''Ludi'' (
Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the
Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of,
Roman religious festivals, and were also presented as part of the
cult of state.
The earliest ''ludi'' were
horse races in the
circus (''ludi circenses''). Animal exhibitions with mock hunts (''
venationes'') and
theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') also became part of the festivals.
Days on which ''ludi'' were held were public holidays, and no business could be conducted—"remarkably," it has been noted, "considering that in the
Imperial era
The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Mediterr ...
more than 135 days might be spent at these entertainments" during the year. Although their entertainment value may have overshadowed religious sentiment at any given moment, even in
late antiquity the ''ludi'' were understood as part of the worship of the traditional gods, and the
Church Fathers
The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, Christian Fathers, or Fathers of the Church were ancient and influential Christian theologians and writers who established the intellectual and doctrinal foundations of Christianity. The historical per ...
thus advised
Christians not to participate in the festivities.
The singular form ''
ludus'', "game, sport" or "play" has several meanings in Latin. The plural is used for "games" in a sense analogous to the Greek festivals of games, such as the
Panhellenic Games
Panhellenic Games is the collective term for four separate sports festivals held in ancient Greece. The four Games were:
Description
The Olympiad was one of the ways the Greeks measured time. The Olympic Games were used as a starting point, year ...
. The
late-antique scholar
Isidore of Seville
Isidore of Seville ( la, Isidorus Hispalensis; c. 560 – 4 April 636) was a Spanish scholar, theologian, and archbishop of Seville. He is widely regarded, in the words of 19th-century historian Montalembert, as "the last scholar of ...
, however, classifies the forms of ''ludus'' as ''gymnicus'' ("athletic"), ''circensis'' ("held in the circus," mainly the
chariot races), ''gladiatorius'' ("gladiatorial") and ''scaenicus'' ("theatrical"). The relation of gladiatorial games to the ''ludi'' is complex; see
Gladiator
A gladiator ( la, gladiator, "swordsman", from , "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. Some gla ...
.
Politics and religion
Originally, all ''ludi'' seem to have been votive offerings (''ludi votivi''), staged as the
fulfillment of a vow to a deity whose favor had been sought and evidenced. In 366 BC, the ''
Ludi Romani'' became the first games to be placed on the
religious calendar as an annual event sponsored by the
state as a whole. Games in the circus were preceded by a parade ''(
pompa circensis)'' featuring the competitors, mounted youths of the
Roman nobility, armed dancers, musicians, a
satyr chorus, and images of
the gods. As the product of military victory, ''ludi'' were often connected to
triumphs. The first recorded ''
venatio'' (staged beast hunt) was presented in 186 BC by
M. Fulvius Nobilior as part of his ''ludi votivi'', for which he paid with booty displayed at his triumph.
As religious ceremonies, ''ludi'' were organized at first by various
colleges of priests; during the
Republic
A republic () is a "state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th c ...
, they were later presented by
consuls, but became most associated with the responsibilities of the
aediles. Although public money was allocated for the staging of ''ludi'', the presiding official increasingly came to augment the splendor of his games from personal funds as a form of
public relations. The sponsor was able to advertise his wealth, while declaring that he intended to share it for public benefit. Although some men with an eye on the consulship skipped the office of aedile for the very reason that massive expenditures were expected, those with sufficient resources spent lavishly to cultivate the favor of the people. The religious festivals to which the ''ludi'' were attached also occasioned public banquets, and often public works such as the refurbishing or building of temples.
Following the
assassination of Julius Caesar at the Ides of March in 44 BC,
Marcus Brutus realized that a significant segment of the ''populus'' regarded him not as a liberator, but as the murderer of a beloved champion, and among other gestures of goodwill toward the people, he arranged to sponsor the ''
Ludi Apollinares'', held annually July 6–13. Caesar's heir
Octavian at once upstaged him with ''
Ludi Victoriae Caesaris
''Ludi'' (Latin plural) were public games held for the benefit and entertainment of the Roman people (''populus Romanus''). ''Ludi'' were held in conjunction with, or sometimes as the major feature of, Roman religious festivals, and were also ...
'', "games in honor of Caesar's victory," which ran July 20–28 in conjunction with a festival to honor
Venus Genetrix Venus Genetrix may refer to:
* Venus Genetrix, epithet of the goddess Venus
* Venus Genetrix (sculpture), the name for a type of sculptural depiction of the goddess
* Temple of Venus Genetrix, a ruined temple in the Forum of Caesar, Rome
See a ...
, Caesar's patron deity and divine matriarch of the
Julian ''gens''. It was during these ''ludi'', which also served as funeral games, that the comet famously appeared to "announce"
Caesar's newly divine status. Octavian recognized the value of the festivals in unifying the people, and as
Augustus instituted new ''ludi'' within his program of religious reform; public spectacles and entertainments were thus subsumed by
Imperial cult.
''Ludi compitalicii''
The ''ludi compitalicii'' ("crossroads games") were entertainments staged by the neighborhoods or community associations of Rome (''
vici'') in conjunction with the
Compitalia
In ancient Roman religion, the Compitalia ( la, Ludi Compitalicii; ) was an annual festival in honor of the Lares Compitales, household deities of the crossroads, to whom sacrifices were offered at the places where two or more ways met.
This fe ...
, the
new year festival held on movable dates between the
Saturnalia
Saturnalia is an ancient Roman festival and holiday in honour of the god Saturn, held on 17 December of the Julian calendar and later expanded with festivities through to 23 December. The holiday was celebrated with a sacrifice at the Temple ...
and January 5 in honor of the crossroads
Lares. In the late Republic, performances were held at the main intersections of neighborhoods throughout the city on the same day. During the
civil wars of the 80s, these ''ludi'' gave rise to often unruly
plebeian
In ancient Rome, the plebeians (also called plebs) were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words " commoners". Both classes were hereditary.
Etymology
The precise origins of ...
political expression by the neighborhood organizations.
Freedmen played a leading role, and even slaves participated in the festivities.
In 67 BC, the Compitalia had been disrupted by a riot at the ''ludi'', which were also the scene of disturbances in 66–65 BC. This unrest on the first occasion was a response to the trial of
Manilius, who had backed reforms pertaining to the
voting rights of freedmen, and on the second is attached to the murky events later referred to misleadingly as the
First Catilinarian Conspiracy. Along with some forms of occupational guilds (''
collegia'') and neighborhood associations, the ''ludi compitalicii'' were consequently banned by the
senate
A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
in 64 BC.
An unnamed
tribune of the ''plebs'' supported efforts to stage the ''ludi'' for 61 BC, but the consul-designate
Metellus Celer
Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer (before 103 BC or c. 100 BC – 59 BC), a member of the powerful Caecilius Metellus family (plebeian nobility, not patrician) who were at their zenith during Celer's lifetime. A son of Quintus Caecilius Metell ...
squelched the attempt. In 58 BC,
Clodius Pulcher
Publius Clodius Pulcher (93–52 BC) was a populist Roman politician and street agitator during the time of the First Triumvirate. One of the most colourful personalities of his era, Clodius was descended from the aristocratic Claudia gens, one ...
, who had given up his
patrician status to become one of the people's tribunes, restored the
right of association, but even before his law was enacted, his aide
Sextus Cloelius had prepared the way by organizing new-year ''ludi''. The consul
Calpurnius Piso, father-in-law of Caesar, permitted the games, even though the organizations that ran them were still outlawed. Caesar banned the ''collegia'' and ''ludi'' again in 46 BC.
In 7 BC,
Augustus reorganized Rome for administrative purposes into 265 districts which replaced but which were still called ''vici''. An image of the
Genius of Augustus now stood between the Lares at the crossroads shrines, and the ''ludi'' once considered dangerously subversive became expressions of Imperial
piety
Piety is a virtue which may include religious devotion or spirituality. A common element in most conceptions of piety is a duty of respect. In a religious context piety may be expressed through pious activities or devotions, which may vary among ...
.
''Ludi circenses''
''Ludi circenses'' were games presented in the
circus. The
Circus Maximus was primarily a venue for chariot races, but other athletic events, races, and beast hunts might be offered as well. The games were preceded by an opening parade, the ''
pompa circensis''. ''Ludi circenses'' were regularly featured in celebrating a
triumph or dedicating a major building. They were part of the most important holidays and festivals, such as the
Floralia
The Floralia was a festival in ancient Roman religious practice in honor of the goddess Flora, held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 in the Julian calendar. The festival included ''Ludi Florae'', the "Games of Flora", which lasted ...
,
''Ludi Romani'' ("Roman Games"), and
''Ludi Plebeii'' ("Plebeian Games"). During the Imperial era, circus games were often added to festivals for which they were not traditionally celebrated in the Republic. Circus games were held in various
provinces throughout the empire, as indicated by archaeological remains of tracks and supporting structures, although many areas would have lacked costly permanent facilities and instead erected temporary stands around suitable grounds.
List of ''ludi''
The following lists of ''ludi'' are not exhaustive. Unless otherwise noted, the sources are Matthew Bunson, ''A Dictionary of the Roman Empire'' (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 246–247, and Roland Auguet, ''Cruelty and Civilization: The Roman Games'' (Routledge, 1972, 1994) pp. 212–213.
Annual ''ludi''
Listed in order by month as they appear on the
Roman calendar.
*''Ludi Megalenses'', April 4–10, established 204 BC in honor of the
Magna Mater, in conjunction with the
Megalensia.
*''Ludi Ceriales'', April 12–19, established 202 BC in conjunction with the
Cerealia April 12.
*''Ludi Florales'', April 28–May 3, established 173 BC in honor of
Flora, in conjunction with the
Floralia
The Floralia was a festival in ancient Roman religious practice in honor of the goddess Flora, held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 in the Julian calendar. The festival included ''Ludi Florae'', the "Games of Flora", which lasted ...
May 1 and its "atmosphere of primitive license and pastoral orgy."
* ''
Ludi Piscatorii The Ludi Piscatorii was a Roman holiday celebrated on 7 June in the 3rd century BC in honor of Father Tiber. The holiday was celebrated by the fishermen of Rome; the celebration was directed by the Praetor
Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the ti ...
'', June 7, in honor of
Father Tiber.
* ''
Ludi Apollinares'', July 6–13, first celebrated in 211 BC in honor of Apollo to secure his aid against
Hannibal
Hannibal (; xpu, 𐤇𐤍𐤁𐤏𐤋, ''Ḥannibaʿl''; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Puni ...
, and made annual in 208 BC by
senatorial decree.
* ''Ludi Victoriae Caesaris'', held July 20–30 in 46 BC by
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, and ...
for the dedication of his
temple of Venus, in fulfillment of a vow made in 48 at the
Battle of Pharsalus, and made annual by Augustus.
[Richard Beacham, "The Emperor as Impresario: Producing the Pageantry of Power," in ''The Cambridge Companion To The Age Of Augustus'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 160.]
*''
Ludi Romani'', September 4–19 in 44 BC, September 12–15 in the 4th century AD, established according to some legends in the 6th century BC in honor of Jupiter, or perhaps
Father Liber, and at first held occasionally, not annually.
* ''
Ludi Triumphales'', September 18–22 to commemorate the victory of Constantine over Licinius at
Chalcedon in 324.
* ''Ludi Augustales'', October 3–12, established 14 AD after the death of
Augustus and based on the
Augustalia.
* ''
Ludi Plebeii'', originally November 13, on the Ides of Jupiter, and expanded to run November 4–17; established 216 BC and held in the Circus, and continued in the 4th century of the
Christian era
The terms (AD) and before Christ (BC) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term is Medieval Latin and means 'in the year of the Lord', but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord", ...
.
''Ludi'' not held annually
* ''
Ludi Capitolini'', established in 388 BC to honor
Jupiter's help in retaking the Capitol after the
siege of the Gauls; held irregularly, and reestablished by
Domitian in 86 AD. on a four-year basis.
* ''Ludi Pontificales'' or ''Ludi Actiaci'', established by Augustus in 30 BC, held every fourth year to commemorate Augustus's
victory at Actium; see
Actia.
* ''Ludi Decennales'', a celebration of the 10-year anniversary of an
emperor's reign, begun by Augustus.
*''
Ludi Saeculares'', held infrequently but supposedly held soon after the
expulsion of the kings, on a schedule determined variously by the
Sibylline books
The ''Sibylline Books'' ( la, Libri Sibyllini) were a collection of oracular utterances, set out in Greek hexameters, that, according to tradition, were purchased from a sibyl by the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, and were consulted at mo ...
and the influence of the
Etruscan Great Year (a 110-year cycle, as explicated by the Augustan ''
quindecimviri''); presented most famously in 17 BC under Augustus, when the
choral
A choir ( ; also known as a chorale or chorus) is a musical ensemble of singers. Choral music, in turn, is the music written specifically for such an ensemble to perform. Choirs may perform music from the classical music repertoire, which ...
''
Carmen Saeculare
The ''Carmen Saeculare'' (Latin for "Secular Hymn" or "Song of the Ages") is a hymn in Sapphic meter written by the Roman poet Horace. It was commissioned by the Roman emperor Augustus in 17 BC. The hymn was sung by a chorus of twenty-seven maid ...
'' of
Horace
Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 – 27 November 8 BC), known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). The rhetorician Quintilian regarded his ' ...
was performed; and to mark important occasions such as the 800th and 900th anniversary of the
founding of Rome; last held in 397 under the Christian emperor
Honorius, who permitted them to be conducted according to tradition.
*''
Ludi Taurii
The Taurian Games (Latin ''Ludi Taurii'' or ''Ludi Taurei'', rarely Taurilia) were games ''(ludi)'' held in ancient Rome in honor of the ''di inferi'', the gods of the underworld. They were not part of a regularly scheduled religious festival on t ...
'', games featuring horse races in honor of the underworld gods.
Single-occasion ''ludi''
The following ''ludi'' were held only once.
*''
Ludi Volcanalici
Vulcan ( la, Vulcanus, in archaically retained spelling also ''Volcanus'', both pronounced ) is the god of fire including the fire of volcanoes, deserts, metalworking and the forge in ancient Roman religion and myth. He is often depicted with ...
'', held August 23, 20 BC, within the
temple precinct of Vulcan, by Augustus to mark the treaty with
Parthia and the return of the
legionary standards that had been lost at the
Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC.
See also
*
Lusus Troiae
The ''Lusus Troiae'', also as ''Ludus Troiae'' and ''ludicrum Troiae'' ("Troy Game" or "Game of Troy") was an equestrian event held in ancient Rome. It was among the ''ludi'' ("games"), celebrated at imperial funerals, temple foundings, or in hon ...
, the equestrian event called the Troy Game
*
Roman festivals
References
{{Reflist, 2
Ancient Roman leisure
Ancient Roman religion
Ancient Roman festivals
Sport in ancient Rome
Ancient Roman theatre
July observances