Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Younger (; 65 AD), usually known
mononymously
A mononym is a name composed of only one word. An individual who is known and addressed by a mononym is a mononymous person. In some cases, a mononym selected by an individual may have originally been from a polynym, a word which refers to one o ...
as Seneca, was a
Stoic
Stoic may refer to:
* An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy
* STOIC, a programming language
* ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll
* ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain
* ...
philosopher of
Ancient Rome
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 B ...
, a statesman,
dramatist
A playwright or dramatist is a person who writes plays.
Etymology
The word "play" is from Middle English pleye, from Old English plæġ, pleġa, plæġa ("play, exercise; sport, game; drama, applause"). The word "wright" is an archaic English ...
, and, in one work,
satirist
This is an incomplete list of writers, cartoonists and others known for involvement in satire – humorous social criticism. They are grouped by era and listed by year of birth. Included is a list of modern satires.
Under Contemporary, 1930-196 ...
, from the post-Augustan age of
Latin literature
Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin language. The beginning of formal Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play in Latin was performed in Rome. Latin literature ...
.
Seneca was born in
Córdoba in
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania ...
, and raised in
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
, where he was trained in
rhetoric
Rhetoric () is the art of persuasion, which along with grammar and logic (or dialectic), is one of the three ancient arts of discourse. Rhetoric aims to study the techniques writers or speakers utilize to inform, persuade, or motivate parti ...
and
philosophy
Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
. His father was
Seneca the Elder
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Elder (; c. 54 BC – c. 39 AD), also known as Seneca the Rhetorician, was a Roman writer, born of a wealthy equestrian family of Corduba, Hispania. He wrote a collection of reminiscences about the Roman schools of rheto ...
, his elder brother was
Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus
Lucius Junius Gallio Annaeanus or Gallio ( el, Γαλλιων, ''Galliōn''; c. 5 BC – c. AD 65) was a Roman senator and brother of the famous writer Seneca. He is best known for dismissing an accusation brought against Paul the Apostle in Cori ...
, and his nephew was the poet
Lucan. In AD 41, Seneca was exiled to the island of
Corsica
Corsica ( , Upper , Southern ; it, Corsica; ; french: Corse ; lij, Còrsega; sc, Còssiga) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of ...
under emperor
Claudius
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusu ...
, but was allowed to return in 49 to become a tutor to
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
. When Nero became emperor in 54, Seneca became his advisor and, together with the praetorian prefect
Sextus Afranius Burrus, provided competent government for the first five years of Nero's reign. Seneca's influence over Nero declined with time, and in 65 Seneca was
forced to take his own life for alleged complicity in the
Pisonian conspiracy
The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in AD 65 was a in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (reign 54–68). The plot reflected the growing discontent among the ruling class of the Roman state with Nero's increasingly despotic leadership, a ...
to
assassinate Nero, in which he was probably innocent. His stoic and calm
suicide
Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Mental disorders (including depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, personality disorders, anxiety disorders), physical disorders (such as chronic fatigue syndrome), and s ...
has become the subject of numerous paintings.
As a writer, Seneca is known for his philosophical works, and for
his plays, which are all
tragedies
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
. His prose works include 12 essays and
124 letters dealing with moral issues. These writings constitute one of the most important bodies of primary material for ancient
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century Common Era, BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asser ...
. As a tragedian, he is best known for plays such as his ''
Medea
In Greek mythology, Medea (; grc, Μήδεια, ''Mēdeia'', perhaps implying "planner / schemer") is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, a niece of Circe and the granddaughter of the sun god Helios. Medea figures in the myth of Jason an ...
'', ''
Thyestes
In Greek mythology, Thyestes (pronounced , gr, Θυέστης, ) was a king of Olympia. Thyestes and his brother, Atreus, were exiled by their father for having murdered their half-brother, Chrysippus, in their desire for the throne of Olym ...
'', and ''
Phaedra
Phaedra may refer to:
Mythology
* Phaedra (mythology), Cretan princess, daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë, wife of Theseus
Arts and entertainment
* ''Phaedra'' (Alexandre Cabanel), an 1880 painting
Film
* ''Phaedra'' (film), a 1962 film by ...
''. Seneca's influence on later generations is immense—during the Renaissance he was "a sage admired and venerated as an oracle of moral, even of Christian edification; a master of literary style and a model
ordramatic art."
Life
Early life, family and adulthood
Seneca was born in
Córdoba in the Roman province of
Baetica
Hispania Baetica, often abbreviated Baetica, was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula). Baetica was bordered to the west by Lusitania, and to the northeast by Hispania Tarraconensis. Baetica remained one of the basi ...
in
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania ...
. His father was
Lucius Annaeus Seneca the Elder, a Spanish-born
Roman knight who had gained fame as a writer and teacher of rhetoric in Rome.
Seneca's mother, Helvia, was from a prominent Baetician family.
Seneca was the second of three brothers; the others were
Lucius Annaeus Novatus (later known as Junius Gallio), and Annaeus Mela, the father of the poet
Lucan.
Miriam Griffin
Miriam Tamara Griffin (née Dressler; 6 June 1935 – 16 May 2018) was an American classical scholar and tutor of ancient history at Somerville College at the University of Oxford from 1967 to 2002. She was a scholar of Roman history and ancien ...
says in her biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is so slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history, as well as for biography, is so great that few writers on Seneca have resisted the temptation to eke out knowledge with imagination."
[Miriam T. Griffin. ''Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics'', Oxford 1976. 34.] Griffin also infers from the ancient sources that Seneca was born in either 8, 4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was resident in Rome by 5 AD.
![Sénèque - Cordoue](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/S%C3%A9n%C3%A8que_-_Cordoue.JPG)
Seneca tells us that he was taken to
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
in the "arms" of his aunt (his mother's stepsister) at a young age, probably when he was about five years old. His father resided for much of his life in the city.
Seneca was taught the usual subjects of literature, grammar, and rhetoric, as part of the standard education of high-born Romans.
While still young he received philosophical training from
Attalus the
Stoic
Stoic may refer to:
* An adherent of Stoicism; one whose moral quality is associated with that school of philosophy
* STOIC, a programming language
* ''Stoic'' (film), a 2009 film by Uwe Boll
* ''Stoic'' (mixtape), a 2012 mixtape by rapper T-Pain
* ...
, and from
Sotion
Sotion of Alexandria ( grc-gre, Σωτίων, ''gen''.: Σωτίωνος; fl. c. 200 – 170 BC) was a Greek doxographer and biographer, and an important source for Diogenes Laërtius. None of his works survive; they are known only indirectly ...
and
Papirius Fabianus
Papirius Fabianus was an Ancient Roman rhetorician and philosopher from the '' gens'' Papirius in the time of Tiberius and Caligula, in the first half of the 1st century AD.
Biography
Fabianus was the pupil of Arellius Fuscus and of Blandus i ...
, both of whom belonged to the short-lived
School of the Sextii The School of the Sextii was an eclectic Ancient Roman school of philosophy founded around 50 BC by Quintus Sextius the Elder and continued by his son, Sextius Niger, however it went extinct shortly after in 19 AD due to the ban on foreign cults. ...
, which combined Stoicism with
Pythagoreanism
Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BC, based on and around the teachings and beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras established the first Pythagorean community in the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek col ...
.
Sotion persuaded Seneca when he was a young man (in his early twenties) to become a
vegetarian
Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.
Vegetarianism m ...
, which he practiced for around a year before his father urged him to desist because the practice was associated with "some foreign rites". Seneca often had breathing difficulties throughout his life, probably
asthma
Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, cou ...
, and at some point in his mid-twenties (c. 20 AD) he appears to have been struck down with
tuberculosis
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease usually caused by '' Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections show no symptoms, in ...
. He was sent to
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediter ...
to live with his aunt (the same aunt who had brought him to Rome), whose husband
Gaius Galerius had become
Prefect of Egypt
During the Roman Empire, the governor of Roman Egypt ''(praefectus Aegypti)'' was a prefect who administered the Egypt (Roman province), Roman province of Egypt with the delegated authority ''(imperium)'' of the Roman emperor, emperor.
Egypt was ...
.
She nursed him through a period of ill health that lasted up to ten years.
In 31 AD he returned to Rome with his aunt, his uncle dying en route in a shipwreck.
His aunt's influence helped Seneca be elected
quaestor
A ( , , ; "investigator") was a public official in Ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times.
In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officials who ...
(probably after 37 AD
), which also earned him the right to sit in the
Roman Senate
The Roman Senate ( la, Senātus Rōmānus) was a governing and advisory assembly in ancient Rome. It was one of the most enduring institutions in Roman history, being established in the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in ...
.
Politics and exile
Seneca's early career as a senator seems to have been successful and he was praised for his oratory.
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
relates a story that
Caligula
Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), better known by his nickname Caligula (), was the third Roman emperor, ruling from 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the popular Roman general Germanicu ...
was so offended by Seneca's oratorical success in the Senate that he ordered him to commit suicide.
Seneca survived only because he was seriously ill and Caligula was told that he would soon die anyway.
In his writings Seneca has nothing good to say about Caligula and frequently depicts him as a monster. Seneca explains his own survival as due to his patience and his devotion to his friends: "I wanted to avoid the impression that all I could do for loyalty was die."
In 41 AD,
Claudius
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54) was the fourth Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusu ...
became emperor, and Seneca was accused by the new empress
Messalina
Valeria Messalina (; ) was the third wife of Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of Emperor Nero, a second cousin of Emperor Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Emperor Augustus. A powerful and influential woman with a reputatio ...
of adultery with
Julia Livilla
Julia Livilla ( – ) was the youngest child of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder and the youngest sister of the Emperor Caligula.
Life
Julia Livilla was the youngest great-granddaughter of Emperor Augustus, great-niece and adoptive grandd ...
, sister to Caligula and
Agrippina.
The affair has been doubted by some historians, since Messalina had clear political motives for getting rid of Julia Livilla and her supporters.
The Senate pronounced a death sentence on Seneca, which Claudius commuted to exile, and Seneca spent the next eight years on the island of
Corsica
Corsica ( , Upper , Southern ; it, Corsica; ; french: Corse ; lij, Còrsega; sc, Còssiga) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the 18 regions of France. It is the fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of ...
.
Two of Seneca's earliest surviving works date from the period of his exile—both
consolations.
In his ''Consolation to Helvia'', his mother, Seneca comforts her as a bereaved mother for losing her son to exile.
Seneca incidentally mentions the death of his only son, a few weeks before his exile.
Later in life Seneca was married to a woman younger than himself,
Pompeia Paulina
Pompeia Paulina () ('' fl.'' 1st century) was the wife of the statesman, philosopher, and orator Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and she was part of a circle of educated Romans who sought to lead a principled life under the emperor Nero. She was likely th ...
.
It has been thought that the infant son may have been from an earlier marriage,
but the evidence is "tenuous".
Seneca's other work of this period, his ''Consolation to
Polybius
Polybius (; grc-gre, Πολύβιος, ; ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail.
Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed ...
'', one of Claudius' freedmen, focused on consoling Polybius on the death of his brother. It is noted for its flattery of Claudius, and Seneca expresses his hope that the emperor will recall him from exile.
In 49 AD Agrippina married her uncle Claudius, and through her influence Seneca was recalled to Rome.
Agrippina gained the
praetor
Praetor ( , ), also pretor, was the title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to a man acting in one of two official capacities: (i) the commander of an army, and (ii) as an elected '' magistratus'' (magistrate), assigned to discharge vario ...
ship for Seneca and appointed him tutor to her son, the future emperor
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
.
Imperial advisor
![Nerón y Séneca (Barrón)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Ner%C3%B3n_y_S%C3%A9neca_%28Barr%C3%B3n%29.JPG)
From AD 54 to 62, Seneca acted as Nero's advisor, together with the
praetorian prefect
The praetorian prefect ( la, praefectus praetorio, el, ) was a high office in the Roman Empire. Originating as the commander of the Praetorian Guard, the office gradually acquired extensive legal and administrative functions, with its holders be ...
Sextus Afranius Burrus. One by-product of his new position was that Seneca was appointed
suffect consul in 56. Seneca's influence was said to have been especially strong in the first year. Seneca composed Nero's accession speeches in which he promised to restore proper legal procedure and authority to the Senate.
He also composed the eulogy for Claudius that Nero delivered at the funeral.
Seneca's satirical skit ''
Apocolocyntosis
The ''Apocolocyntosis (divi) Claudii'', literally ''The Pumpkinification of ''(''the Divine'')'' Claudius'', is a satire on the Roman emperor Claudius, which, according to Cassius Dio, was written by Seneca the Younger. A partly extant Menippean ...
'', which lampoons the deification of Claudius and praises Nero, dates from the earliest period of Nero's reign.
In 55 AD, Seneca wrote ''
On Clemency'' following Nero's murder of
Britannicus, perhaps to assure the citizenry that the murder was the end, not the beginning of bloodshed.
''On Clemency'' is a work which, although it flatters Nero, was intended to show the correct (Stoic) path of virtue for a ruler.
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
and Dio suggest that Nero's early rule, during which he listened to Seneca and Burrus, was quite competent. However, the ancient sources suggest that, over time, Seneca and Burrus lost their influence over the emperor. In 59 they had reluctantly agreed to Agrippina's murder, and afterward Tacitus reports that Seneca had to write a letter justifying the murder to the Senate.
In 58 AD the senator
Publius Suillius Rufus
Publius may refer to:
Roman name
* Publius (praenomen)
* Ancient Romans with the name:
** Publius Valerius Publicola (died 503 BC), Roman consul, co-founder of the Republic
**Publius Clodius Pulcher (c. 93 BC – 52 BC), Republican politician
* ...
made a series of public attacks on Seneca.
These attacks, reported by
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
and
Cassius Dio
Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...
, included charges that, in a mere four years of service to Nero, Seneca had acquired a vast personal fortune of three hundred million
sestertii
The ''sestertius'' (plural ''sestertii''), or sesterce (plural sesterces), was an ancient Roman coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small, silver coin issued only on rare occasions. During the Roman Empire it was a large brass coin.
The n ...
by charging high interest on loans throughout Italy and the provinces.
Suillius' attacks included claims of sexual corruption, with a suggestion that Seneca had slept with Agrippina.
Tacitus, though, reports that Suillius was highly prejudiced: he had been a favorite of Claudius,
and had been an embezzler and informant.
In response, Seneca brought a series of prosecutions for corruption against Suillius: half of his estate was confiscated and he was sent into exile.
However, the attacks reflect a criticism of Seneca that was made at the time and continued through later ages.
Seneca was undoubtedly extremely rich: he had properties at
Baiae and
Nomentum
Mentana is a town and ''comune'', former bishopric and present Latin Catholic titular see in the Metropolitan City of Rome, Lazio, central Italy. It is located north-east of Rome and has a population of about 23,000.
History
Mentana's name in ...
, an
Alban villa, and Egyptian estates.
Cassius Dio even reports that the
Boudica
Boudica or Boudicca (, known in Latin chronicles as Boadicea or Boudicea, and in Welsh as ()), was a queen of the ancient British Iceni tribe, who led a failed uprising against the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. She ...
uprising in
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
was caused by Seneca forcing large loans on the indigenous British aristocracy in the aftermath of Claudius's
conquest of Britain, and then calling them in suddenly and aggressively.
Seneca was sensitive to such accusations: his ''
De Vita Beata
''De Vita Beata'' ("On the Happy Life") is a dialogue written by Seneca the Younger around the year 58 AD. It was intended for his older brother Gallio, to whom Seneca also dedicated his dialogue entitled ''De Ira'' ("On Anger"). It is divided i ...
'' ("On the Happy Life") dates from around this time and includes a defense of wealth along Stoic lines, arguing that properly gaining and spending wealth is appropriate behavior for a philosopher.
Retirement
After Burrus's death in 62, Seneca's influence declined rapidly; as Tacitus puts it (Ann. 14.52.1), ''mors Burri infregit Senecae potentiam'' ("the death of Burrus broke Seneca's power"). Tacitus reports that Seneca tried to retire twice, in 62 and 64 AD, but Nero refused him on both occasions.
Nevertheless, Seneca was increasingly absent from the court.
He adopted a quiet lifestyle on his country estates, concentrating on his studies and seldom visiting Rome. It was during these final few years that he composed two of his greatest works: ''
Naturales quaestiones
''Naturales quaestiones'' (''Natural Questions'') is a Latin work of natural philosophy written by Seneca around 65 AD. It is not a systematic encyclopedia like the ''Naturalis Historia'' of Pliny the Elder, though with Pliny's work it represent ...
''—an encyclopedia of the natural world; and his ''
Letters to Lucilius
The ' (Latin for "Moral Letters to Lucilius"), also known as the ''Moral Epistles'' and ''Letters from a Stoic'', is a collection of 124 letters that Seneca the Younger wrote at the end of his life, during his retirement, after he had worked for ...
''—which document his philosophical thoughts.
Death
![Lodovico Lana, Death of Seneca, NGA 55766](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Lodovico_Lana%2C_Death_of_Seneca%2C_NGA_55766.jpg)
In AD 65, Seneca was caught up in the aftermath of the
Pisonian conspiracy
The conspiracy of Gaius Calpurnius Piso in AD 65 was a in the reign of the Roman emperor Nero (reign 54–68). The plot reflected the growing discontent among the ruling class of the Roman state with Nero's increasingly despotic leadership, a ...
, a plot to kill Nero. Although it is unlikely that Seneca was part of the conspiracy, Nero ordered him to kill himself.
Seneca followed tradition by severing several
vein
Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated b ...
s in order to
bleed to death, and his wife Pompeia Paulina attempted to share his fate. Cassius Dio, who wished to emphasize the relentlessness of Nero, focused on how Seneca had attended to his last-minute letters, and how his death was hastened by soldiers. A generation after the Julio-Claudian emperors,
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his t ...
wrote an account of the suicide, which, in view of his Republican sympathies, is perhaps somewhat romanticized.
[ citing Tacitus '']Annals
Annals ( la, annāles, from , "year") are a concise historical record in which events are arranged chronologically, year by year, although the term is also used loosely for any historical record.
Scope
The nature of the distinction between ann ...
'', xv. 60–64 According to this account, Nero ordered Seneca's wife saved. Her wounds were bound up and she made no further attempt to kill herself. As for Seneca himself, his age and diet were blamed for slow loss of blood and extended pain rather than a quick death. He also took poison, which was, however, not fatal. After dictating his last words to a scribe, and with a circle of friends attending him in his home, he immersed himself in a warm bath, which he expected would speed blood flow and ease his pain. Tacitus wrote, "He was then carried into a bath, with the steam of which he was suffocated, and he was burnt without any of the usual funeral rites. So he had directed in a codicil of his will, even when in the height of his wealth and power he was thinking of life's close."
This may give the impression of a favorable portrait of Seneca, but Tacitus's treatment of him is at best ambivalent. Alongside Seneca's apparent fortitude in the face of death, for example, one can also view his actions as rather histrionic and performative; and when Tacitus tells us that he left his family an ''imago suae vitae'' (''Annales'' 15.62), "an image of his life", he is possibly being ambiguous: in Roman culture, the ''imago'' was a kind of mask that commemorated the great ancestors of noble families, but at the same time, it may also suggest duplicity, superficiality, and pretense.
Philosophy
![SènecaQuestionibusNaturalibus](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/S%C3%A8necaQuestionibusNaturalibus.jpg)
As "a major philosophical figure of the
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
Imperial Period", Seneca's lasting contribution to philosophy has been to the school of
Stoicism
Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century Common Era, BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asser ...
. His writing is highly accessible
and was the subject of attention from the Renaissance onwards by writers such as
Michel de Montaigne. He has been described as “a towering and controversial figure of antiquity”
and “the world’s most interesting Stoic”.
Seneca wrote a number of books on Stoicism, mostly on ethics, with one work (''
Naturales Quaestiones
''Naturales quaestiones'' (''Natural Questions'') is a Latin work of natural philosophy written by Seneca around 65 AD. It is not a systematic encyclopedia like the ''Naturalis Historia'' of Pliny the Elder, though with Pliny's work it represent ...
'') on the physical world.
Seneca built on the writings of many of the earlier Stoics: he often mentions
Zeno
Zeno ( grc, Ζήνων) may refer to:
People
* Zeno (name), including a list of people and characters with the name
Philosophers
* Zeno of Elea (), philosopher, follower of Parmenides, known for his paradoxes
* Zeno of Citium (333 – 264 BC), ...
,
Cleanthes
Cleanthes (; grc-gre, Κλεάνθης; c. 330 BC – c. 230 BC), of Assos, was a Greek Stoic philosopher and boxer who was the successor to Zeno of Citium as the second head ('' scholarch'') of the Stoic school in Athens. Originally a boxe ...
, and
Chrysippus; and frequently cites
Posidonius
Posidonius (; grc-gre, wikt:Ποσειδώνιος, Ποσειδώνιος , "of Poseidon") "of Apamea (Syria), Apameia" (ὁ Ἀπαμεύς) or "of Rhodes" (ὁ Ῥόδιος) (), was a Greeks, Greek politician, astronomer, astrologer, geog ...
, with whom Seneca shared an interest in natural phenomena. He frequently quotes
Epicurus
Epicurus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκουρος ; 341–270 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher and sage who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy. He was born on the Greek island of Samos to Athenian parents. Influenced ...
, especially in his ''
Letters
Letter, letters, or literature may refer to:
Characters typeface
* Letter (alphabet), a character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet.
* Letterform, the graphic form of a letter of the alphabe ...
''. His interest in Epicurus is mainly limited to using him as a source of ethical maxims. Likewise Seneca shows some interest in
Platonist
Platonism is the philosophy of Plato and philosophical systems closely derived from it, though contemporary platonists do not necessarily accept all of the doctrines of Plato. Platonism had a profound effect on Western thought. Platonism at l ...
metaphysics, but never with any clear commitment. His moral essays are based on Stoic doctrines.
Stoicism was a popular philosophy in this period, and many upper-class Romans found in it a guiding ethical framework for political involvement.
It was once popular to regard Seneca as being very
eclectic
Eclectic may refer to:
Music
* ''Eclectic'' (Eric Johnson and Mike Stern album), 2014
* ''Eclectic'' (Big Country album), 1996
* Eclectic Method, name of an audio-visual remix act
* Eclecticism in music, the conscious use of styles alien to th ...
in his Stoicism, but modern scholarship views him as a fairly orthodox Stoic, albeit a free-minded one.
His works discuss both ethical theory and practical advice, and Seneca stresses that both parts are distinct but interdependent.
His ''
Letters to Lucilius
The ' (Latin for "Moral Letters to Lucilius"), also known as the ''Moral Epistles'' and ''Letters from a Stoic'', is a collection of 124 letters that Seneca the Younger wrote at the end of his life, during his retirement, after he had worked for ...
'' showcase Seneca's search for ethical perfection
and “represent a sort of philosophical testament for posterity”.
Seneca regards philosophy as a balm for the wounds of life.
The destructive passions, especially anger and grief, must be uprooted,
or moderated according to reason.
He discusses the relative merits of the contemplative life and the active life,
and he considers it important to confront one's own mortality and be able to face death.
One must be willing to practice poverty and use wealth properly,
and he writes about favours, clemency, the importance of friendship, and the need to benefit others.
The universe is governed for the best by a rational providence,
and this must be reconciled with acceptance of adversity.
Drama
![Woodcut illustration of the suicide of Seneca and the attempted suicide of his wife Pompeia Paulina - Penn Provenance Project](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Woodcut_illustration_of_the_suicide_of_Seneca_and_the_attempted_suicide_of_his_wife_Pompeia_Paulina_-_Penn_Provenance_Project.jpg)
Ten plays are attributed to Seneca, of which most likely eight were written by him.
The plays stand in stark contrast to his philosophical works. With their intense emotions, and grim overall tone, the plays seem to represent the antithesis of Seneca's Stoic beliefs.
Up to the 16th century it was normal to distinguish between Seneca the moral philosopher and Seneca the dramatist as two separate people. Scholars have tried to spot certain Stoic themes: it is the uncontrolled passions that generate madness, ruination, and self-destruction.
This has a cosmic as well as an ethical aspect, and fate is a powerful, albeit rather oppressive, force.
Many scholars have thought, following the ideas of the 19th-century German scholar
Friedrich Leo, that Seneca's tragedies were written for recitation only. Other scholars think that they were written for performance and that it is possible that actual performance took place in Seneca's lifetime. Ultimately, this issue cannot be resolved on the basis of our existing knowledge.
The tragedies of Seneca have been successfully staged in modern times.
The dating of the tragedies is highly problematic in the absence of any ancient references.
A parody of a lament from ''
Hercules Furens'' appears in the ''
Apocolocyntosis
The ''Apocolocyntosis (divi) Claudii'', literally ''The Pumpkinification of ''(''the Divine'')'' Claudius'', is a satire on the Roman emperor Claudius, which, according to Cassius Dio, was written by Seneca the Younger. A partly extant Menippean ...
'', which implies a date before 54 AD for that play.
A relative chronology has been proposed on metrical grounds. The plays are not all based on the Greek pattern; they have a five-act form and differ in many respects from extant
Attic drama, and while the influence of
Euripides
Euripides (; grc, Εὐριπίδης, Eurīpídēs, ; ) was a tragedian
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful e ...
on some of these works is considerable, so is the influence of
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: t ...
and
Ovid
Pūblius Ovidius Nāsō (; 20 March 43 BC – 17/18 AD), known in English as Ovid ( ), was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the th ...
.
Seneca's plays were widely read in
medieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the Post-classical, post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with t ...
and
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
Europe
Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a Continent#Subcontinents, subcontinent of Eurasia ...
an
universities
A university () is an institution of higher (or tertiary) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. In the United States, t ...
and strongly influenced
tragic drama in that time, such as
Elizabethan England
The Elizabethan era is the epoch in the Tudor period of the history of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603). Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history. The symbol of Britannia (a female personific ...
(
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
and other playwrights), France (
Corneille
Pierre Corneille (; 6 June 1606 – 1 October 1684) was a French tragedian. He is generally considered one of the three great seventeenth-century French dramatists, along with Molière and Racine.
As a young man, he earned the valuable patronag ...
and
Racine
Jean-Baptiste Racine ( , ) (; 22 December 163921 April 1699) was a French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France, along with Molière and Corneille as well as an important literary figure in the Western traditi ...
), and the Netherlands (
Joost van den Vondel
Joost van den Vondel (; 17 November 1587 – 5 February 1679) was a Dutch poet, writer and playwright. He is considered the most prominent Dutch poet and playwright of the 17th century. His plays are the ones from that period that are still most ...
). English translations of Seneca's tragedies appeared in print in the mid-16th century, with all ten published collectively in 1581. He is regarded as the source and inspiration for what is known as "Revenge Tragedy", starting with
Thomas Kyd
Thomas Kyd (baptised 6 November 1558; buried 15 August 1594) was an English playwright, the author of ''The Spanish Tragedy'', and one of the most important figures in the development of Elizabethan drama.
Although well known in his own time, ...
's ''
The Spanish Tragedy
''The Spanish Tragedy, or Hieronimo is Mad Again'' is an Elizabethan tragedy written by Thomas Kyd between 1582 and 1592. Highly popular and influential in its time, ''The Spanish Tragedy'' established a new genre in English theatre, the rev ...
'' and continuing well into the
Jacobean era
The Jacobean era was the period in English and Scottish history that coincides with the reign of James VI of Scotland who also inherited the crown of England in 1603 as James I. The Jacobean era succeeds the Elizabethan era and precedes the Ca ...
. ''Thyestes'' is considered Seneca's masterpiece, and has been described by scholar Dana Gioia as "one of the most influential plays ever written".
''Medea'' is also highly regarded, and was praised along with ''Phaedra'' by
T. S. Eliot.
Works
Works attributed to Seneca include 12 philosophical essays, 124
letters
Letter, letters, or literature may refer to:
Characters typeface
* Letter (alphabet), a character representing one or more of the sounds used in speech; any of the symbols of an alphabet.
* Letterform, the graphic form of a letter of the alphabe ...
dealing with
moral issues, nine
tragedies
Tragedy (from the grc-gre, τραγῳδία, ''tragōidia'', ''tragōidia'') is a genre of drama based on human suffering and, mainly, the terrible or sorrowful events that befall a main character. Traditionally, the intention of tragedy ...
, and a
satire
Satire is a genre of the visual, literary, and performing arts, usually in the form of fiction and less frequently non-fiction, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, often with the intent of shaming ...
, the attribution of which is disputed. His authorship of ''Hercules on Oeta'' has also been questioned.
Seneca's tragedies
''
Fabulae crepidatae
A ''fabula crepidata'' or ''fabula cothurnata'' is a Latin tragedy with Greek subjects. The genre probably originated in adaptations of Greek tragedy (hence the names, coming from ''crepida'' = ''sandal'' and ''cothurnus'') beginning in the early ...
'' (tragedies with Greek subjects):
* ''
Hercules
Hercules (, ) is the Roman equivalent of the Greek divine hero Heracles, son of Jupiter and the mortal Alcmena. In classical mythology, Hercules is famous for his strength and for his numerous far-ranging adventures.
The Romans adapted the Gr ...
'' or ''Hercules furens'' (''The Madness of Hercules'')
* ''
Troades'' (''The Trojan Women'')
* ''
Phoenissae
''The Phoenician Women'' ( grc, Φοίνισσαι, ''Phoinissai'') is a tragedy by Euripides, based on the same story as Aeschylus' play ''Seven Against Thebes''. It was presented along with the tragedies ''Hypsipyle'' and '' Antiope.'' With this ...
'' (''The Phoenician Women'')
* ''
Medea
In Greek mythology, Medea (; grc, Μήδεια, ''Mēdeia'', perhaps implying "planner / schemer") is the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis, a niece of Circe and the granddaughter of the sun god Helios. Medea figures in the myth of Jason an ...
''
* ''
Phaedra
Phaedra may refer to:
Mythology
* Phaedra (mythology), Cretan princess, daughter of Minos and Pasiphaë, wife of Theseus
Arts and entertainment
* ''Phaedra'' (Alexandre Cabanel), an 1880 painting
Film
* ''Phaedra'' (film), a 1962 film by ...
''
* ''
Oedipus
Oedipus (, ; grc-gre, Οἰδίπους "swollen foot") was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. A tragic hero in Greek mythology, Oedipus accidentally fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby ...
''
* ''
Agamemnon
In Greek mythology, Agamemnon (; grc-gre, Ἀγαμέμνων ''Agamémnōn'') was a king of Mycenae who commanded the Greeks during the Trojan War. He was the son, or grandson, of King Atreus and Queen Aerope, the brother of Menelaus, the husb ...
''
* ''
Thyestes
In Greek mythology, Thyestes (pronounced , gr, Θυέστης, ) was a king of Olympia. Thyestes and his brother, Atreus, were exiled by their father for having murdered their half-brother, Chrysippus, in their desire for the throne of Olym ...
''
* ''
Hercules Oetaeus
''Hercules Oetaeus'' (Hercules on Mount Oeta) is a '' fabula crepidata'' (Roman tragedy with Greek subject) of c. 1996 lines of verse which survived as one of Lucius Annaeus Seneca's tragedies. It tells the story of Hercules' betrayal by his jealo ...
'' (''Hercules on Oeta''): generally considered not written by Seneca. First rejected by
Daniël Heinsius.
''
Fabula praetexta The ''praetexta'' or ''fabula praetexta'' was a genre of Latin tragedy introduced at Rome by Gnaeus Naevius in the third century BC. It dealt with historical Roman figures, in place of the conventional Greek myths. Subsequent writers of ''praetexta ...
'' (tragedy in Roman setting):
* ''
Octavia'': almost certainly not written by Seneca (at least in its final form) since it contains accurate prophecies of both his and Nero's deaths. This play closely resembles Seneca's plays in style, but was probably written some time after Seneca's death (perhaps under
Vespasian
Vespasian (; la, Vespasianus ; 17 November AD 9 – 23/24 June 79) was a Roman emperor who reigned from AD 69 to 79. The fourth and last emperor who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty that ruled the Empi ...
) by someone influenced by Seneca and aware of the events of his lifetime. Though attributed textually to Seneca, the attribution was early questioned by
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca (; 20 July 1304 – 18/19 July 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch (), was a scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists.
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited w ...
, and rejected by
Justus Lipsius
Justus Lipsius (Joest Lips or Joost Lips; 18 October 1547 – 23 March 1606) was a Flemish Catholic philologist, philosopher, and humanist. Lipsius wrote a series of works designed to revive ancient Stoicism in a form that would be compatible w ...
.
Essays and letters
Essays
''Traditionally given in the following order:''
# (64) ''
De Providentia
''De Providentia'' (''On Providence'') is a short essay in the form of a dialogue in six brief sections, written by the Latin philosopher Seneca (died AD 65) in the last years of his life. He chose the dialogue form (as in the well-known Plato' ...
'' (''On providence'') – addressed to Lucilius
# (55) ''
De Constantia Sapientis
''De Constantia Sapientis'' () is a moral essay written by Seneca the Younger, a Roman Stoic philosopher, sometime around 55 AD. The work celebrates the imperturbility of the ideal Stoic sage, who with an inner firmness, is strengthened by injury ...
'' (''On the Firmness of the Wise Person'') – addressed to Serenus
# (41) ''
De Ira
''De Ira'' (''On Anger'') is a Latin work by Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). The work defines and explains anger within the context of Stoic philosophy, and offers therapeutic advice on how to prevent and control anger.
Sources
Seneca's main sources were ...
'' (''On anger'') – A study on the consequences and the control of anger – addressed to his brother Novatus
# (book 2 of the ''De Ira'')
# (book 3 of the ''De Ira'')
# (40) ''
Ad Marciam, De consolatione
Seneca's Consolations refers to Seneca’s three consolatory works, ''De Consolatione ad Marciam'', ''De Consolatione ad Polybium'', ''De Consolatione ad Helviam'', written around 40–45 AD.
Context of the Consolations
Seneca’s three consolato ...
'' (''To Marcia, On Consolation'') – Consoles her on the death of her son
# (58) ''
De Vita Beata
''De Vita Beata'' ("On the Happy Life") is a dialogue written by Seneca the Younger around the year 58 AD. It was intended for his older brother Gallio, to whom Seneca also dedicated his dialogue entitled ''De Ira'' ("On Anger"). It is divided i ...
'' (''On the Happy Life'') – addressed to Gallio
# (62) ''
De Otio
''De Otio'' (''On Leisure'') is a 1st-century Latin work by Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). It survives in a fragmentary state. The work concerns the rational use of spare time, whereby one can still actively aid humankind by engaging in wider questions a ...
'' (''On Leisure'') – addressed to Serenus
# (63) ''
De Tranquillitate Animi
''De Tranquillitate Animi'' (''On the tranquility of the mind / on peace of mind'') is a Latin work by the Stoic philosopher Seneca (4 BC–65 AD). The dialogue concerns the state of mind of Seneca's friend Annaeus Serenus, and how to cure Sere ...
'' (''On the tranquillity of mind'') – addressed to Serenus
# (49) ''
De Brevitate Vitæ'' (''On the shortness of life'') – Essay expounding that any length of life is sufficient if lived wisely – addressed to Paulinus
# (44) ''
De Consolatione ad Polybium'' (''To Polybius, On consolation'') – Consoling him on the death of his brother.
# (42) ''
Ad Helviam matrem, De consolatione'' (''To mother Helvia, On consolation'') – Letter to his mother consoling her on his absence during exile.
Other essays
* (56) ''
De Clementia
''De Clementia'' (frequently translated as ''On Mercy'' in English) is a two volume (incomplete) hortatory essay written in AD 55–56 by Seneca the Younger, a Roman Stoic philosopher, to the emperor Nero in the first five years of his reign.
Da ...
'' (''On Clemency'') – written to
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68), was the fifth Roman emperor and final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 un ...
on the need for
clemency
A pardon is a government decision to allow a person to be relieved of some or all of the legal consequences resulting from a criminal conviction. A pardon may be granted before or after conviction for the crime, depending on the laws of the j ...
as a
virtue
Virtue ( la, virtus) is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality that is deemed to be morally good and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. In other words, it is a behavior that shows high moral standard ...
in an emperor.
* (63) ''
De Beneficiis
''De Beneficiis'' (English: ''On Benefits'') is a first-century work by Seneca the Younger. It forms part of a series of Morality, moral essays (or "Dialogues") composed by Seneca. ''De Beneficiis'' concerns the award and reception of gifts and f ...
'' (''On Benefits'')
even books* (–) ''De Superstitione'' (''On Superstition'') – lost, but quoted from in
Saint Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Af ...
's
City of God 6.10–6.11.
Letters
* (64) ''
Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium
The ' (Latin for "Moral Letters to Lucilius"), also known as the ''Moral Epistles'' and ''Letters from a Stoic'', is a collection of 124 letters that Seneca the Younger wrote at the end of his life, during his retirement, after he had worked for ...
'' – collection of 124 letters, sometimes divided into 20 books, dealing with moral issues written to
Lucilius Junior
Lucilius Junior (fl. 1st century), was the procurator of Sicily during the reign of Nero, a friend and correspondent of Seneca, and the possible author of ''Aetna'', a poem that survives in a corrupt state.
Life
The information about Lucilius com ...
. This work has possibly come down to us incomplete; the miscellanist Aulus Gellius refers, in his ''Noctes Atticae'' (12.2), to a 'book 22'.
Other
![Seneca, Lucius Annaeus – Naturales quaestiones, 1522 – BEIC 4698971](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Seneca%2C_Lucius_Annaeus_%E2%80%93_Naturales_quaestiones%2C_1522_%E2%80%93_BEIC_4698971.jpg)
* (54) ''
Apocolocyntosis divi Claudii'' (''The Gourdification of the Divine Claudius''), a satirical work.
* (63) ''
Naturales quaestiones
''Naturales quaestiones'' (''Natural Questions'') is a Latin work of natural philosophy written by Seneca around 65 AD. It is not a systematic encyclopedia like the ''Naturalis Historia'' of Pliny the Elder, though with Pliny's work it represent ...
''
even booksan insight into ancient theories of
cosmology
Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount (lexicographer), Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', and in 1731 taken up in ...
,
meteorology
Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences (which include atmospheric chemistry and physics) with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not ...
, and similar subjects.
Spurious
* (58–62/370?) ''
Cujus etiam ad Paulum apostolum leguntur epistolae:'' These letters, allegedly between Seneca and St Paul, were revered by early authorities, but modern scholarship rejects their authenticity.
"Pseudo-Seneca"
Various antique and medieval texts purport to be by Seneca, ''e.g.'', ''De remediis fortuitorum''. Their unknown authors are collectively called "Pseudo-Seneca." At least some of these seem to preserve and adapt genuine Senecan content, for example, Saint
Martin of Braga
Martin of Braga (in Latin ''Martinus Bracarensis'', in Portuguese, known as ''Martinho de Dume'' 520–580 AD) was an archbishop of Bracara Augusta in Gallaecia (now Braga in Portugal), a missionary, a monastic founder, and an ecclesiastical ...
's (d. c. 580) ''Formula vitae honestae'', or ''De differentiis quatuor virtutum vitae honestae'' ("Rules for an Honest Life", or "On the Four Cardinal Virtues"). Early manuscripts preserve Martin's preface, where he makes it clear that this was his adaptation, but in later copies this was omitted, and the work was later thought fully Seneca's work. Seneca is also often quoted as the author of the
aphorism
An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by ...
: "Religion is regarded by the common people as true, by the wise as false, and by the rulers as useful"; this is based on a translation by
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is k ...
, but i
disputed
Editions
*
Legacy
As a proto-Christian saint
![Plato Seneca Aristotle medieval](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Plato_Seneca_Aristotle_medieval.jpg)
Seneca's writings were well known in the later Roman period, and
Quintilian
Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (; 35 – 100 AD) was a Roman educator and rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and in Renaissance writing. In English translation, he is usually referred to as Quintilia ...
, writing thirty years after Seneca's death, remarked on the popularity of his works amongst the youth.
While he found much to admire, Quintillian criticized Seneca for what he regarded as a degenerate literary style—a criticism echoed by
Aulus Gellius in the middle of the 2nd century.
[ citing Quintilian, ''Institutio Oratoria'', x.1.126f; Aulus Gellius, ''Noctes Atticae'', xii. 2.]
The early Christian Church was very favourably disposed towards Seneca and his writings, and the church leader
Tertullian
Tertullian (; la, Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus; 155 AD – 220 AD) was a prolific early Christian author from Carthage in the Roman province of Africa. He was the first Christian author to produce an extensive corpus of L ...
possessively referred to him as "our Seneca". By the 4th century an
apocryphal correspondence with
Paul the Apostle
Paul; grc, Παῦλος, translit=Paulos; cop, ⲡⲁⲩⲗⲟⲥ; hbo, פאולוס השליח (previously called Saul of Tarsus;; ar, بولس الطرسوسي; grc, Σαῦλος Ταρσεύς, Saũlos Tarseús; tr, Tarsuslu Pavlus; ...
had been created linking Seneca into the Christian tradition.
The letters are mentioned by
Jerome
Jerome (; la, Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; grc-gre, Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was a Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, th ...
who also included Seneca among a list of Christian writers, and Seneca is similarly mentioned by
Augustine
Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berbers, Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia (Roman pr ...
.
In the 6th century
Martin of Braga
Martin of Braga (in Latin ''Martinus Bracarensis'', in Portuguese, known as ''Martinho de Dume'' 520–580 AD) was an archbishop of Bracara Augusta in Gallaecia (now Braga in Portugal), a missionary, a monastic founder, and an ecclesiastical ...
synthesized Seneca's thought into a couple of treatises that became popular in their own right.
Otherwise, Seneca was mainly known through a large number of quotes and extracts in the ''
florilegia
In medieval Latin, a ' (plural ') was a compilation of excerpts or sententia from other writings and is an offshoot of the commonplacing tradition. The word is from the Latin ''flos'' (flower) and '' legere'' (to gather): literally a gathering of ...
'', which were popular throughout the medieval period.
When his writings were read in the later Middle Ages, it was mostly his ''
Letters to Lucilius
The ' (Latin for "Moral Letters to Lucilius"), also known as the ''Moral Epistles'' and ''Letters from a Stoic'', is a collection of 124 letters that Seneca the Younger wrote at the end of his life, during his retirement, after he had worked for ...
''—the longer essays and plays being relatively unknown.
Medieval writers and works continued to link him to Christianity because of his alleged association with Paul.
The ''
Golden Legend
The ''Golden Legend'' (Latin: ''Legenda aurea'' or ''Legenda sanctorum'') is a collection of hagiographies by Jacobus de Voragine that was widely read in late medieval Europe. More than a thousand manuscripts of the text have survived.Hilary ...
'', a 13th-century
hagiographical
A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian hagiographies mig ...
account of famous saints that was widely read, included an account of Seneca's death scene, and erroneously presented Nero as a witness to Seneca's suicide.
Dante
Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...
placed Seneca (alongside
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the estab ...
) among the "great spirits" in the
First Circle of Hell, or
Limbo
In Catholic theology, Limbo (Latin '' limbus'', edge or boundary, referring to the edge of Hell) is the afterlife condition of those who die in original sin without being assigned to the Hell of the Damned. Medieval theologians of Western Euro ...
.
Boccaccio
Giovanni Boccaccio (, , ; 16 June 1313 – 21 December 1375) was an Italian writer, poet, correspondent of Petrarch, and an important Renaissance humanist. Born in the town of Certaldo, he became so well known as a writer that he was some ...
, who in 1370 came across the works of Tacitus whilst browsing the library at
Montecassino, wrote an account of Seneca's suicide hinting that it was a kind of disguised baptism, or a ''de facto'' baptism in spirit. Some, such as
Albertino Mussato
Albertino Mussato (1261–1329) was a statesman, poet, historian and playwright from Padua. He is credited with providing an impetus to the revival of literary Latin, and is characterized as an early humanist. He was influenced by his teacher, the ...
and
Giovanni Colonna, went even further and concluded that Seneca must have been a Christian convert.
An improving reputation
![Seneca](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Seneca.JPG)
Seneca remains one of the few popular Roman philosophers from the period. He appears not only in
Dante
Dante Alighieri (; – 14 September 1321), probably baptized Durante di Alighiero degli Alighieri and often referred to as Dante (, ), was an Italian poet, writer and philosopher. His ''Divine Comedy'', originally called (modern Italian: '' ...
, but also in
Chaucer
Geoffrey Chaucer (; – 25 October 1400) was an English poet, author, and civil servant best known for '' The Canterbury Tales''. He has been called the "father of English literature", or, alternatively, the "father of English poetry". He w ...
and to a large degree in
Petrarch
Francesco Petrarca (; 20 July 1304 – 18/19 July 1374), commonly anglicized as Petrarch (), was a scholar and poet of early Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists.
Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited w ...
, who adopted his style in his own essays and who quotes him more than any other authority except
Virgil
Publius Vergilius Maro (; traditional dates 15 October 7021 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Roman poet of the Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: t ...
. In the
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
, printed editions and translations of his works became common, including an edition by
Erasmus
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (; ; English: Erasmus of Rotterdam or Erasmus;''Erasmus'' was his baptismal name, given after St. Erasmus of Formiae. ''Desiderius'' was an adopted additional name, which he used from 1496. The ''Roterodamus'' wa ...
and a commentary by
John Calvin
John Calvin (; frm, Jehan Cauvin; french: link=no, Jean Calvin ; 10 July 150927 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system ...
.
[Richard Mott Gummere, ''Seneca the philosopher, and his modern message'', p. 97.] John of Salisbury
John of Salisbury (late 1110s – 25 October 1180), who described himself as Johannes Parvus ("John the Little"), was an English author, philosopher, educationalist, diplomat and bishop of Chartres.
Early life and education
Born at Salisbury, E ...
, Erasmus and others celebrated his works. French essayist
Montaigne, who gave a spirited defense of Seneca and
Plutarch
Plutarch (; grc-gre, Πλούταρχος, ''Ploútarchos''; ; – after AD 119) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''P ...
in his ''Essays'', was himself considered by
Pasquier Pasquier is a French surname derived from Latin ''pascuarium'' (verb ''pascere'') meaning "pasture". Pasquier shares the same root of given name and surname Pascal, from Latin ''Pascha'', in turn from the Hebrew ''pesach'' that means literally "pa ...
a "French Seneca". Similarly,
Thomas Fuller
Thomas Fuller (baptised 19 June 1608 – 16 August 1661) was an English churchman and historian. He is now remembered for his writings, particularly his ''Worthies of England'', published in 1662, after his death. He was a prolific author, and ...
praised
Joseph Hall as "our English Seneca". Many who considered his ideas not particularly original still argued that he was important in making the Greek philosophers presentable and intelligible. His suicide has also been a popular subject in art, from
Jacques-Louis David
Jacques-Louis David (; 30 August 1748 – 29 December 1825) was a French painter in the Neoclassicism, Neoclassical style, considered to be the preeminent painter of the era. In the 1780s, his cerebral brand of history painting marked a change in ...
's 1773 painting ''
The Death of Seneca'' to the 1951 film ''
Quo Vadis
''Quō vādis?'' (, ) is a Latin phrase meaning "Where are you marching?". It is also commonly translated as "Where are you going?" or, poetically, "Whither goest thou?"
The phrase originates from the Christian tradition regarding Saint Pete ...
''.
Even with the admiration of an earlier group of intellectual stalwarts, Seneca has never been without his detractors. In his own time, he was accused of hypocrisy or, at least, a less than "Stoic" lifestyle. While banished to Corsica, he wrote a plea for restoration rather incompatible with his advocacy of a simple life and the acceptance of fate. In his ''
Apocolocyntosis
The ''Apocolocyntosis (divi) Claudii'', literally ''The Pumpkinification of ''(''the Divine'')'' Claudius'', is a satire on the Roman emperor Claudius, which, according to Cassius Dio, was written by Seneca the Younger. A partly extant Menippean ...
'' he ridiculed the behaviors and policies of Claudius, and flattered Nero—such as proclaiming that Nero would live longer and be wiser than the legendary
Nestor. The claims of
Publius Suillius Rufus
Publius may refer to:
Roman name
* Publius (praenomen)
* Ancient Romans with the name:
** Publius Valerius Publicola (died 503 BC), Roman consul, co-founder of the Republic
**Publius Clodius Pulcher (c. 93 BC – 52 BC), Republican politician
* ...
that Seneca acquired some "three hundred million ''
sesterces''" through Nero's favor are highly partisan, but they reflect the reality that Seneca was both powerful and wealthy.
Robin Campbell, a translator of Seneca's letters, writes that the "stock criticism of Seneca right down the centuries
as been
As, AS, A. S., A/S or similar may refer to:
Art, entertainment, and media
* A. S. Byatt (born 1936), English critic, novelist, poet and short story writer
* "As" (song), by Stevie Wonder
* , a Spanish sports newspaper
* , an academic male voic ...
..the apparent contrast between his philosophical teachings and his practice."
In 1562
Gerolamo Cardano
Gerolamo Cardano (; also Girolamo or Geronimo; french: link=no, Jérôme Cardan; la, Hieronymus Cardanus; 24 September 1501– 21 September 1576) was an Italian polymath, whose interests and proficiencies ranged through those of mathematician, ...
wrote an ''apology'' praising Nero in his ''Encomium Neronis'', printed in Basel. This was likely intended as a mock ''
encomium
''Encomium'' is a Latin word deriving from the Ancient Greek ''enkomion'' (), meaning "the praise of a person or thing." Another Latin equivalent is ''laudatio'', a speech in praise of someone or something.
Originally was the song sung by the c ...
'', inverting the portrayal of Nero and Seneca that appears in Tacitus. In this work Cardano portrayed Seneca as a crook of the worst kind, an empty rhetorician who was only thinking to grab money and power, after having poisoned the mind of the young emperor. Cardano stated that Seneca well deserved death.
![Seneka Starszy Sevilla](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Seneka_Starszy_Sevilla.JPG)
Among the historians who have sought to reappraise Seneca is the scholar Anna Lydia Motto, who in 1966 argued that the negative image has been based almost entirely on Suillius's account, while many others who might have lauded him have been lost.
"We are therefore left with no contemporary record of Seneca's life, save for the desperate opinion of Publius Suillius. Think of the barren image we should have of Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
, had the works of Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
and Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, wikt:Ξενοφῶν, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Anci ...
not come down to us and were we wholly dependent upon Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; grc, Ἀριστοφάνης, ; c. 446 – c. 386 BC), son of Philippus, of the deme
In Ancient Greece, a deme or ( grc, δῆμος, plural: demoi, δημοι) was a suburb or a subdivision of Athens and other city-states ...
' description of this Athenian philosopher. To be sure, we should have a highly distorted, misconstrued view. Such is the view left to us of Seneca, if we were to rely upon Suillius alone."
More recent work is changing the dominant perception of Seneca as a mere conduit for pre-existing ideas, showing originality in Seneca's contribution to the
history of ideas
Intellectual history (also the history of ideas) is the study of the history of human thought and of intellectuals, people who conceptualize, discuss, write about, and concern themselves with ideas. The investigative premise of intellectual his ...
. Examination of Seneca's life and thought in relation to contemporary education and to the psychology of emotions is revealing the relevance of his thought. For example,
Martha Nussbaum
Martha Craven Nussbaum (; born May 6, 1947) is an American philosopher and the current Ernst Freund Distinguished Service Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago, where she is jointly appointed in the law school and the philosoph ...
in her discussion of desire and emotion includes Seneca among the Stoics who offered important insights and perspectives on emotions and their role in our lives. Specifically devoting a chapter to his treatment of anger and its management, she shows Seneca's appreciation of the damaging role of uncontrolled anger, and its pathological connections. Nussbaum later extended her examination to Seneca's contribution to
political philosophy
Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships between them. Its topics include politics, l ...
showing considerable subtlety and richness in his thoughts about politics, education, and notions of global citizenship—and finding a basis for reform-minded education in Seneca's ideas she used to propose a mode of modern education that avoids both narrow traditionalism and total rejection of tradition. Elsewhere Seneca has been noted as the first great Western thinker on the complex nature and role of gratitude in human relationships.
Notable fictional portrayals
![0 Sénèque - Musée du Prado - Cat](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/0_S%C3%A9n%C3%A8que_-_Mus%C3%A9e_du_Prado_-_Cat._144_-_%282%29.JPG)
Seneca is a character in
Monteverdi
Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi (baptized 15 May 1567 – 29 November 1643) was an Italian composer, choirmaster and string player. A composer of both secular and sacred music, and a pioneer in the development of opera, he is consider ...
's 1642 opera ''
L'incoronazione di Poppea
''L'incoronazione di Poppea'' ( SV 308, ''The Coronation of Poppaea'') is an Italian opera by Claudio Monteverdi. It was Monteverdi's last opera, with a libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello, and was first performed at the Teatro Santi Giovanni ...
'' (''The Coronation of Poppea''), which is based on the pseudo-Senecan play, ''
Octavia''. In
Nathaniel Lee's 1675 play ''Nero, Emperor of Rome'', Seneca attempts to dissuade Nero from his egomaniacal plans, but is dragged off to prison, dying off-stage. He appears in
Robert Bridges
Robert Seymour Bridges (23 October 1844 – 21 April 1930) was an English poet who was Poet Laureate from 1913 to 1930. A doctor by training, he achieved literary fame only late in life. His poems reflect a deep Christian faith, and he is ...
' verse drama ''Nero'', the second part of which (published 1894) culminates in Seneca's death. Seneca appears in a fairly minor role in
Henryk Sienkiewicz
Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz ( , ; 5 May 1846 – 15 November 1916), also known by the pseudonym Litwos (), was a Polish writer, novelist, journalist and Nobel Prize laureate. He is best remembered for his historical novels, especi ...
's 1896 novel ''
Quo Vadis
''Quō vādis?'' (, ) is a Latin phrase meaning "Where are you marching?". It is also commonly translated as "Where are you going?" or, poetically, "Whither goest thou?"
The phrase originates from the Christian tradition regarding Saint Pete ...
'' and was played by
Nicholas Hannen in
the 1951 film. In Robert Graves's 1934 book ''
Claudius the God
''I, Claudius'' is a historical novel by English writer Robert Graves, published in 1934. Written in the form of an autobiography of the Roman Emperor Claudius, it tells the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the early years of the Rom ...
'', the sequel novel to ''
I, Claudius
''I, Claudius'' is a historical novel by English writer Robert Graves, published in 1934. Written in the form of an autobiography of the Roman Emperor Claudius, it tells the history of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and the early years of the Ro ...
'', Seneca is portrayed as an unbearable sycophant. He is shown as a flatterer who converts to Stoicism solely to appease Claudius's own ideology. The "Pumpkinification" (''Apocolocyntosis'') to Graves thus becomes an unbearable work of flattery to the loathsome Nero, mocking a man that Seneca groveled to for years. The historical novel ''Chariot of the Soul'' by
Linda Proud features Seneca as tutor of the young Togidubnus, son of King Verica of the Atrebates, during his ten-year stay in Rome.
See also
*
Audio theater
*
Glossarium Eroticum
*
Otium
''Otium'', a Latin abstract term, has a variety of meanings, including leisure time in which a person can enjoy eating, playing, relaxing, contemplation and academic endeavors. It sometimes, but not always, relates to a time in a person's reti ...
*
Seneca (crater)
*
2608 Seneca
Notes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
* Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. ''Anger, Mercy, Revenge.'' trans. Robert A. Kast and Martha C. Nussbaum. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010.
* Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. ''Hardship and Happiness.'' trans. Elaine Fantham, Harry M. Hine, James Ker, and Gareth D. Williams. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
* Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. ''Natural Questions.'' trans. Harry M. Hine. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2010.
* Seneca, Lucius Annaeus. ''On Benefits.'' trans. Miriam Griffin and Brad Inwood. Chicago, IL. University of Chicago Press, 2011.
* Seneca: ''The Tragedies.'' Various translators, ed. David R. Slavitt. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2 vols, 1992–94.
* Seneca: ''Tragedies.'' Ed. & transl. John G. Fitch. Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 2 vols, 2nd edn. 2018.
* Cunnally, John, “Nero, Seneca, and the Medallist of the Roman Emperors”, ''Art Bulletin'', Vol. 68, No. 2 (June 1986), pp. 314–317
* Di Paola, O. (2015)
"Connections between Seneca and Platonism in Epistulae ad Lucilium 58" Athens: ATINER'S Conference Paper Series, No: PHI2015-1445.
* Fitch, John G. (ed), ''Seneca.'' Oxford University Press, 2008. . A collection of essays by leading scholars.
*
* Griffin, Miriam T., ''Seneca: A Philosopher in Politics.'' Oxford University Press, 1976. . Still the standard biography.
* Inwood, Brad, ''Reading Seneca. Stoic Philosophy at Rome'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
*
Lucas, F. L.''Seneca and Elizabethan Tragedy''(Cambridge University Press, 1922; paperback 2009, ); on Seneca the man, his plays, and the influence of his tragedies on later drama.
Mitchell, David. ''Legacy: The Apocryphal Correspondence between Seneca and Paul'' Xlibris Corporation 2010
* Motto, Anna Lydia
”Seneca on Death and Immortality“ ''The Classical Journal'', Vol. 50, No. 4 (Jan. 1955), pp. 187–189
* Motto, Anna Lydia
"Seneca on Trial: The Case of the Opulent Stoic" ''The Classical Journal'', Vol. 61, No. 6 (March 1966), pp. 254–258
Sevenster, J.N. ''Paul and Seneca''
Novum Testamentum, Supplements Vol. 4, Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1961; a comparison of Seneca and the apostle Paul, who were contemporaries.
Shelton, Jo-Ann''Seneca's Hercules Furens: Theme, Structure and Style'' Göttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1978. . A revision of the author's doctoral thesis at the
University of California, Berkeley
The University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley, Berkeley, Cal, or California) is a public land-grant research university in Berkeley, California. Established in 1868 as the University of California, it is the state's first land-grant u ...
, 1974.
*
Wilson, Emily, ''Seneca: Six Tragedies.'' Oxford World's Classics. Oxford University Press, 2010.
External links
*
Works by Seneca the Younger at Perseus Digital Library*
*
* Original texts of Seneca's works a
*
*
*
*
Collection of works of Seneca the Younger at Wikisource*
ttp://www.curculio.org/Seneca/em-list.html List of commentaries of Seneca's LettersIncunabula (1478) of Seneca's works in the McCune Collection, read by Katharina Volk, Columbia University. Society for the Oral reading of Greek and Latin Literature (SORGLL)
Digitized works by Lucius Annaeus Senecaat
Biblioteca Digital Hispánica,
Biblioteca Nacional de España
The Biblioteca Nacional de España (''National Library of Spain'') is a major public library, the largest in Spain, and one of the largest in the world. It is located in Madrid, on the Paseo de Recoletos.
History
The library was founded by ...
Guide to Seneca, Lucius Annaeus, Spurious works. Manuscript, ca. 1450at th
University of Chicago Special Collections Research CenterDigitized Edition of Seneca's Opera Omnia from 1503(Venice) a
E-rara.ch
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