Ludvig Holberg, Baron of Holberg (3 December 1684 – 28 January 1754) was a writer, essayist, philosopher, historian and playwright born in

Bergen Bergen (), historically Bjørgvin, is a city and municipality in Vestland county on the west coast of Norway. , its population is roughly 285,900. Bergen is the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers and is on the peninsula of ...

, Norway, during the time of the Dano-Norwegian dual monarchy. He was influenced by

Humanism Humanism is a philosophical stance that emphasizes the individual and social potential and agency of human beings. It considers human beings the starting point for serious moral and philosophical inquiry. The meaning of the term "humani ...

, the Enlightenment and the

Baroque The Baroque (, ; ) is a style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished in Europe from the early 17th century until the 1750s. In the territories of the Spanish and Portuguese empires including t ...

. Holberg is considered the founder of modern

Danish Danish may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Denmark People * A national or citizen of Denmark, also called a "Dane," see Demographics of Denmark * Culture of Denmark * Danish people or Danes, people with a Danish a ...

and

Norwegian literature Norwegian literature is literature composed in Norway or by Norwegian people. The history of Norwegian literature starts with the pagan Eddaic poems and skaldic verse of the 9th and 10th centuries with poets such as Bragi Boddason and Eyvindr ...

. He is best known for the comedies he wrote in 1722–1723 for the

Lille Grønnegade Theatre Lille Grønnegade Theatre was a Danish theatre which was active from 1722 to 1728. It was the first public theatre in Copenhagen in Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem ...

Copenhagen Copenhagen ( or .; da, København ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a proper population of around 815.000 in the last quarter of 2022; and some 1.370,000 in the urban area; and the wider Copenhagen metropolitan ar ...

. Holberg's works about natural and common law were widely read by many Danish law students over two hundred years, from 1736 to 1936.

Studies and teaching

Holberg was the youngest of six brothers. His father, Christian Nielsen Holberg, died before Ludvig was one year old. He was educated in

, and was a teacher at the

University of Copenhagen The University of Copenhagen ( da, Københavns Universitet, KU) is a prestigious public university, public research university in Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark. Founded in 1479, the University of Copenhagen is the second-oldest university in ...

for many years. At the same time, he started his successful career as an author, writing the first of a series of comedies. He began to study theology at the University of Copenhagen and later taught himself law, history and language. He was not particularly interested in theology as a career, settling for an ''attestats'' (similar to a

Bachelor's degree A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ...

today), which gave him the right to work as a priest; he did not attempt a

baccalaureus A bachelor's degree (from Middle Latin ''baccalaureus'') or baccalaureate (from Modern Latin ''baccalaureatus'') is an undergraduate academic degree awarded by colleges and universities upon completion of a course of study lasting three to six ye ...

, magister or

doctorate A doctorate (from Latin ''docere'', "to teach"), doctor's degree (from Latin ''doctor'', "teacher"), or doctoral degree is an academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism ''l ...

in the subject, nor did he follow a career as a theology professor, priest, or bishop. In Holberg's youth, it was common to study theology and specialize according to one's degree, for example in Greek, Latin, philosophy or history. For the purpose of becoming a lawyer, it was normal to study abroad. In 1736 the Danish Lawyer degree was established at the University of Copenhagen, a degree which continued to be granted for 200 years, and for which Holberg's writings remained common reading material throughout this time. Holberg was formally appointed assistant professor after having first worked as one without pay. He had to accept the first available position, which was teaching

metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that studies the fundamental nature of reality, the first principles of being, identity and change, space and time, causality, necessity, and possibility. It includes questions about the nature of conscio ...

. Later, he became a professor and taught

rhetoric Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...

and

Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...

. Finally, he was given a professorship in the subject which he prized most and was most productive in, history. Holberg was well-educated and well-traveled. In his adolescence, he visited large cities in countries such as the

Netherlands ) , anthem = ( en, "William of Nassau") , image_map = , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdivision_name = Kingdom of the Netherlands , established_title = Before independence , established_date = Spanish Netherl ...

and France, and lived for a short period of time in

Rome , established_title = Founded , established_date = 753 BC , founder = King Romulus (legendary) , image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg , map_caption ...

; and for a longer period of time in

Oxford Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...

, England (1706–1708), which was rare during that time as intellectual life was centered in continental Europe. He was not formally admitted to

Oxford University Oxford () is a city in England. It is the county town and only city of Oxfordshire. In 2020, its population was estimated at 151,584. It is north-west of London, south-east of Birmingham and north-east of Bristol. The city is home to the ...

, but spent his time there using the libraries and participating in Latin discussions with the English students.

Writings

Holberg's travels were a main inspiration in his later writings these experiences matured him both artistically and morally. Holberg let himself be inspired by old Latin comedies and newer French comedies he had seen in Paris, and street theaters in Rome. His writings can be divided into three periods, during which he produced mainly history, 1711–1718; mainly satirical poetry and stage comedies, 1719–1731; and mainly philosophy, 1731–1750. His rich output of comedies during the middle period was shaped by his role as house dramatist at Denmark's first public theater, opened in Copenhagen in 1721. These comedies are the works on which his fame rests today, and they were an immediate and immense success. However the poverty caused by the

Copenhagen Fire of 1728 The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest fire in the history of Copenhagen, Denmark. It began on the evening of 20 October 1728 and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October. It destroyed approximately 28% of the city (measured by cou ...

, brought a wave of depression and puritanism upon the nation, which clashed with Holberg's satirical works, and as a consequence he gave up his comedies switching to philosophical and historical writings in 1731. Holberg's only novel, the

satirical Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming or e ...

science-fiction Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel univers ...

fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving Magic (supernatural), magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy ...

Niels Klim's Underground Travels ''Niels Klim's Underground Travels'', originally published in Latin as ''Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum'' (1741), is a satirical science-fiction/fantasy novel written by the Norwegian-Danish author Ludvig Holberg. His only novel, it describe ...

'' was originally published in Latin in 1741 as ''Nicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum''.

Ideology

In Paris, Holberg met the Danish scientist

Jacob Winsløw Jacob Benignus Winsløw, also known as Jacques-Bénigne Winslow (17 April 1669 – 3 April 1760), was a Danish-born French anatomist. Life Winsløw was born in Odense, Denmark. Later he became a pupil and successor of Guichard Joseph Duverney, ...

, who was

Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

. Winsløw tried to convert Holberg, without success. Holberg enjoyed the debate, but it started a rumor in Copenhagen that Holberg had converted to Catholicism as Winsløw had, and as a consequence he felt it necessary to deny this to the Danish public, giving voice to anti-Catholic views on several occasions. Holberg criticized school doctrines in Christianity, arguing that "Children must be made into men, before they can become Christians" and "If one learns Theology, before learning to become a man, one will never become a man." Holberg believed in people's inner divine light of reason, and to him it was important that the first goal of education was to teach students to use their senses and intellect, instead of uselessly memorising school books. This was a new, modern understanding of the question of religion, and it shows he was a man of the

Age of Enlightenment The Age of Enlightenment or the Enlightenment; german: Aufklärung, "Enlightenment"; it, L'Illuminismo, "Enlightenment"; pl, Oświecenie, "Enlightenment"; pt, Iluminismo, "Enlightenment"; es, La Ilustración, "Enlightenment" was an intel ...

. Holberg was interested in intellect because he felt that this is what binds society together. He also wondered why there was so much evil in the world, especially when one could let reason lead the way. One could say that he distanced himself from a religious explanation of evil towards a rational/ empirical

train of thought The train of thought or track of thought refers to the interconnection in the sequence of ideas expressed during a connected discourse or thought, as well as the sequence itself, especially in discussion how this sequence leads from one idea to ...

, and this is important because of his status as an author; both in his time and ours. Holberg was open to biblical criticism, and Holberg's religious representation was, for the most part,

deism Deism ( or ; derived from the Latin ''deus'', meaning "god") is the Philosophy, philosophical position and Rationalism, rationalistic theology that generally rejects revelation as a source of divine knowledge, and asserts that Empirical evi ...

. He was critical of the notion of original sin, instead subscribing to the notion of man's free will. Holberg's declared intentions with his authorship were to enlighten people to better society. This also fits in with the picture of Holberg as of the age of enlightenment. It is worth noting that Holberg enjoyed larger cities with deep culture – small cities and nature did not interest him. Like many scholars of his time, Holberg also influenced science. Holberg's concept for science was that it should be inductive (through experience built on observations) and practical to use. One example is his ''Betænkning over den nu regierende Qvæg-Syge'' (Memorandum on the prevalent cattle disease), (1745) where he reasons that the disease is caused by

microorganism A microorganism, or microbe,, ''mikros'', "small") and ''organism'' from the el, ὀργανισμός, ''organismós'', "organism"). It is usually written as a single word but is sometimes hyphenated (''micro-organism''), especially in olde ...

Finances

In youth

Holberg had to live a modest life in his youth and early adulthood. He earned a living as a tutor and as a travel companion for noblemen and tried to work as a private sports coach at the university. He received further support from a grant to travel to other universities in other countries, namely Protestant universities, but it was a condition he did not respect since he searched out those places where the discussion were the loudest and the experiences were the largest. During his stay in England, Holberg set his eyes on academic authoring and on his return, he started writing about history. Later, he wrote also about natural and international law, possibly at the prompting of an older professor who likened him to natural and international law authors such as Hugo Grotius and

Samuel Pufendorf Samuel Freiherr von Pufendorf (8 January 1632 – 26 October 1694) was a German jurist, political philosopher, economist and historian. He was born Samuel Pufendorf and ennobled in 1694; he was made a baron by Charles XI of Sweden a few months b ...

. To make the most possible profit, Holberg published his own works and sold them as papers under a subscription to interested people, either bound or in looseleaf sheets. Holberg also tried, with some success, a publisher in Norway. There, his book about natural and international law was printed in several editions but did not garner him financial gains.

Investments

Holberg lived modestly and was able to invest a large part of the profits from the sale of his books on the side and lend them out or invest them in more active ventures. Several times in his writings he criticized townspeople and nobles who used their resources in unproductive ways to be carried round in chairs, to live in lavish houses and waste money on luxury. He ate reasonably and did not use his money on being driven around. He said that his travelling on foot, and continued walking, was the reason he could keep his

malaria Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects humans and other animals. Malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, tiredness, vomiting, and headaches. In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death. S ...

, which had plagued him in the south, under control. When he came to the conclusion he could put his money in better ventures than trading, he started investing in real estate. His first large property purchase, Brorupgaard close to

Havrebjerg Havrebjerg is a village on Zealand, Denmark ) , song = ( en, "King Christian stood by the lofty mast") , song_type = National and royal anthem , image_map = EU-Denmark.svg , map_caption = , subdivision_type = Sovereign state , subdiv ...

, happened in stages; first he lent money to the owner at that time, and later took over the farm himself. Some years later, Holberg also purchased Tersløsegard by Dianalund, the only one of his properties which is preserved because the others in Bergen, Copenhagen and Havrebjerg have been either burned down or torn down. ;Sorø Academy and Holberg's will; Holberg was both unmarried and childless, but in the end of his life had a small fortune. He was interested in leaving a legacy and left his estate to

Sorø Academy Sorø Academy ( Danish, ''Sorø Akademi'') is a boarding school and gymnasium located in the small town of Sorø, Denmark. It traces its history back to the 12th century when Bishop Absalon founded a monastery at the site, which was confiscated b ...

, which was a royal riding academy, with the goal of creating an institution at a university level for young men coming from nobility. Holberg supported the idea of the academy, worked out suggestions to which academic direction it would take and was asked by the king's superintendent to refer some professors for the school. The influential Enlightenment writer Jens Schielderup Sneedorff was appointed professor at Sorø Academy at Holbergs request. Baron Holberg (NDA s

The agreement with the king included that Holberg would be free of taxes from any income from the farms he owned, because the amount donated to the school should be larger than the amount he would pay in taxes. At the same time, he earned the title of ''

Baron Baron is a rank of nobility or title of honour, often hereditary, in various European countries, either current or historical. The female equivalent is baroness. Typically, the title denotes an aristocrat who ranks higher than a lord or knig ...

of Holberg''. Holberg's casket, a work of

Johannes Wiedewelt Johannes Wiedewelt (1 July 1731 – 17 December 1802), Danish neoclassical sculptor. He became a court sculptor, introducing neoclassical ideals to Denmark in the form of palace decorations, garden sculptures and artifacts and, especially, mem ...

, can be seen in Sorø Monastery Church.

Examples of Holberg's financial management

It can be seen from Holberg's correspondence that he was very conservative with money where he thought it would not be of any use; for example, he was against raising the wage of the pedagogues of Havrebjerg. Holberg commented several times that he was willing to use money if it were put to good use, for example, he would use money on medication and supplies for his farm hands if they suffered from injury or illness. When academia had large economic difficulties, because funding was very limited, Holberg agreed to help fund the academy (at Sorø Academy) while he was alive.

Tributes

Ludvig Holberg statue in Copenhagen, by Theobald Stein, 1875

Norwegian

Edvard Grieg Edvard Hagerup Grieg ( , ; 15 June 18434 September 1907) was a Norwegian composer and pianist. He is widely considered one of the foremost Romantic era composers, and his music is part of the standard classical repertoire worldwide. His use of ...

composed the ''

Holberg Suite The ''Holberg Suite'', Op. 40, more properly ''From Holberg's Time'' (Norwegian: ''Fra Holbergs tid''), subtitled "Suite in olden style" ( no, Suite i gammel stil, links=no, italics=no), is a suite of five movements based on eighteenth-century ...

'' (opus 40) to honor Holberg. The suite is in the style of country dances from Holberg's time. In 1911

Johan Halvorsen Johan Halvorsen (15 March 1864 – 4 December 1935) was a Norwegian composer, conductor and violinist. Life Born in Drammen, he was an accomplished violinist from a very early age and became a prominent figure in Norwegian musical life. He r ...

composed incidental music for a production of Holberg's ''Barselstuen'' (The Lying-in Room) in

Oslo Oslo ( , , or ; sma, Oslove) is the capital and most populous city of Norway. It constitutes both a county and a municipality. The municipality of Oslo had a population of in 2022, while the city's greater urban area had a population of ...

. Halvorsen later arranged the music into his ''Suite Ancienne'' op. 31, which he dedicated to the memory of Holberg. The Norwegian

University of Bergen The University of Bergen ( no, Universitetet i Bergen, ) is a research-intensive state university located in Bergen, Norway. As of 2019, the university has over 4,000 employees and 18,000 students. It was established by an act of parliament in 194 ...

awards the Holberg International Memorial Prize. The 4.5 million kroner (ca. €520,000) endowed prize was awarded to Julia Kristeva in 2004, to

Jürgen Habermas Jürgen Habermas (, ; ; born 18 June 1929) is a German social theorist in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. His work addresses communicative rationality and the public sphere. Associated with the Frankfurt School, Habermas's wor ...

in 2005, and to

Shmuel Eisenstadt Shmuel Noah Eisenstadt (Hebrew: שמואל נח אייזנשטדט‎ 10 September 1923, Warsaw – 2 September 2010, Jerusalem) was an Israeli sociologist and writer. In 1959 he was appointed to a teaching post in the sociology department ...

in 2006. There is a town named after Holberg on northern Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. It was founded by Danish immigrants in 1907.

Dan Shore Dan Shore (born 1975) is an American composer and playwright from Allentown, Pennsylvania, whose works include ''The Beautiful Bridegroom'', '' An Embarrassing Position'', ''Travel'', ''Works of Mercy'', and ''Lady Orchid''. Education Shore atte ...

's opera ''The Beautiful Bridegroom,'' for six sopranos, is based on Holberg's last play, ''Den forvandlede Brudgom.'' There is a statue of Holberg and a

boulevard A boulevard is a type of broad avenue planted with rows of trees, or in parts of North America, any urban highway. Boulevards were originally circumferential roads following the line of former city walls. In American usage, boulevards may ...

named after him (''Holbergsallmenningen'') in the centre of Bergen, Norway. A crater on Mercury is named for him.

Written works

Comedies

Plakat for en opførelse af Ludvig Holbergs Gert Westphaler

* '' Den Politiske Kandestøber'', 1722 (Eng. ''The Political Tinker'' / ''The Pewterer turned Politician'') * '' Den vægelsindede'', 1722 (Eng. ''The Waverer'' / ''The Weathercock'') * ''Jean de France eller Hans Frandsen'', 1722 (Eng. ''Jean de France'') * ''

Jeppe på bjerget ''Jeppe on the Hill; Or, The Transformed Peasant'' ( da, Jeppe på bjerget) is a Danish comedy by the Norwegian playwright Ludvig Holberg, written during the time of the Dano-Norwegian dual monarchy. The play premiered at the Lille Grønnegade ...

eller den forvandlede Bonde'', 1722 (Eng. ''Jeppe of the Hill, or The Transformed Peasant'') * '' Mester Gert Westphaler'', 1722 (Eng. ''Gert Westphaler'') * ''Barselstuen'', 1723 (Eng. ''The Lying-in Room'') * ''Den ellefte Junii'', 1723 (Eng. The Eleventh of June) * '' Jacob von Tyboe eller den stortalende Soldat'', 1723 (Eng. Jacob von Tyboe, or The Bragging Soldier) * ''Ulysses von Ithacia'', 1723 (Eng. ''Ulysses of Ithaca'') * ''

Erasmus Montanus ''Erasmus Montanus'' is a satirical play about academic snobbery set in rural Denmark. Written by Ludvig Holberg in 1722, the script was first published in 1731 and performed in 1747. Today, it is among Holberg's most frequently performed works. ...

eller Rasmus Berg'', 1723 (Eng. ''

or Rasmus Berg'') * ''Don Ranudo de Colibrados'', 1723 * ''Uden Hoved og Hale'', 1723 (Eng. ''Without Head or Tail'') * '' Den Stundesløse'', 1723 (Eng. ''The Fidget'') * ''Hexerie eller Blind Allarm'', 1723 (Eng. ''Witchcraft or False Alert'') * ''Melampe'', 1723 * '' Det lykkelige Skibbrud'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Happy Capsize'') * ''Det Arabiske Pulver'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Arabian Powder'') * ''Mascarade'', 1724 (Eng. ''Masquerade'') * '' Julestuen'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Christmas Party'') * ''De Usynlige'', 1724 (Eng. ''The Invisible'' / ''The Masked Ladies'') * ''Diderich Menschenskraek'', 1724 (Eng. ''Diderich the Terrible'') * ''Kildereisen'', 1725 (Eng. ''The journey to the source'' / ''The source Journey'') * ''Henrich og Pernille'', 1724–1726 (Eng. ''Henrik and Pernille'') * ''Den pantsatte Bondedreng'', 1726 (Eng. ''The Pawned Farmers helper'' / ''The Peasant in Pawn'') * ''Pernilles korte Frøkenstand'', 1727 (Eng. ''Pernille's Brief Experience as a Lady'') * ''Den Danske Comoedies Liigbegængelse'', 1727 (Eng. ''Funeral of Danish Comedy'') * ''Den honette Ambition'', 1731 (Eng. ''The honest/honourable ambition'') * ''Den Forvandlede Brudgom'', 1753 (Eng. ''The Changed Bridegroom'') * ''Plutus eller Proces imellom Fattigdom og Riigdom'', publ. 1753 * ''Husspøgelse eller Abracadabra'', publ. 1753 (Eng. ''The house's Ghost or Abracadabra'') * ''Philosophus udi egen Indbildning'', publ. 1754 * ''Republiqven eller det gemeene Bedste'', publ. 1754 * ''Sganarels Rejse til det philosophiske Land'', publ. 1754 (Eng. ''Sganarel's Journey to the Land of the Philosophers'')

Poems

* ''Peder Paars'', 1720 * ''fire Skæmtedigte'', 1722 (Eng. ''Four poems for fun'') * ''Metamorphosis eller Forvandlinger'', 1726 (Eng. ''Metamorphosis or Changes'')

Novels

* ''Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum'', 1741. (Translated to Danish by Hans Hagerup in 1742 as ''Niels Klims underjordiske Rejse''.) (Eng.

or ''Nicolai Klimii's subterranean Journey'' or ''The Journey of Niels Klim to the World Underground'' Bison Books, 2004. )

Essays

* ''Moralske Tanker'', 1744 (Eng. ''Moral thoughts'') * ''Epistler'', 1748–54 * ''Moralske Fabler'', 1751 (Eng. ''Moral Fables'') * ''Tre latinske levnedsbreve'', 1728–1743

Historical works

* ''Introduction til de fornemste Europæiske Rigers Historier'', 1711 (Eng. ''Introduction to the Greatest European Empires Histories'') * ''Morals Kierne eller Introduction til Naturens og Folke-Rettens Kundskab'', 1716 (Eng. ''The Core of Morality or Introduction to Natural and International Law'') * ''Dannemarks og Norges Beskrivelse'', 1729 (Eng. ''Denmark's and Norway's Description'') * ''Dannemarks Riges Historie'', 1732–35 (Eng. ''The Danish Empire/Kingdom's History'') * ''Den berømmelige Norske Handel-Stad Bergens Beskrivelse'', 1737 (Eng. ''The Famous Norwegian Commercial Hub Bergen's Description'') * ''Almindelig Kirke-Historie'', 1738 (Eng. ''General Church History'') * ''Den jødiske Historie fra Verdens Begyndelse, fortsat til disse Tider'', 1742 (Eng. ''The Jewish History From the Beginning of the World, Continued till Present Day/These Times'') * ''Adskillige store Heltes og berømmelige Mænds sammenlignede Historier'', 1739–53 (Eng. ''Several Great Heroes' and Famous Men's Compared Histories'') * ''Adskillige Heltinders og navnkundige Damers sammenlignede Historier'', 1745 (Eng. ''Several Heroines' and Noteworthy Ladies' Compared Histories'')

Memoir

*
Memoirs of Lewis Holberg
', 1737 (published in English, 1827)

Notes

References

* A primary source is Ludvig Holberg's Latin Testament. It can be recommended to use: Holberg, Ludvig, and Aage Kragelund. ''Ludvig Holbergs tre levnedsbreve 1728–1743''. København: G.E.C. Gads Forlag, 1965. The edition contains an introduction, Holberg's texts in both Latin and Danish, commentaries and an index. * * Thomsen, Ole B. ''Embedsstudiernes universitet en undersøgelse af Københavns universitets fundats af 1788 som grundlag for vores nuværende studiestruktur''. København: Akademisk Forlag, 1975. * Grethe Ilsøe: Juridisk eksamen for ustuderede. Kollektiv biografi af 1. kandidatgeneration (eksamensårgangene 1736–65) i: Personalhistorisk Tidsskrift, 1985, nr. 2 * Jens Hougaard: ''Ludvig Holberg. The Playwright and his age up to 1730'', Odense University Press. 1993. . * Caterina Marrone: ''Le lingue utopiche'', Nuovi Equilibri, Viterbo, 2004

995 Year 995 ( CMXCV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Japan * 17 May - Fujiwara no Michitaka (imperial regent) dies. * 3 June: Fujiwara no Michikane gain ...

p. 338, *Bent Holm: ''Ludvig Holberg. A Danish Playwright on the European Stage. Masquerade, Comedy, Satire''. Vienna: Hollitzer, 2018. .

External links

* * *
Complete works of Ludvig Holberg (Danish originals)
at Archive for Danish Literature
A sound recording of Holberg's comedy The Arabian Powder
at Lost Plays.com
Ludvig Holberg's writings
nbsp;– a Danish-Norwegian website under construction {{DEFAULTSORT:Holberg, Ludvig 1684 births 1754 deaths People educated at the Bergen Cathedral School 18th-century Danish dramatists and playwrights Danish male writers 18th-century Danish memoirists Danish essayists Norwegian dramatists and playwrights Norwegian essayists Writers from Copenhagen University of Copenhagen alumni Writers from Bergen Norwegian emigrants to Denmark 18th-century Latin-language writers 18th-century male writers 17th-century Danish people 18th-century Danish writers 18th-century Danish scientists 17th-century Norwegian people 18th-century Norwegian novelists 17th-century Norwegian writers 18th-century Norwegian writers 18th-century Norwegian scientists Norwegian male novelists Danish male dramatists and playwrights Rectors of the University of Copenhagen Male essayists 18th-century essayists Enlightenment philosophers