their own criticism to the pre-Reformation scholastics, they still had an important influence. Mainly, this practice served to separate their theology from direct interaction with Scripture.[ However, their theology was still built on Scripture as an authority that needed no external validation. Their scholastic method was intended to serve the purpose of their theology. Some dogmaticians preferred to use the synthetic method, while others used the analytic method, but all of them allowed Scripture to determine the ]form and content
In art and art criticism, form and content are considered distinct aspects of a work of art. The term ''form'' refers to the work's composition, techniques and media used, and how the elements of design are implemented. It mainly focuses on the phy ...
of their statements.
Abuse of the methods
Some Lutheran scholastic theologians, for example, Johann Gerhard
Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the ...
, used exegetical theology along with Lutheran scholasticism. However, in Calov, even his exegesis is dominated by his use of the analytic method With Johann Friedrich König and his student Johannes Andreas Quenstedt
Johannes Andreas Quenstedt (13 August 1617 – 22 May 1688) was a German Lutheran dogmatician in the Lutheran scholastic tradition.
Quenstedt was born at Quedlinburg, a nephew of Johann Gerhard. He was educated at the University of Helmstedt, 1 ...
, scholastic Lutheran theology reached its zenith.[ However the 20th century Lutheran scholar ]Robert Preus
The name Robert is an ancient Germanic given name, from Proto-Germanic "fame" and "bright" (''Hrōþiberhtaz''). Compare Old Dutch ''Robrecht'' and Old High German ''Hrodebert'' (a compound of '' Hruod'' ( non, Hróðr) "fame, glory, honou ...
was of the opinion that König went overboard with the scholastic method by overloading his small book, ''Theologia Positiva Acroamatica'' with Aristotelian distinctions.[ He noted that the scholastic method was inherently loaded with pitfalls. In particular, dogmaticians sometimes established cause and effect relationships without suitable links. When dogmaticians forced mysteries of the faith to fit into strict cause and effect relationships, they created "serious inconsistencies".][ In addition, sometimes they drew unneeded or baseless conclusions from the writings of their opponents, which not only was unproductive, but also harmed their own cause more than that of their rivals.][ Later orthodox dogmaticians tended to have an enormous number of artificial distinctions.][
]
Merits of the methods
On the other hand, the Lutheran scholastic method, although often tedious and complicated, managed to largely avoid vagueness and the fallacy of equivocation
In logic, equivocation ("calling two different things by the same name") is an informal fallacy resulting from the use of a particular word/expression in multiple senses within an argument.
It is a type of ambiguity that stems from a phrase havin ...
. As a result, their writings are understandable and prone to misrepresentation only by those entirely opposed to their theology.[ The use of scholastic philosophy also made Lutheran orthodoxy more intellectually rigorous. Theological questions could be resolved in a clean cut, even scientific, manner. The use of philosophy gave orthodox Lutheran theologians better tools to pass on their tradition than were otherwise available. It is also worth noting that it was only after neo-Aristotelian philosophical methods were ended that orthodox Lutheranism came to be criticized as austere, non-Christian formalism.][
]
Distinction between scholastic theology and method
The term “scholasticism” is used to indicate both the scholastic theology
Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories. Christian scholasticism emerged within the monastic schools that translate ...
that arose during the pre-Reformation Church and the methodology associated with it. While Lutherans reject the theology of the scholastics, some accept their method.[ Jacobs, Henry Eyster. ]
Scholasticism in the Luth. Church
” ''Lutheran Cyclopedia.'' New York: Scribner, 1899. pp. 434–5. Henry Eyster Jacobs
Henry Eyster Jacobs (November 10, 1844 – July 7, 1932) was an American religious educator, Biblical commentator and Lutheran theologian.
Biography
Jacobs was born in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the son of professor Michael and Juliana M (Eys ...
writes of the scholastic method:
:The method is the application of the most rigorous appliances of logic to the formulation and analysis of theological definitions. The method ''per se'' cannot be vicious, as sound logic always must keep within its own boundaries. It became false, when logic, as a science that has only to do with the natural, and with the supernatural only so far as it has been brought, by revelation, within the sphere of natural apprehension, undertakes not only to be the test of the supernatural, but to determine all of its relations.[
]
Worship and spirituality
Congregations maintained the full Mass
Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different elementar ...
rituals in their normal worship as suggested by Luther. In his ''Hauptgottesdienst'' (principal service of worship), Holy Communion
The Eucharist (; from Greek , , ), also known as Holy Communion and the Lord's Supper, is a Christian rite that is considered a sacrament in most churches, and as an ordinance in others. According to the New Testament, the rite was instituted ...
was celebrated on each Sunday and festival. The traditional parts of the service were retained and, sometimes, even incense
Incense is aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The term is used for either the material or the aroma. Incense is used for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremony. It may also be ...
was also used. Services were conducted in vernacular
A vernacular or vernacular language is in contrast with a "standard language". It refers to the language or dialect that is spoken by people that are inhabiting a particular country or region. The vernacular is typically the native language, n ...
language, but in Germany, Latin was also present in both the Ordinary and Proper
Proper may refer to:
Mathematics
* Proper map, in topology, a property of continuous function between topological spaces, if inverse images of compact subsets are compact
* Proper morphism, in algebraic geometry, an analogue of a proper map for ...
parts of the service. This helped students maintain their familiarity with the language. As late as the time of Johann Sebastian Bach
Johann Sebastian Bach (28 July 1750) was a German composer and musician of the late Baroque period. He is known for his orchestral music such as the '' Brandenburg Concertos''; instrumental compositions such as the Cello Suites; keyboard w ...
, churches in Leipzig
Leipzig ( , ; Upper Saxon: ) is the most populous city in the German state of Saxony. Leipzig's population of 605,407 inhabitants (1.1 million in the larger urban zone) as of 2021 places the city as Germany's eighth most populous, as wel ...
still heard Polyphonic
Polyphony ( ) is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice, monophony, or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords, h ...
motets in Latin, Latin Glorias, chant
A chant (from French ', from Latin ', "to sing") is the iterative speaking or singing of words or sounds, often primarily on one or two main pitches called reciting tones. Chants may range from a simple melody involving a limited set of notes ...
ed Latin collect
The collect ( ) is a short general prayer of a particular structure used in Christian liturgy.
Collects appear in the liturgies of Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Anglican, Methodist, Lutheran, and Presbyterian churches, among oth ...
s and The Creed sung in Latin by the choir.
Church music flourished and this era is considered as a "golden age" of Lutheran hymnody. Some hymnwriters include Philipp Nicolai
Philipp Nicolai (10 August 1556 – 26 October 1608) was a German Lutheran pastor, poet, and composer. He is most widely recognized as a hymnodist.
Biography
Philipp Nicolai was born at Mengeringhausen in Waldeck, Hesse, Germany where his fat ...
, Johann Heermann
Johann Heermann (11 October 158517 February 1647) was a German poet and hymnodist. He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 26 October with Philipp Nicolai and Paul Gerhardt.
Life
Heermann was born in Raudten (m ...
, Johann von Rist
Johann Rist (8 March 1607 – 31 August 1667) was a German poet and dramatist best known for his hymns, which inspired musical settings and have remained in hymnals.
Life
Rist was born at Ottensen in Holstein-Pinneberg (today Hamburg) on 8 Marc ...
and Benjamin Schmolck
Benjamin Schmolck (21 December 1672 – 12 February 1737) was a German Lutheran writer of hymns.
He was born a pastor's son in Brauchitschdorf (Chróstnik), Silesia. After attending the gymnasium in Liegnitz (Legnica), he studied theology ...
in Germany, Haquin Spegel
Haquin Spegel (Haqvin) (14 June 1645 – 17 April 1714), born ''Håkan Spegel'' in Ronneby in Blekinge (today in Sweden), was a religious author and hymn writer who held several bishop's seats.
Life
In 1675, the King Charles XI of Sweden appoin ...
in Sweden, Thomas Hansen Kingo
Thomas Hansen Kingo (15 December 1634 – 14 October 1703 Odense) was a Danish bishop, poet and hymn-writer born at Slangerup, near Copenhagen. His work marked the high point of Danish baroque poetry.
His father was a weaver of modest mean ...
in Denmark, Petter Dass
Petter Pettersen Dass (c. 1647 – 17 August 1707) was a Lutheran priest and the foremost Norwegian poet of his generation, writing both baroque hymns and topographical poetry.
Biography
He was born at Northern Herøy (Dønna), Nordland, No ...
in Norway, Hallgrímur Pétursson
Hallgrímur Pétursson (1614 – 27 October 1674) was an Icelandic poet and a minister at Hvalsneskirkja and Saurbær in Hvalfjörður. Being one of the most prominent Icelandic poets, the Hallgrímskirkja in Reykjavík and the Hallgrímskirkja ...
in Iceland, and Hemminki Maskulainen in Finland. The most famous orthodox Lutheran hymnwriter is Paul Gerhardt
Paul Gerhardt (12 March 1607 – 27 May 1676) was a German theologian, Lutheran minister and hymnodist.
Biography
Gerhardt was born into a middle-class family at Gräfenhainichen, a small town between Halle and Wittenberg. His father died in ...
. Prominent church musicians and composers include Michael Praetorius
Michael Praetorius (probably 28 September 1571 – 15 February 1621) was a German composer, organist, and music theorist. He was one of the most versatile composers of his age, being particularly significant in the development of musical forms ba ...
, Melchior Vulpius, Johann Hermann Schein
Johann Hermann Schein (20 January 1586 – 19 November 1630) was a German composer of the early Baroque era. He was Thomaskantor in Leipzig from 1615 to 1630. He was one of the first to import the early Italian stylistic innovations into Germa ...
, Heinrich Schütz
Heinrich Schütz (; 6 November 1672) was a German early Baroque composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach, as well as one of the most important composers of the 17th century. He ...
, Johann Crüger
Johann Crüger (9 April 1598 – 23 February 1662) was a German composer of well-known hymns. He was also the editor of the most widely used Lutheran hymnal of the 17th century, '' Praxis pietatis melica''.
Early life and education
Crüger was b ...
, Dieterich Buxtehude
Dieterich Buxtehude (; ; born Diderik Hansen Buxtehude; c. 1637 – 9 May 1707) was a Danish organist and composer of the Baroque period, whose works are typical of the North German organ school. As a composer who worked in various vocal ...
and Bach. Generally, the 17th century was a more difficult time than the earlier period of Reformation
The Reformation (alternatively named the Protestant Reformation or the European Reformation) was a major movement within Western Christianity in 16th-century Europe that posed a religious and political challenge to the Catholic Church and in ...
, due in part to the Thirty Years' War
The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (80 ...
. Finland suffered a severe famine in 1696-1697 as part of what is now called the Little Ice Age
The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of regional cooling, particularly pronounced in the North Atlantic region. It was not a true ice age of global extent. The term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939. Ma ...
, and almost one third of the population died. This struggle to survive can often be seen in hymns and devotional writings.
Evaluation
The era of Lutheran orthodoxy is not well known, and it has been very often looked at only through the view of liberal theology
Religious liberalism is a conception of religion (or of a particular religion) which emphasizes personal and group liberty and rationality. It is an attitude towards one's own religion (as opposed to criticism of religion from a secular position, ...
and pietism
Pietism (), also known as Pietistic Lutheranism, is a movement within Lutheranism that combines its emphasis on biblical doctrine with an emphasis on individual piety and living a holy Christian life, including a social concern for the needy and ...
and thus underestimated. The wide gap between the theology of Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
and rationalism
In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification".Lacey, A.R. (1996), ''A Dictionary of Philosophy' ...
has sometimes limited later theological neo-Lutheran
Neo-Lutheranism was a 19th-century revival movement within Lutheranism which began with the Pietist-driven '' Erweckung,'' or ''Awakening'', and developed in reaction against theological rationalism and pietism. This movement followed the Old Lu ...
and confessional Lutheran
Confessional Lutheranism is a name used by Lutherans to designate those who believe in the doctrines taught in the ''Book of Concord'' of 1580 (the Lutheran confessional documents) in their entirety. Confessional Lutherans maintain that faithfulne ...
attempts to understand and restore Lutheran orthodoxy.
More recently, a number of social historians, as well as historical theologians, have brought Lutheran orthodoxy to the forefront of their research. These scholars have expanded the understanding of Lutheran orthodoxy to include topics such as preaching and catechesis, devotional literature, popular piety, religious ritual, music and hymnody, and the concerns of cultural and political historians.
The most significant theologians of Orthodoxy can be said to be Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz (9 November 1522 – 8 April 1586) was an eminent second-generation German, Evangelical Lutheran, Christian theologian, and a Protestant reformer, churchman, and confessor. In the Evangelical Lutheran tradition he is known as ...
and Johann Gerhard
Johannes Gerhard (17 October 1582 – 17 August 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
Biography
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. During a dangerous illness, at the ...
. Lutheran orthodoxy can also be reflected in such rulers as Ernst I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Altenburg
Ernest I, called "Ernest the Pious" (25 December 1601 – 26 March 1675), was a duke of Saxe-Gotha and Saxe-Altenburg. The duchies were later merged into Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.
He was the ninth but sixth surviving son of Johann II, Duke of Saxe- ...
and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden
Gustavus Adolphus (9 December Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates">N.S_19_December.html" ;"title="Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/nowiki>Old Style and New Style dates">N.S 19 December">Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates.html" ;"title="/now ...
.
See also
* '' Loci Theologici''
* Protestant scholasticism
* Reformed orthodoxy
* Scholastic Lutheran Christology
Scholastic Lutheran Christology is the orthodox Lutheran theology of Jesus, developed using the methodology of Lutheran scholasticism.
On the general basis of the Chalcedonian christology and following the
indications of the Scriptures as the ...
References
External links
Sketch of the dogmaticians of Lutheran orthodoxy
from ''The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church'' by Heinrich Schmid
Lutheran Legacy
{{Authority control
Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
Orthodoxy
Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion.
Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
Christianity in the early modern period
Christian theological movements
Scholasticism