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Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in
Bergen Bergen (), historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Vestland county on the west coast of Norway. , its population is roughly 285,900. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers and is on the peninsula o ...
, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian dual monarchy. He was influenced by
Humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "human ...
, the
Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
and the Baroque. Holberg is considered the founder of modern Danish and Norwegian literature. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the Lille Grønnegade Theatre in
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...
. Holberg's works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936.


Studies and teaching

Holberg was the youngest of six brothers. His father,
Christian Nielsen Holberg Christen Nielsen Holberg (a.k.a. Christian Holberg, 1625 – 1686) was an officer in the Norwegian Army. He was also the father of Ludvig Holberg. In 1653 he was hired as a lieutenant to serve with Bergenhusiske Regiment both in Bergenhus len a ...
, died before Ludvig was one year old. He was educated in
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...
, and was a teacher at the
University of Copenhagen The University of Copenhagen ( da, Københavns Universitet, KU) is a prestigious public university, public research university in Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Founded in 1479, the University of Copenhagen is the second-oldest university in ...
for many years. At the same time, he started his successful career as an author, writing the first of a series of comedies. He began to study theology at the University of Copenhagen and later taught himself law, history and language. He was not particularly interested in theology as a career, settling for an ''attestats'' (similar to a
Bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ...
today), which gave him the right to work as a priest; he did not attempt a baccalaureus,
magister Magister is Latin for "master" or "teacher". It may refer to: Positions and titles * Magister degree, an academic degree * Magister equitum, or Master of the Horse * Magister militum, a master of the soldiers * Magister officiorum (''master of o ...
or
doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism '' ...
in the subject, nor did he follow a career as a theology professor, priest, or bishop. In Holberg's youth, it was common to study theology and specialize according to one's degree, for example in Greek, Latin, philosophy or history. For the purpose of becoming a lawyer, it was normal to study abroad. In 1736 the Danish Lawyer degree was established at the University of Copenhagen, a degree which continued to be granted for 200 years, and for which Holberg's writings remained common reading material throughout this time. Holberg was formally appointed assistant professor after having first worked as one without pay. He had to accept the first available position, which was teaching
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...
. Later, he became a professor and taught
rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate par ...
and
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
. Finally, he was given a professorship in the subject which he prized most and was most productive in, history. Holberg was well-educated and well-traveled. In his adolescence, he visited large cities in countries such as the
Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...
and France, and lived for a short period of time in
Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus ( legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...
; and for a longer period of time in
Oxford Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the Un ...
, England (1706–1708), which was rare during that time as intellectual life was centered in continental Europe. He was not formally admitted to
Oxford University Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...
, but spent his time there using the libraries and participating in Latin discussions with the English students.


Writings

Holberg's travels were a main inspiration in his later writings these experiences matured him both artistically and morally. Holberg let himself be inspired by old Latin comedies and newer French comedies he had seen in Paris, and street theaters in Rome. His writings can be divided into three periods, during which he produced mainly history, 1711–1718; mainly satirical poetry and stage comedies, 1719–1731; and mainly philosophy, 1731–1750. His rich output of comedies during the middle period was shaped by his role as house dramatist at Denmark's first public theater, opened in Copenhagen in 1721. These comedies are the works on which his fame rests today, and they were an immediate and immense success. However the poverty caused by the Copenhagen Fire of 1728, brought a wave of depression and puritanism upon the nation, which clashed with Holberg's satirical works, and as a consequence he gave up his comedies switching to philosophical and historical writings in 1731. Holberg's only novel, the
satirical Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming o ...
science-fiction Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel univer ...
/
fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy literature and drama ...
'' Niels Klim's Underground Travels'' was originally published in Latin in 1741 as ''Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum''.


Ideology

In Paris, Holberg met the Danish scientist Jacob Winsløw, who was
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwide . It is am ...
. Winsløw tried to convert Holberg, without success. Holberg enjoyed the debate, but it started a rumor in Copenhagen that Holberg had converted to Catholicism as Winsløw had, and as a consequence he felt it necessary to deny this to the Danish public, giving voice to anti-Catholic views on several occasions. Holberg criticized school doctrines in Christianity, arguing that "Children must be made into men, before they can become Christians" and "If one learns Theology, before learning to become a man, one will never become a man." Holberg believed in people's inner divine light of reason, and to him it was important that the first goal of education was to teach students to use their senses and intellect, instead of uselessly memorising school books. This was a new, modern understanding of the question of religion, and it shows he was a man of the
Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...
. Holberg was interested in intellect because he felt that this is what binds society together. He also wondered why there was so much evil in the world, especially when one could let reason lead the way. One could say that he distanced himself from a religious explanation of evil towards a rational/ empirical
train of thought The train of thought or track of thought refers to the interconnection in the sequence of ideas expressed during a connected discourse or thought, as well as the sequence itself, especially in discussion how this sequence leads from one idea to a ...
, and this is important because of his status as an author; both in his time and ours. Holberg was open to biblical criticism, and Holberg's religious representation was, for the most part,
deism Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin '' deus'', meaning "god") is the philosophical position and rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that empirical reason and observation ...
. He was critical of the notion of
original sin Original sin is the Christian doctrine that holds that humans, through the fact of birth, inherit a tainted nature in need of regeneration and a proclivity to sinful conduct. The biblical basis for the belief is generally found in Genesis 3 ( ...
, instead subscribing to the notion of man's free will. Holberg's declared intentions with his authorship were to enlighten people to better society. This also fits in with the picture of Holberg as of the age of enlightenment. It is worth noting that Holberg enjoyed larger cities with deep culture – small cities and nature did not interest him. Like many scholars of his time, Holberg also influenced science. Holberg's concept for science was that it should be inductive (through experience built on observations) and practical to use. One example is his ''Betænkning over den nu regierende Qvæg-Syge'' (Memorandum on the prevalent cattle disease), (1745) where he reasons that the disease is caused by
microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...
s.


Finances


In youth

Holberg had to live a modest life in his youth and early adulthood. He earned a living as a tutor and as a travel companion for noblemen and tried to work as a private sports coach at the university. He received further support from a grant to travel to other universities in other countries, namely Protestant universities, but it was a condition he did not respect since he searched out those places where the discussion were the loudest and the experiences were the largest. During his stay in England, Holberg set his eyes on academic authoring and on his return, he started writing about history. Later, he wrote also about natural and international law, possibly at the prompting of an older professor who likened him to natural and international law authors such as
Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius (; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Huig de Groot () and Hugo de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, poet and playwright. A teenage intellectual prodigy, he was born in Delf ...
and Samuel Pufendorf. To make the most possible profit, Holberg published his own works and sold them as papers under a subscription to interested people, either bound or in looseleaf sheets. Holberg also tried, with some success, a publisher in Norway. There, his book about natural and international law was printed in several editions but did not garner him financial gains.


Investments

Holberg lived modestly and was able to invest a large part of the profits from the sale of his books on the side and lend them out or invest them in more active ventures. Several times in his writings he criticized townspeople and nobles who used their resources in unproductive ways to be carried round in chairs, to live in lavish houses and waste money on luxury. He ate reasonably and did not use his money on being driven around. He said that his travelling on foot, and continued walking, was the reason he could keep his
malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or deat ...
, which had plagued him in the south, under control. When he came to the conclusion he could put his money in better ventures than trading, he started investing in real estate. His first large property purchase, Brorupgaard close to Havrebjerg, happened in stages; first he lent money to the owner at that time, and later took over the farm himself. Some years later, Holberg also purchased Tersløsegard by Dianalund, the only one of his properties which is preserved because the others in Bergen, Copenhagen and Havrebjerg have been either burned down or torn down. ;Sorø Academy and Holberg's will; Holberg was both unmarried and childless, but in the end of his life had a small fortune. He was interested in leaving a legacy and left his estate to Sorø Academy, which was a royal riding academy, with the goal of creating an institution at a university level for young men coming from nobility. Holberg supported the idea of the academy, worked out suggestions to which academic direction it would take and was asked by the king's superintendent to refer some professors for the school. The influential Enlightenment writer
Jens Schielderup Sneedorff Jens Schielderup Sneedorff (22 August 1724 – 5 June 1764) was a Danish author, professor of political science and royal teacher and a central figure in Denmark in the Age of Enlightenment. Biography Sneedorff was born in Sorø, the son of the ...
was appointed professor at Sorø Academy at Holbergs request. The agreement with the king included that Holberg would be free of taxes from any income from the farms he owned, because the amount donated to the school should be larger than the amount he would pay in taxes. At the same time, he earned the title of '' Baron of Holberg''. Holberg's casket, a work of Johannes Wiedewelt, can be seen in Sorø Monastery Church.


Examples of Holberg's financial management

It can be seen from Holberg's correspondence that he was very conservative with money where he thought it would not be of any use; for example, he was against raising the wage of the pedagogues of Havrebjerg. Holberg commented several times that he was willing to use money if it were put to good use, for example, he would use money on medication and supplies for his farm hands if they suffered from injury or illness. When academia had large economic difficulties, because funding was very limited, Holberg agreed to help fund the academy (at Sorø Academy) while he was alive.


Tributes

Norwegian
Edvard Grieg Edvard Hagerup Grieg ( , ; 15 June 18434 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist. He is widely considered one of the foremost Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide. His use of ...
composed the '' Holberg Suite'' (opus 40) to honor Holberg. The suite is in the style of country dances from Holberg's time. In 1911 Johan Halvorsen composed incidental music for a production of Holberg's ''Barselstuen'' (The Lying-in Room) in
Oslo Oslo ( , , or ; sma, Oslove) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of ...
. Halvorsen later arranged the music into his ''Suite Ancienne'' op. 31, which he dedicated to the memory of Holberg. The Norwegian
University of Bergen The University of Bergen ( no, Universitetet i Bergen, ) is a research-intensive state university located in Bergen, Norway. As of 2019, the university has over 4,000 employees and 18,000 students. It was established by an act of parliament in 194 ...
awards the Holberg International Memorial Prize. The 4.5 million kroner (ca. €520,000) endowed prize was awarded to
Julia Kristeva Julia Kristeva (; born Yuliya Stoyanova Krasteva, bg, Юлия Стоянова Кръстева; on 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, semiotician, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who ha ...
in 2004, to
Jürgen Habermas Jürgen Habermas (, ; ; born 18 June 1929) is a German social theorist in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. His work addresses communicative rationality and the public sphere. Associated with the Frankfurt School, Habermas's ...
in 2005, and to Shmuel Eisenstadt in 2006. There is a town named after Holberg on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. It was founded by Danish immigrants in 1907.
Dan Shore Dan Shore (born 1975) is an American composer and playwright from Allentown, Pennsylvania, whose works include ''The Beautiful Bridegroom'', '' An Embarrassing Position'', ''Travel'', ''Works of Mercy'', and ''Lady Orchid''. Education Shore atte ...
's opera ''The Beautiful Bridegroom,'' for six sopranos, is based on Holberg's last play, ''Den forvandlede Brudgom.'' There is a statue of Holberg and a boulevard named after him (''Holbergsallmenningen'') in the centre of
Bergen, Norway Bergen (), historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Vestland county on the west coast of Norway. , its population is roughly 285,900. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers and is on the peninsula o ...
. A crater on Mercury is named for him.


Written works


Comedies

* '' Den Politiske Kandestøber'', 1722 (Eng. ''The Political Tinker'' / ''The Pewterer turned Politician'') * ''
Den vægelsindede ''Den vægelsindede'' is a Danish play. The three-act comedy was written by Ludvig Holberg Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in Bergen ...
'', 1722 (Eng. ''The Waverer'' / ''The Weathercock'') * ''Jean de France eller Hans Frandsen'', 1722 (Eng. ''Jean de France'') * '' Jeppe på bjerget eller den forvandlede Bonde'', 1722 (Eng. ''Jeppe of the Hill, or The Transformed Peasant'') * '' Mester Gert Westphaler'', 1722 (Eng. ''Gert Westphaler'') * ''Barselstuen'', 1723 (Eng. ''The Lying-in Room'') * ''Den ellefte Junii'', 1723 (Eng. The Eleventh of June) * ''
Jacob von Tyboe Jacob von T(h)yboe , or simply ''Jacob von Thyboe'', is a satirical play first published by Ludvig Holberg in 1723. It premiered at the Lille Grønnegade Theatre in Copenhagen in 1725. Plot summary Leonard is poor but wants to marry the fair Luc ...
eller den stortalende Soldat'', 1723 (Eng. Jacob von Tyboe, or The Bragging Soldier) * ''Ulysses von Ithacia'', 1723 (Eng. ''Ulysses of Ithaca'') * '' Erasmus Montanus eller Rasmus Berg'', 1723 (Eng. '' Erasmus Montanus or Rasmus Berg'') * ''Don Ranudo de Colibrados'', 1723 * ''Uden Hoved og Hale'', 1723 (Eng. ''Without Head or Tail'') * ''
Den Stundesløse ''The Fidget'' ( da, Den stundesløse) is a satirical play published by Ludvig Holberg in 1723. It premiered at Lille Grønnegade Theatre in Copenhagen on 25 November 1726. Plot summary Vielgeschrey, a fidget merchant constantly surrounded by hu ...
'', 1723 (Eng. ''The Fidget'') * ''Hexerie eller Blind Allarm'', 1723 (Eng. ''Witchcraft or False Alert'') * ''Melampe'', 1723 * ''
Det lykkelige Skibbrud ''The Happy Capsize'' ( da, Det lykkelige Skibbrud) is a five-set, satirical play by Norwegian-Danish playwright Ludvig Holberg from 1754. Production history ''Det lykkelige Skibbrud'' premiered at the Royal Danish Theatre on 3 January 1754. It ...
'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Happy Capsize'') * ''Det Arabiske Pulver'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Arabian Powder'') * ''Mascarade'', 1724 (Eng. ''Masquerade'') * '' Julestuen'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Christmas Party'') * ''De Usynlige'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Invisible'' / ''The Masked Ladies'') * ''Diderich Menschenskraek'', 1724 (Eng. ''Diderich the Terrible'') * ''Kildereisen'', 1725 (Eng. ''The journey to the source'' / ''The source Journey'') * ''Henrich og Pernille'', 1724–1726 (Eng. ''Henrik and Pernille'') * ''Den pantsatte Bondedreng'', 1726 (Eng. ''The Pawned Farmers helper'' / ''The Peasant in Pawn'') * ''Pernilles korte Frøkenstand'', 1727 (Eng. ''Pernille's Brief Experience as a Lady'') * ''Den Danske Comoedies Liigbegængelse'', 1727 (Eng. ''Funeral of Danish Comedy'') * ''Den honette Ambition'', 1731 (Eng. ''The honest/honourable ambition'') * ''Den Forvandlede Brudgom'', 1753 (Eng. ''The Changed Bridegroom'') * ''Plutus eller Proces imellom Fattigdom og Riigdom'', publ. 1753 * ''Husspøgelse eller Abracadabra'', publ. 1753 (Eng. ''The house's Ghost or Abracadabra'') * ''Philosophus udi egen Indbildning'', publ. 1754 * ''Republiqven eller det gemeene Bedste'', publ. 1754 * ''Sganarels Rejse til det philosophiske Land'', publ. 1754 (Eng. ''Sganarel's Journey to the Land of the Philosophers'')


Poems

* ''Peder Paars'', 1720 * ''fire Skæmtedigte'', 1722 (Eng. ''Four poems for fun'') * ''Metamorphosis eller Forvandlinger'', 1726 (Eng. ''Metamorphosis or Changes'')


Novels

* ''Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum'', 1741. (Translated to Danish by Hans Hagerup in 1742 as ''Niels Klims underjordiske Rejse''.) (Eng. Niels Klim's Underground Travels or ''Nicolai Klimii's subterranean Journey'' or ''The Journey of Niels Klim to the World Underground'' Bison Books, 2004. )


Essays

* ''Moralske Tanker'', 1744 (Eng. ''Moral thoughts'') * ''Epistler'', 1748–54 * ''Moralske Fabler'', 1751 (Eng. ''Moral Fables'') * ''Tre latinske levnedsbreve'', 1728–1743


Historical works

* ''Introduction til de fornemste Europæiske Rigers Historier'', 1711 (Eng. ''Introduction to the Greatest European Empires Histories'') * ''Morals Kierne eller Introduction til Naturens og Folke-Rettens Kundskab'', 1716 (Eng. ''The Core of Morality or Introduction to Natural and International Law'') * ''Dannemarks og Norges Beskrivelse'', 1729 (Eng. ''Denmark's and Norway's Description'') * ''Dannemarks Riges Historie'', 1732–35 (Eng. ''The Danish Empire/Kingdom's History'') * ''Den berømmelige Norske Handel-Stad Bergens Beskrivelse'', 1737 (Eng. ''The Famous Norwegian Commercial Hub Bergen's Description'') * ''Almindelig Kirke-Historie'', 1738 (Eng. ''General Church History'') * ''Den jødiske Historie fra Verdens Begyndelse, fortsat til disse Tider'', 1742 (Eng. ''The Jewish History From the Beginning of the World, Continued till Present Day/These Times'') * ''Adskillige store Heltes og berømmelige Mænds sammenlignede Historier'', 1739–53 (Eng. ''Several Great Heroes' and Famous Men's Compared Histories'') * ''Adskillige Heltinders og navnkundige Damers sammenlignede Historier'', 1745 (Eng. ''Several Heroines' and Noteworthy Ladies' Compared Histories'')


Memoir

*
Memoirs of Lewis Holberg
', 1737 (published in English, 1827)


See also

*
Christian Gotlob Mengel Christian Gotlob Mengel (23 October 1716 - 3 April 1769) was a Germans, German born publisher, translator and bookseller. Early life and education Mengel was born on 23 October 1716 in Świdnica, Schweidnitz, Silesia, the son of tailor Christian Fr ...


Notes


References

* A primary source is Ludvig Holberg's Latin Testament. It can be recommended to use: Holberg, Ludvig, and Aage Kragelund. ''Ludvig Holbergs tre levnedsbreve 1728–1743''. København: G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 1965. The edition contains an introduction, Holberg's texts in both Latin and Danish, commentaries and an index. * * Thomsen, Ole B. ''Embedsstudiernes universitet en undersøgelse af Københavns universitets fundats af 1788 som grundlag for vores nuværende studiestruktur''. København: Akademisk Forlag, 1975. * Grethe Ilsøe: Juridisk eksamen for ustuderede. Kollektiv biografi af 1. kandidatgeneration (eksamensårgangene 1736–65) i: Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift, 1985, nr. 2 * Jens Hougaard: ''Ludvig Holberg. The Playwright and his age up to 1730'', Odense University Press. 1993. . * Caterina Marrone: ''Le lingue utopiche'', Nuovi Equilibri, Viterbo, 2004 995 p. 338, *Bent Holm: ''Ludvig Holberg. A Danish Playwright on the European Stage. Masquerade, Comedy, Satire''. Vienna: Hollitzer, 2018. .


External links

* * *
Complete works of Ludvig Holberg (Danish originals)
at Archive for Danish Literature
A sound recording of Holberg's comedy The Arabian Powder
at Lost Plays.com
Ludvig Holberg's writings
nbsp;– a Danish-Norwegian website under construction {{DEFAULTSORT:Holberg, Ludvig 1684 births 1754 deaths People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School 18th-century Danish dramatists and playwrights Danish male writers 18th-century Danish memoirists Danish essayists Norwegian dramatists and playwrights Norwegian essayists Writers from Copenhagen University of Copenhagen alumni Writers from Bergen Norwegian emigrants to Denmark 18th-century Latin-language writers 18th-century male writers 17th-century Danish people 18th-century Danish writers 18th-century Danish scientists 17th-century Norwegian people 18th-century Norwegian novelists 17th-century Norwegian writers 18th-century Norwegian writers 18th-century Norwegian scientists Norwegian male novelists Danish male dramatists and playwrights Rectors of the University of Copenhagen Male essayists 18th-century essayists Enlightenment philosophers