''Wu'' () is a Chinese term translating to "
shaman
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a spirit world through altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritu ...
" or "sorcerer", originally the practitioners of
Chinese shamanism
Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (; alternatively ''wū xí zōngjiào''), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China. Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the Hongshan culture. ...
or "Wuism" (巫教 ''wū jiào'').
Terminology
The glyph ancestral to modern is first recorded in
bronze script
Chinese bronze inscriptions, also commonly referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script, are writing in a variety of Chinese scripts on ritual bronzes such as ''zhōng'' bells and '' dǐng'' tripodal cauldrons from the Shang dynasty (2nd mi ...
, where it could refer to shamans or sorcerers of either sex. Modern Mandarin ''wu'' (
Cantonese
Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding are ...
''mouh'') continues a
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
''mju'' or ''mjo''. The
Old Chinese
Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese language, Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones ...
reconstruction is uncertain, given as *''m
ywo'' or as *''m
yag'', the presence of a final
velar
Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, the back part of the roof of the mouth (known also as the velum).
Since the velar region of the roof of the mouth is relatively extensive an ...
''-g'' or ''-ɣ'' in Old Chinese being uncertain.
By the late
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
(4th to 3rd centuries BCE), ''wu'' referred mostly to female shamans or "sorceresses", while male sorcerers were named ''xi'' "male shaman; sorcerer", first attested in the
''Guoyu'' or '' Discourses of the States'' (4th century BCE). Other sex-differentiated shaman names include ''nanwu'' for "male shaman; sorcerer; wizard"; and ''nüwu'' , ''wunü'' , ''wupo'' , and ''wuyu'' for "female shaman; sorceress; witch".
''Wu'' is used in compounds like ''
wugu'' "sorcery; cast harmful spells", ''wushen'' or ''shenwu'' (with
''shen'' "spirit; god") "wizard; sorcerer", and ''wuxian'' (with
''xian'' "immortal; alchemist") "immortal shaman".
The word ''
tongji Tongji may refer to:
* Tongji Bridge (Jinhua) () a large stone arch bridge in Jinhua, China.
* Tongji Bridge (Yuyao) () a stone arch bridge in Yuyao, China.
* Tongji County (), former name of Shifang, Sichuan, China.
* Tongji Lu Station () metro st ...
'' (lit. "youth diviner") "shaman; spirit-medium" is a near-synonym of ''wu''. Chinese uses phonetic
transliteration
Transliteration is a type of conversion of a text from one writing system, script to another that involves swapping Letter (alphabet), letters (thus ''wikt:trans-#Prefix, trans-'' + ''wikt:littera#Latin, liter-'') in predictable ways, such as ...
to distinguish native ''wu'' from "
Siberian shaman": ''saman'' or ''saman'' . "Shaman" is occasionally written with Chinese Buddhist transcriptions of
Shramana "wandering monk; ascetic": ''shamen'' , ''sangmen'' , or ''sangmen'' .
Joseph Needham
Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham (; 9 December 1900 – 24 March 1995) was a British biochemist, historian of science and sinologist known for his scientific research and writing on the history of Chinese science and technology, in ...
suggests "shaman" was transliterated ''xianmen'' in the name of
Zou Yan
Zou Yan (; ; 305 BC240 BC) was a Chinese philosopher and spiritual writer best known as the representative thinker of the Yin and Yang School (or School of Naturalists) during the Hundred Schools of Thought era in Chinese philosophy.
Biography
Z ...
's disciple Xianmen Gao (or Zigao ). He quotes the ''
Shiji
''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese hist ...
'' that Emperor
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of "king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Emperor ( ...
(r. 221–210 BCE), "wandered about on the shore of the eastern sea, and offered sacrifices to the famous mountains and the great rivers and the eight Spirits; and searched for ''
xian
Xi'an ( , ; ; Chinese: ), frequently spelled as Xian and also known by other names, is the capital of Shaanxi Province. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong Plain, the city is the third most populous city in Western China, after Chongqin ...
'' "immortals",
'xianmen'' and the like." Needham compares two later Chinese terms for "shaman": ''shanman'' , which described the
Jurchen leader
Wanyan Xiyin
The Wanyan (; Manchu: ''Wanggiyan''; Jurchen script: ) clan was among the clans of the Heishui Mohe tribe living in the drainage region of the Heilong River during the time of the Khitan-led Liao dynasty. Of the Heishui Mohe, the clan was coun ...
, and ''sizhu'' , which was used for imperial
Manchu
The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and ...
shamans during the
Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
.
Translations
''Shaman'' is the common English translation of Chinese ''wu'', but some scholars maintain that the Siberian ''shaman'' and Chinese ''wu'' were historically and culturally different shamanic traditions.
Arthur Waley
Arthur David Waley (born Arthur David Schloss, 19 August 188927 June 1966) was an English orientalist and sinologist who achieved both popular and scholarly acclaim for his translations of Chinese and Japanese poetry. Among his honours were th ...
defines ''wu'' as "spirit-intermediary" and says, "Indeed the functions of the Chinese ''wu'' were so like those of Siberian and Tunguz shamans that it is convenient (as has indeed been done by Far Eastern and European writers) to use shaman as a translation of ''wu''. In contrast, Schiffeler describes the "untranslatableness" of ''wu'', and prefers using the romanization "''wu'' instead of its contemporary English counterparts, "witches," "warlocks," or "shamans"," which have misleading connotations. Taking ''wu'' to mean "female shaman",
Edward H. Schafer
Edward Hetsel Schafer (23 August 1913 – 9 February 1991) was an American historian, sinologist, and writer noted for his expertise on the Tang Dynasty, and was a professor of Chinese at University of California, Berkeley for 35 years. Sc ...
translates it as "shamaness" and "shamanka". The transliteration-translation "''wu'' shaman" or "''wu''-shaman" implies "Chinese" specifically and "shamanism" generally. ''Wu'', concludes von Falkenhausen, "may be rendered as "shaman" or, perhaps, less controversially as "spirit medium"." Paper criticizes "the majority of scholars" who use one word ''shaman'' to translate many Chinese terms (''wu'' , ''xi'' , ''yi'' , ''xian'' , and ''zhu'' ), and writes, "The general tendency to refer to all ecstatic religious functionaries as shamans blurs functional differences."
The character ''wu'' besides the meanings of "spirit medium, shaman, witch doctor" (etc.) also has served as a toponym: ''
Wushan'' (near
Chongqing
Chongqing ( or ; ; Sichuanese dialects, Sichuanese pronunciation: , Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ), Postal Romanization, alternately romanized as Chungking (), is a Direct-administered municipalities of China, municipality in Southwes ...
in
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of the ...
Province), ''
Wuxi
Wuxi (, ) is a city in southern Jiangsu province, eastern China, by car to the northwest of downtown Shanghai, between Changzhou and Suzhou. In 2017 it had a population of 3,542,319, with 6,553,000 living in the entire prefecture-level city ar ...
'' "Wu Stream", ''
Wuxia
( ), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although is traditionally a form of historical fiction, its popularity has caused it to be adapted f ...
'' "Wu Gorge".
''
Wu'' is also a surname (in antiquity, the name of legendary
Wu Xian ). Wuma (lit. "shaman horse") is both a
Chinese compound surname
A Chinese compound surname is a Chinese surname using more than one Chinese character, character. Many of these compound surnames derive from Zhou dynasty Chinese noble and official titles, professions, place names and other areas, to serve a purp ...
(for example, the Confucian disciple
Wuma Shi/Qi ) and a name for "horse shaman; equine veterinarian" (for example, the ''Zhouli'' official).
Characters
The contemporary
Chinese character
Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the Written Chinese, writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are k ...
for ''wu'' combines the graphic
radicals ''gong'' "work" and ''ren'' "person" doubled (cf. ''cong'' ). This character developed from
Seal script
Seal script, also sigillary script () is an ancient style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of the Zhou dynasty bronze script. The Qin variant of seal ...
characters that depicted dancing shamans, which descend from
Bronzeware script
Chinese bronze inscriptions, also commonly referred to as bronze script or bronzeware script, are writing in a variety of Chinese scripts on ritual bronzes such as ''zhōng'' bells and '' dǐng'' tripodal cauldrons from the Shang dynasty (2nd mi ...
and
Oracle bone script
Oracle bone script () is an ancient form of Chinese characters that were engraved on oracle bonesanimal bones or Turtle shell#Plastron, turtle plastrons used in pyromancy, pyromantic divination. Oracle bone script was used in the late 2nd millen ...
characters that resembled a
cross potent
A cross potent (plural: crosses potent), also known as a crutch cross, is a form of heraldic cross with crossbars at the four ends. In French, it is known as '' croix potencée'', in German as a ''Kruckenkreuz'', all translating to "crutch cross" ...
.
The first
Chinese dictionary
Chinese dictionaries date back over two millennia to the Han dynasty, which is a significantly longer lexicographical history than any other language. There are hundreds of dictionaries for the Chinese language, and this article discusses some of ...
of characters, the (121 CE) ''
Shuowen Jiezi
''Shuowen Jiezi'' () is an ancient Chinese dictionary from the Han dynasty. Although not the first comprehensive Chinese character dictionary (the '' Erya'' predates it), it was the first to analyze the structure of the characters and to give ...
'' defines ''wu'' as ''zhu'' "sacrifice; prayer master; invoker; priest" ("") and analyzes the Seal graph, "An Invoker. A woman who can serve the Invisible, and by posturing bring down the spirits. Depicts a person with two sleeves posturing." This Seal graph for ''wu'' is interpreted as showing "the 工 work of two dancing figures set to each other – a shamanistic dance" or "two human figures facing some central object (possibly a pole, or in a tent-like enclosure?)".
This dictionary also includes a variant
Great Seal script
The large seal script or great seal script () is a traditional reference to Chinese writing from before the Qin dynasty (i.e. before 221 BCE), and is now popularly understood to refer narrowly to the writing of the Western and early Eastern Zhou ...
(called a ''guwen'' "ancient script") that elaborates ''wu'' . Hopkins analyzes this ''guwen'' graph as ''gong'' "two hands held upward" at the bottom (like ''shi'' 's Seal graph) and two "mouths" with the "sleeves" on the sides; or "jade" because the ''Shuowen'' defines ''ling'' "spiritual; divine" as synonymous with ''wu'' and depicting , "an inspired shaman serving the Spirits with jade."
Schafer compares the Shang Dynasty oracle graphs for ''wu'' and ''nong'' "play with; cause" (written with "jade" over "two hands") that shows "hands (of a shaman?) elevating a piece of jade (the rain-compelling mineral) inside an enclosure, possibly a tent. The Seal and modern form may well derive from this original, the hands becoming two figures, a convergence towards the dancer-type graph."
Tu Baikui suggests that the ''wu'' oracle character "was composed of two pieces of jade and originally designated a tool of divination." Citing Li Xiaoding that ''gong'' 工 originally pictured a "carpenter's square", Allan argues that oracle inscriptions used ''wu'' interchangeably with ''fang'' "square; side; place" for sacrifices to the ''sifang'' "four directions".
This component is semantically significant in several characters:
*''wu'' (with the "speech radical" ) "deceive; slander; falsely accuse"
*''shi'' (with the "bamboo radical" ) "
Achillea millefolium
''Achillea millefolium'', commonly known as yarrow () or common yarrow, is a flowering plant in the family Asteraceae. Other common names include old man's pepper, devil's nettle, sanguinary, milfoil, soldier's woundwort, and thousand seal.
The ...
(used for divination)"
*''xi'' (with the "vision radical" ) "male shaman; male sorcerer"
*''ling'' (with the "cloud radical" and three "mouths" or "raindrops") "spirit; divine; clever"
*''yi'' "doctor", which is an old "shaman"
variant character for ''yi'' (with the "wine radical" )
Etymology
![Tomb brick g](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Tomb_brick_g.JPG)
A wide range of hypotheses for the etymology of ''wū'' "spirit medium; shaman" has been proposed.
Laufer proposed a relation between
Mongolian ''bügä'' "shaman",
Turkish
Turkish may refer to:
*a Turkic language spoken by the Turks
* of or about Turkey
** Turkish language
*** Turkish alphabet
** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation
*** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey
*** Turkish communities and mi ...
''bögü'' "shaman", "Chinese ''bu'', ''wu'' (shaman), ''buk'', ''puk'' (to divine), and
Tibetan
Tibetan may mean:
* of, from, or related to Tibet
* Tibetan people, an ethnic group
* Tibetan language:
** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard
** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken dial ...
''aba'' (pronounced ''ba'', sorcerer)".
Coblin puts forward a Sino-Tibetan root *' "magician; sorcerer" for Chinese ''wū'' < ''mju'' < *''mjag'' "magician; shaman" and
Written Tibetan
The Tibetan script is a segmental writing system (''abugida'') of Indic origin used to write certain Tibetic languages, including Tibetan, Dzongkha, Sikkimese, Ladakhi, Jirel and Balti. It has also been used for some non-Tibetic languages ...
'' 'ba'-po'' "sorcerer" and'' 'ba'-mo'' "sorcereress" (of the
Bön
''Bon'', also spelled Bön () and also known as Yungdrung Bon (, "eternal Bon"), is a Tibetan culture, Tibetan religious tradition with many similarities to Tibetan Buddhism and also many unique features.Samuel 2012, pp. 220-221. Bon initiall ...
religion).
Schuessler notes Chinese ''xian'' < ''sjän'' < *''sen'' "transcendent; immortal; alchemist" was probably borrowed as Written Tibetan ''gšen'' "shaman" and
Thai
Thai or THAI may refer to:
* Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia
** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand
** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand
*** Thai script
*** Thai (Unicode block ...
< Proto-Tai *' "doctor; sorcerer". In addition, the
Mon–Khmer
The Austroasiatic languages , , are a large language family in Mainland Southeast Asia and South Asia. These languages are scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China and are th ...
and Proto-Western-Austronesian *' "shaman" may also be connected with ''wū''. Schuessler lists four proposed etymologies:
Firstly, ''wū'' could be the same word as ''wū'' "to deceive". Schuessler notes a written Tibetan semantic parallel between "magical power" and "deceive": ''sprul-ba'' "to juggle, make phantoms; miraculous power" cognate with "magical deception".
Secondly, ''wu'' could be cognate with ''wǔ'' "to dance". Based on analysis of ancient characters, Hopkins proposed that ''wū'' "shaman", ''wú'' "not have; without", and ''wǔ'' "dance", "can all be traced back to one primitive figure of a man displaying by the gestures of his arms and legs the
thaumaturgic
Thaumaturgy is the purported capability of a magician to work magic or other paranormal events or a saint to perform miracles. It is sometimes translated into English as wonderworking.
A practitioner of thaumaturgy is a "thaumaturge", "thauma ...
powers of his inspired personality". Many Western Han Dynasty tombs contained jade plaques or pottery images showing "long-sleeved dancers" performing at funerals, whom Erickson identifies as shamans, citing the ''Shuowen jiezi'' that early ''wǔ'' characters depicted a dancer's sleeves.
Thirdly, ''wū'' could also be cognate with ''mǔ'' "mother" since ''wū'', as opposed to ''xí'' , were typically female.
Edward Schafer associates ''wū'' shamanism with fertility rituals. Jensen cites the Japanese sinologist Shirakawa Shizuka 's hypothesis that the mother of
Confucius
Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...
was a ''wū''.
![巫-bronze](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6e/%E5%B7%AB-bronze.svg)
Fourthly, ''wū'' could be a loanword from
Iranian
Iranian may refer to:
* Iran, a sovereign state
* Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran
* Iranian lan ...
*''maguš'' "magus; magician" (cf.
Old Persian
Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan language, Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native ...
''maguš'',
Avestan
Avestan (), or historically Zend, is an umbrella term for two Old Iranian languages: Old Avestan (spoken in the 2nd millennium BCE) and Younger Avestan (spoken in the 1st millennium BCE). They are known only from their conjoined use as the scrip ...
''mogu''), meaning an "able one; specialist in ritual".
Mair provides archaeological and linguistic evidence that Chinese ''wū'' < *''m
yag'' "shaman; witch, wizard; magician" was a loanword from
Old Persian
Old Persian is one of the two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan language, Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native ...
*''maguš'' "magician;
magus
Magi (; singular magus ; from Latin ''magus'', cf. fa, مغ ) were priests in Zoroastrianism and the earlier religions of the western Iranians. The earliest known use of the word ''magi'' is in the trilingual inscription written by Darius the ...
".
Mair connects the bronze script character for ''wū'' with the "
cross potent
A cross potent (plural: crosses potent), also known as a crutch cross, is a form of heraldic cross with crossbars at the four ends. In French, it is known as '' croix potencée'', in German as a ''Kruckenkreuz'', all translating to "crutch cross" ...
" symbol ☩ found in Neolithic West Asia, suggesting the loan of both the symbol and the word.
Early records of ''wu''
The oldest written records of ''wu'' are Shang Dynasty oracle inscriptions and Zhou Dynasty classical texts. Boileau notes the disparity of these sources.
Concerning the historical origin of the ''wu'', we may ask: were they a remnant of an earlier stage of the development of archaic Chinese civilization? The present state of the documentation does not allow such a conclusion for two reasons: first, the most abundant data about the ''wu'' are to be found in Eastern Zhou texts; and, second, these texts have little in common with the data originating directly from the Shang civilization; possible ancestors of the Eastern Zhou ''wu'' are the cripples and the females burned in sacrifice to bring about rain. They are mentioned in the oracular inscriptions but there is no mention of the Shang character ''wu''. Moreover, because of the scarcity of information, many of the activities of the Zhou ''wu'' cannot be traced back to the Shang period. Consequently, trying to correlate Zhou data with Neolithic cultures appears very difficult.
''Wu'' in Shang oracular inscriptions
Shima lists 58 occurrences of the character ''wu'' in concordance of oracle inscriptions: 32 in repeated compounds (most commonly "''wu'' spirit/sacrifice" and "bring the ''wu'') and 26 in miscellaneous contexts. Boileau differentiates four meanings of these oracular ''wu'':
#"a spirit, ''wu'' of the north or east, to which sacrifices are offered"
#"a sacrifice, possibly linked to controlling the wind or meteorology"
#"an equivalent for ''shi'' , a form of divination using achilea"
#"a living human being, possibly the name of a person, tribe, place, or territory"
The inscriptions about this living ''wu'', which is later identified as "shaman", reveal six characteristics:
#whether the ''wu'' is a man or a woman is not known;
#it could be either the name for a function or the name of a people (or an individual) coming from a definite territory or nation;
#the wu seems to have been in charge of some divinations, (in one instance, divination is linked to a sacrifice of appeasement);
#the wu is seen as offering a sacrifice of appeasement but the inscription and the fact that this kind of sacrifice was offered by other persons (the king included) suggests that the ''wu'' was not the person of choice to conduct all the sacrifices of appeasement;
#there is only one inscription where a direct link between the king and the ''wu'' appears. Nevertheless, the nature of the link is not known, because the status of the ''wu'' does not appear clearly;
#he follows (being brought, presumably, to Shang territory or court) the orders of other people; he is perhaps offered to the Shang as a tribute.
Based on this ancient but limited Shang-era oracular record, it is unclear how or whether the ''Wu'' spirit, sacrifice, person, and place were related.
''Wu'' in Zhou received texts
Chinese ''wu'' "shaman" occurs over 300 times in the
Chinese classics
Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confucian ...
, which generally date from the late Zhou and early Han periods (6th-1st centuries BCE). The following examples are categorized by the common specializations of ''wu''-shamans:
men and women possessed by spirits or gods, and consequently acting as seers and soothsayers, exorcists and physicians; invokers or conjurers bringing down gods at sacrifices, and performing other sacerdotal functions, occasionally indulging also in imprecation, and in sorcery with the help of spirits.
A single text can describe many roles for ''wu''-shamans. For instance, the ''
Guoyu'' idealizes their origins in a
Golden Age
The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the ''Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages of Man, Ages, Gold being the first and the one during ...
. It contains a story about
King Zhao of
Chu (r. 515-489 BCE) reading in the ''Shujing'' that the sage ruler
Shun
Shun may refer to one of the following:
*To shun, which means avoiding association with an individual or group
* Shun (given name), a masculine Japanese given name
*Seasonality in Japanese cuisine (''shun'', 旬)
Emperor Shun
* Emperor Shun ( ...
"commissioned Chong and Li to cut the communication between heaven and earth". He asks his minister to explain and is told:
Anciently, men and spirits did not intermingle. At that time there were certain persons who were so perspicacious, single-minded, and reverential that their understanding enabled them to make meaningful collation of what lies above and below, and their insight to illumine what is distant and profound. Therefore the spirits would descend upon them. The possessors of such powers were, if men, called ''xi'' (shamans), and, if women, ''wu'' (shamanesses). It is they who supervised the positions of the spirits at the ceremonies, sacrificed to them, and otherwise handled religious matters. As a consequence, the spheres of the divine and the profane were kept distinct. The spirits sent down blessings on the people, and accepted from them their offerings. There were no natural calamities.
In the degenerate time of [Shaohao
Shaohao or Shao Hao ( "Lesser Brightness"), also known Jin Tian (金天), was a legendary Chinese sovereign. Shaohao is usually identified as a son of the Yellow Emperor. According to some traditions (for example the ''Book of Documents''), he is a ...
] (traditionally put at the twenty-sixth century B.C.), however, the Nine Li threw virtue into disorder. Men and spirits became intermingled, with each household indiscriminately performing for itself the religious observances which had hitherto been conducted by the shamans. As a consequence, men lost their reverence for the spirits, the spirits violated the rules of men, and natural calamities arose. Hence the successor of [Shaohao], [Zhuanxu
Zhuanxu (Chinese: trad. , simp. , pinyin ''Zhuānxū''), also known as Gaoyang ( t , s , p ''Gāoyáng''), was a mythological emperor of ancient China.
In the traditional account recorded by Sima Qian, Zhu ...
] ..., charged [Chong], Governor of the South, to handle the affairs of heaven in order to determine the proper place of the spirits, and Li, Governor of Fire, to handle the affairs of Earth, in order to determine the proper place of men. And such is what is meant by cutting the communication between Heaven and Earth.
Wu-shamans as healers
The belief that
demonic possession
Spirit possession is an unusual or altered state of consciousness and associated behaviors purportedly caused by the control of a human body by spirits, ghosts, demons, or gods. The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and reli ...
caused disease and sickness is well documented in many cultures, including ancient China. The early practitioners of
Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
historically changed from ''wu'' "spirit-mediums; shamans" who used divination, exorcism, and prayer to ''yi'' or "doctors; physicians" who used herbal medicine,
moxibustion
Moxibustion () is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy which consists of burning dried mugwort ('' wikt:moxa'') on particular points on the body. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, ...
, and
acupuncture
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientifi ...
.
As mentioned above, ''wu'' "shaman" was depicted in the ancient variant character for ''yi'' "healer; doctor". This archaic ''yi'' , writes Carr, "ideographically depicted a shaman-doctor in the act of exorcistical healing with ( 'arrows' in) a 'quiver', a 'hand holding a lance', and a ''wu'' 'shaman'." Unschuld believes this character depicts the type of ''wu'' practitioner described in the ''Liji''.
Several times a year, and also during certain special occasions, such as the funeral of a prince, hordes of exorcists would race shrieking through the city streets, enter the courtyards and homes, thrusting their spears into the air, in an attempt to expel the evil creatures. Prisoners were dismembered outside all gates to the city, to serve both as a deterrent to the demons and as an indication of their fate should they be captured.
Replacing the exorcistical "shaman" in with medicinal "wine" in ''yi'' "healer; doctor" signified, writes Schiffeler, "the practice of medicine was not any longer confined to the incantations of the ''wu'', but that it had been taken over (from an official standpoint) by the "priest-physicians," who administered elixirs or wines as treatments for their patients."
![iching-hexagram-32](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Iching-hexagram-32.svg)
''Wu'' and ''yi'' are compounded in the word ''wuyi'' "shaman-doctor; shamans and doctors", translated "exorcising physician", "sorcerer-physician", or "physician-shaman". Confucius quotes a "Southern Saying" that a good ''wuyi'' must have ''heng'' "constancy; ancient tradition; continuation; perseverance; regularity; proper name (e.g., ''Yijing''
Hexagram 32)". The (ca. 5th century BCE) ''
Lunyu
The ''Analects'' (; ; Old Chinese: '' ŋ(r)aʔ''; meaning "Selected Sayings"), also known as the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Sayings of Confucius'', or the ''Lun Yu'', is an ancient Chinese book composed of a large collection of sayings a ...
'' "Confucian Analects" and the (ca. 1st century BCE) ''
Liji
The ''Book of Rites'', also known as the ''Liji'', is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of the Zhou dynasty as they were understood in the Warring States and the early Han periods. The ''Book o ...
'' "Record of Rites" give different versions of the Southern Saying.
First, the ''Lunyu'' quotes Confucius to mention the saying and refer to the Heng Hexagram:
The Master said, The men of the south have a saying, Without stability a man will not even make a good shaman or witch-doctor. Well said! Of the maxim; if you do not stabilize an act of ''te'' , you will get evil by it (instead of good), the Master said, They (i.e. soothsayers) do not simply read the omens.
Confucius refers to a ''Yijing'' line interpretation of the Heng "Duration" Hexagram: "Nine in the third place means: He who does not give duration to his character meets with disgrace." In Waley's earlier article about the ''Yijing'', he translated "If you do not stabilize your "virtue," Disgrace will overtake you", and quoted the ''Lunyu''.
"The people of the south have a saying, 'It takes ''heng'' to make even a soothsayer or medicine-man.' It's quite true. 'If you do not stabilize your virtue, disgrace will overtake you'." Confucius adds , which has completely baffled his interpreters. Surely the meaning is 'It is not enough merely to get an omen,' one must also ''heng'' 'stabilize it'. And if such a rule applies even to inferior arts like those of the diviner and medicine-man, Confucius asks, how much the more does it apply to the seeker after 'de''in the moral sense? Surely he too must 'make constant' his initial striving!
Second, the ''Liji'' quotes Confucius to elaborate upon the Southern Saying.
The Master said, 'The people of the south have a saying that "A man without constancy cannot be a diviner either with the tortoise-shell or the stalks." This was probably a saying handed down from antiquity. If such a man cannot know the tortoise-shell and stalks, how much less can he know other men? It is said in the ''Book of Poetry'' (II, v, ode 1, 3) "Our tortoise-shells are wearied out, And will not tell us anything about the plans." The Charge to uesays ( 'Shujing'' IV, VIII, sect. 2, 5, 11), "Dignities should not be conferred on men of evil practices. (If they be), how can the people set themselves to correct their ways? If this be sought merely by sacrifices, it will be disrespectful (to the spirits). When affairs come to be troublesome, there ensues disorder; when the spirits are served so, difficulties ensue." 'It is said in the 'Yijing'' "When one does not continuously maintain his virtue, some will impute it to him as a disgrace; (in the position indicated in the Hexagram.) 'When one does maintain his virtue continuously (in the other position indicated), this will be fortunate in a wife, but in a husband evil'."
This ''Liji'' version makes five changes from the ''Lunyu''. (1) It writes ''bushi'' "diviner" instead of ''wuyi'' "shaman-doctor", compounding ''bu'' "divine by bone or shell,
scapulimancy
Scapulimancy (also spelled ''scapulomancy'' and ''scapulamancy'', also termed ''omoplatoscopy'' or ''speal bone reading'') is the practice of divination by use of scapulae or speal bones (shoulder blades). It is most widely practiced in China an ...
or
plastromancy
Oracle bones () are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron, which were used for pyromancy – a form of divination – in ancient China, mainly during the late Shang dynasty. ''Scapulimancy'' is the correct term if ox scapulae were used for the ...
" and ''shi'' (also with "shaman") "divine by milfoil stalks,
cleromancy
Cleromancy is a form of sortition (casting of lots) in which an outcome is determined by means that normally would be considered random, such as the rolling of dice, but that are sometimes believed to reveal the will of a deity.
In classical civ ...
or sortilege". (2) Instead of quoting Confucius to remark "well said!"; he describes the southern proverb as "probably a saying handed down from antiquity" and rhetorically questions the efficacy of divination. (3) The ''Liji'' correctly quotes the ''Shijing'' criticizing royal diviners: "Our tortoises are (satiated =) weary, they do not tell us the (proper) plans." (4) It quotes the "Charge to Yue" (traditionally attributed to Shang king
Wu Ding
Wu Ding (); personal name Zi Zhao, was a king of the Shang dynasty who ruled China around 1200s BC. He is the earliest figure in Chinese history mentioned in contemporary records. The annals of the Shang dynasty compiled by later historians were o ...
) differently from the fabricated ''Guwen'' "
Old Texts
In Chinese philology, the Old Texts () refer to some versions of the Five Classics discovered during the Han Dynasty, written in archaic characters and supposedly produced before the burning of the books. The term became used in contrast with Mode ...
" ''
Shujing
The ''Book of Documents'' (''Shūjīng'', earlier ''Shu King'') or ''Classic of History'', also known as the ''Shangshu'' (“Venerated Documents”), is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is a collection of rhetorica ...
'' "Classic of History" chapter with this name.
Dignities may not be conferred on man of evil practices, but only on men of worth. Anxious thought about what will be good should precede your movements. Your movements also should have respect to the time for them. ... Officiousness in sacrifices is called irreverence; ceremonies when burdensome lead to disorder. To serve the spirits in this way is difficult.
(5) It cites an additional ''Yijing'' Hexagram 32 line that gender determines the auspiciousness of ''heng''. "Six in the fifth place means: Giving duration to one's character through perseverance. This is good fortune for a woman, misfortune for a man."
The mytho-geography ''
Shanhaijing
The ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'', also known as ''Shan Hai Jing'', formerly romanized as the ''Shan-hai Ching'', is a Chinese classic text and a compilation of mythic geography and beasts. Early versions of the text may have existed sinc ...
'' "Classic of Mountains and Seas" associates ''wu''-shamans with medicinal herbs.
East of the Openbright there are Shaman Robust, Shaman Pushaway, Shaman Sunny, Shaman Shoe, Shaman Every, and Shaman Aide. They are all on each side of the corpse of Notch Flaw and they hold the neverdie drug to ward off decay.
There is Mount Divinepower. This is where Shaman Whole, Shaman Reach, Shaman Share, Shaman Robust, Shaman Motherinlaw, Shaman Real, Shaman Rite, Shaman Pushaway, ShamanTakeleave, and Shaman Birdnet ascend to the sky and come down from Mount Divinepower. This is where the hundred drugs are to be found.
"Shaman Whole" translates
Wu Xian below.
Boileau contrasts Siberian and Chinese shamanic medicines.
Concerning healing, a comparison of the ''wu'' and the Siberian shaman shows a big difference: in Siberia, the shaman is also in charge of cures and healing, but he does this by identifying the spirit responsible for the disease and negotiates the proper way to appease him (or her), for example by offering a sacrifice or food on a regular basis. In archaic China, this role is performed through sacrifice: exorcism by the ''wu'' does not seem to result in a sacrifice but is aimed purely and simply at expelling the evil spirit.
Wu-shamans as rainmakers
''Wu'' anciently served as intermediaries with
nature spirit
Nature, in the broadest sense, is the physical world or universe. "Nature" can refer to the phenomena of the physical world, and also to life in general. The study of nature is a large, if not the only, part of science. Although humans are p ...
s believed to control rainfall and flooding. During a
drought
A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...
, ''wu''-shamans would perform the ''yu'' "sacrificial
rain dance
Rainmaking is a weather modification ritual that attempts to invoke rain.
Among the best known examples of weather modification rituals are North American rain dances, historically performed by many Native American tribes, particularly in the ...
ceremony". If that failed, both ''wu'' and ''wang'' "cripple; lame person; emaciated person" engaged in "ritual exposure"
rainmaking
Rainmaking, also known as artificial precipitation, artificial rainfall and pluviculture, is the act of attempting to artificially induce or increase precipitation, usually to stave off drought or the wider global warming. According to the cloud ...
techniques based upon
homeopathic
Homeopathy or homoeopathy is a pseudoscientific system of alternative medicine. It was conceived in 1796 by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann. Its practitioners, called homeopaths, believe that a substance that causes symptoms of a dise ...
or
sympathetic magic
Sympathetic magic, also known as imitative magic, is a type of magic based on imitation or correspondence.
Similarity and contagion
James George Frazer coined the term "sympathetic magic" in '' The Golden Bough'' (1889); Richard Andree, however ...
. As Unschuld explains, "Shamans had to carry out an exhausting dance within a ring of fire until, sweating profusely, the falling drops of perspirations produced the desired rain." These ''wu'' and ''wang'' procedures were called ''pu'' / "expose to open air/sun", ''fen'' "burn; set on fire", and ''pulu'' "reveal; lay bare; expose to open air/sun".
For the year 639 BCE, the ''Chunqiu'' records, "In summer, there was a great drought" in
Lu, and the ''Zuozhuan'' notes a discussion about ''fen wu wang'' :
The duke (Xi) wanted to burn a ''wu'' and a cripple at the stake. Zang Wenzhong said: this is no preparation for the drought. Repair the city walls, limit your food, be economic in your consumption, be parsimonious and advise (people) to share (the food), this is what must be done. What use would be ''wu'' and cripple? If Heaven wanted to have them killed, why were they born at all? If they (the cripple and the ''wu'') could produce drought, burning them would augment very much (the disaster).
The duke followed this advice, and subsequently "scarcity was not very great".
The ''Liji'' uses the words ''puwang'' and ''puwu'' to describe a similar rainmaking ritual during the reign (407-375 BCE) of Duke Mu of Lu.
There was a drought during the year. Duke Mu called on Xianzi and asked him about the reason for this. He said: 'Heaven has not (given us) rain in a long time. I want to expose to the sun a cripple and what about that?' (Xianzi) said: 'Heaven has not (given us) rain in a long time but to expose to the sun the crippled son of somebody, that would be cruel. No, this cannot be allowed.' (the duke said): 'Well, then I want to expose to the sun a ''wu'' and what about that?' (Xianzi) answered: 'Heaven has not (given us) rain in a long time but to put one's hope on an ignorant woman and offer her to pray (for rain), no, this is too far (from reason).'
Commentators interpret the ''wu'' as a female shaman and the ''wang'' as a male cripple.
De Groot connects the ''Zuozhuan'' and ''Liji'' stories about ritually burning ''wu''.
These two narratives evidently are different readings of one, and may both be inventions; nevertheless they have their value as sketches of ancient idea and custom. Those 'infirm or unsound' ''wang'' were non-descript individuals, evidently placed somewhat on a line with the ''wu''; perhaps they were queer hags or beldams, deformed beings, idiotic or crazy, or nervously affected to a very high degree, whose strange demeanour was ascribed to possession.
Wu-shamans as oneiromancers
Oneiromancy
Oneiromancy (from the , and ) is a form of divination based upon dreams, and also uses dreams to predict the future. Oneirogen plants may also be used to produce or enhance dream-like states of consciousness. Occasionally, the dreamer feels as if t ...
or
dream interpretation
Dream interpretation is the process of assigning meaning to dreams. Although associated with some forms of psychotherapy, there is no reliable evidence that understanding or interpreting dreams has a positive impact on one's mental health.
In m ...
was one type of divination performed by ''wu'' . The ''Zuozhuan'' records two stories about ''wu'' interpreting the guilty dreams of murderers.
First, in 581 BCE the lord of
Jin, who had slain two officers from the
Zhao () family, had a nightmare about their ancestral spirit, and called upon an unnamed ''wu'' "shaman" from Sangtian and a ''yi'' "doctor" named Huan from
Qin Qin may refer to:
Dynasties and states
* Qin (state) (秦), a major state during the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China
* Qin dynasty (秦), founded by the Qin state in 221 BC and ended in 206 BC
* Daqin (大秦), ancient Chinese name for the Roman Emp ...
.
The marquis of [Jin] saw in a dream a great demon with disheveled hair reaching to the ground, which beat its breast, and leaped up, saying: "You have slain my descendants unrighteously, and I have presented my request to the High God in consequence." It then broke the great gate (of the palace), advanced to the gate of the State chamber, and entered. The duke was afraid and went into a side-chamber, the door of which it also broke. The duke then awoke, and called the witch of [Sangtian], who told him everything which he had dreamt. "What will be the issue?" asked the duke. "You will not taste the new wheat," she replied.
After this, the duke became very ill, and asked the services of a physician from [Qin], the earl of which sent the physician [Huan] to do what he could for him. Before he came, the duke dreamt that his disease turned into two boys, who said, "That is a skilful physician; it is to be feared he will hurt us; how shall we get out of his way?" Then one of them said: "If we take our place above the heart and below the throat, what can he do to us?" When the physician arrived, he said, "Nothing can be done for this disease. Its seat is above the heart and below the throat. If I assail it (with medicine), it will be of no use; if I attempt to puncture it, it cannot be reached. Nothing can be done for it." The duke said, "He is a skilful physician", gave him large gifts, and send him back to [Qin].
In the sixth month, on the day [bingwu], the marquis wished to taste the new wheat, and made the superintendent of his fields present some. While the baker was getting it ready, [the marquis] called the witch of [Sangtian], showed her the wheat and put her to death. As the marquis was about to taste the wheat, he felt it necessary to go to the privy, into which he fell, and so died. One of the servants that waited on him had dreamt in the morning that he carried the marquis on his back up to heaven. The same at mid-day carried him on his back out from the privy, and was afterwards buried alive with him.
Commentators have attempted to explain why the ''wu'' merely interpreted the duke's dream but did not perform a healing ritual or exorcism, and why the duke waited until the prediction had failed before ordering the execution. Boileau suggests the ''wu'' was executed in presumed responsibility for the Zhao ancestral spirit's attack.
Second, in 552 BCE a ''wu'' named Gao both appears in and divines about a dream of Zhongxing Xianzi. After conspiring in the murder of Duke Li of Jin, Zhongxing dreams that the duke's spirit gets revenge.
In autumn, the marquis of [Jin] invaded our northern border. [Zhongxing Xianzi] prepared to invade [Qi]. (Just then), he dreamt that he was maintaining a suit with duke [Li], in which the case was going against him, when the duke struck him with a ['' Dagger-axe, ge''] on his head, which fell down before him. He took his head up, put it on his shoulders, and ran off, when he saw the wizard [Gao] of [Gengyang]. A day or two after, it happened that he did see this [Gao] on the road, and told him his dream, and the wizard, who had had the same dream, said to him: "Your death is to happen about this time; but if you have business in the east, you will there be successful [first]". Xianzi accepted this interpretation.
Boileau questions:
why wasn't the ''wu'' asked by Zhongxin to expel the spirit of the duke? Perhaps because the spirit went through him to curse the officer. Could it be that the ''wu'' was involved (his involvement is extremely strong in this affair) in a kind of deal, or is it simply that the ''wu'' was aware of two different matters concerning the officer, only one connected to the dream?
According to these two stories, ''wu'' were feared and considered dangerous. This attitude is also evident in a ''Zhuangzi'' story about the ''shenwu'' "
spirit/god shaman" Jixian from
Zheng Zheng may refer to:
*Zheng (surname), Chinese surname (鄭, 郑, ''Zhèng'')
*Zheng County, former name of Zhengzhou, capital of Henan, China
*Guzheng (), a Chinese zither with bridges
*Qin Shi Huang (259 BC – 210 BC), emperor of the Qin Dynasty, ...
.
In [Zheng], there was a shaman of the gods named [Jixian]. He could tell whether men would live or die, survive or perish, be fortunate or unfortunate, live a long time or die young, and he would predict the year, month, week, and day as though he were a god himself. When the people of [Zheng] saw him, they all ran out of his way.
"As soothsayers." writes de Groot, "the ''wu'' in ancient China no doubt held a place of great importance."
Wu-shamans as officials
Sinological controversies have arisen over the political importance of ''wu'' in ancient China. Some scholars believe Chinese ''wu'' used "techniques of ecstasy" like shamans elsewhere; others believe ''wu'' were "ritual bureaucrats" or "moral metaphysicians" who did not engage in shamanistic practices.
Chen Mengjia
Chen Mengjia (; 20 April 1911, in Nanjing – 3 September 1966, in Beijing) was a Chinese scholar, poet, paleographer and archaeologist. He was considered the foremost authority on oracle bones and was Professor of Chinese at Tsinghua University ...
wrote a seminal article that proposed Shang kings were ''wu''-shamans.
In the oracle bone inscriptions are often encountered inscriptions stating that the king divined or that the king inquired in connections with wind- or rain-storms, rituals, conquests, or hunts. There are also statements that "the king made the prognostication that ...," pertaining to weather, the border regions, or misfortunes and diseases; the only prognosticator ever recorded in the oracle bone inscriptions was the king ... There are, in addition, inscriptions describing the king dancing to pray for rain and the king prognosticating about a dream. All of these were activities of both king and shaman, which means in effect that the king was a shaman.
Chen's shaman-king hypothesis was supported by
Kwang-chih Chang
Kwang-chih Chang (15 April, 1931 – January 3, 2001), commonly known as K. C. Chang, was a Chinese / Taiwanese-American archaeologist and sinologist. He was the John E. Hudson Professor of archaeology at Harvard University, Vice-President of th ...
who cited the ''Guoyu'' story about Shao Hao severing heaven-earth communication (above).
This myth is the most important textual reference to shamanism in ancient China, and it provides the crucial clue to understanding the central role of shamanism in ancient Chinese politics. Heaven is where all the wisdom of human affairs lies. ... Access to that wisdom was, of course, requisite for political authority. In the past, ''everybody'' had had that access through the shamans. Since heaven had been severed from earth, only those who controlled that access had the wisdom – hence the authority – to rule. Shamans, therefore, were a crucial part of every state court; in fact, scholars of ancient China agree that the king himself was actually head shaman.
Some modern scholars disagree. For instance, Boileau calls Chen's hypothesis "somewhat antiquated being based more on an a priori approach than on history" and says,
In the case of the relationship between ''wu'' and ''wang'' [king], Chen Mengjia did not pay sufficient attention to what the king was able to do as a king, that is to say, to the parts of the king's activities in which the ''wu'' was not involved, for example, political leadership as such, or warfare. The process of recognition must also be taken into account: it is probable that the ''wu'' was chosen or acknowledged as such according to different criteria to those adopted for the king. Chen's concept of the king as the head ''wu'' was influenced by Frazer's theories about the origin of political power: for Frazer the king was originally a powerful sorcerer.
The ''Shujing'' "Classic of History" lists
Wu Xian and Wu Xian as capable administrators of the Shang royal household. The
Duke of Zhou
Dan, Duke Wen of Zhou (), commonly known as the Duke of Zhou (), was a member of the royal family of the early Zhou dynasty who played a major role in consolidating the kingdom established by his elder brother King Wu. He was renowned for acting ...
tells Prince
Shao Shao (; Cantonese Romanisation: Shiu; Gwoyeu Romatzyh: Shaw) is a common Chinese family name. It is the 86th most populous family name in China. It corresponds to last name So in Korean; "Thiệu" or "Thiều" in Vietnamese; “Zau” in Wu Chines ...
that:
I have heard that of ancient time, when King Tang had received the favoring decree, he had with him Yi Yin
Yi Yin (, born Yī Zhì ( 伊 挚), also known as A Heng ( 阿 衡)), was a Chinese politician who served as a minister of the early Shang dynasty, and one of the honoured officials of the era. He helped Tang of Shang, the founder of the Shang dyna ...
, making his virtue like that of great Heaven. Tai Jia
Tai Jia () or Da Jia, personal name Zǐ Zhì, was the son of Prince Da Ding and a king of the ancient Chinese Shang dynasty.
Biography
In the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' he was listed by Sima Qian as the fourth Shang king, succeeding his ...
, again, had Bao Heng. Tai Wu
Tai Wu () or Da Wu, personal name Zi Mi (), was a Shang dynasty King of China.
In the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' he was listed by Sima Qian as the ninth Shang king, succeeding his brother Yong Ji (). He was enthroned with Bo () as his cap ...
had Yi Zhi and Chen Hu, through whom his virtue was made to affect God; he had also [] Wu Xian, who regulated the royal house; Zu Yi had [] Wu Xian. Wu Ding
Wu Ding (); personal name Zi Zhao, was a king of the Shang dynasty who ruled China around 1200s BC. He is the earliest figure in Chinese history mentioned in contemporary records. The annals of the Shang dynasty compiled by later historians were o ...
had Gan Pan. These ministers carried out their principles and effected their arrangements, preserving and regulating the empire of [Shang], so that, while its ceremonies lasted, those sovereigns, though deceased, were assessors to Heaven, while it extended over many years.
According to Boileau,
In some texts, Wu Xian senior is described as being in charge of the divination using [''shi'' ] achilea. He was apparently made a high god in the kingdom of Qin Qin may refer to:
Dynasties and states
* Qin (state) (秦), a major state during the Zhou Dynasty of ancient China
* Qin dynasty (秦), founded by the Qin state in 221 BC and ended in 206 BC
* Daqin (大秦), ancient Chinese name for the Roman Emp ...
during the Warring States period. The Tang subcommentary interprets the character ''wu'' of Wu Xian father and son as being a cognomen
A ''cognomen'' (; plural ''cognomina''; from ''con-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became here ...
, the name of the clan from which the two Xian came. It is possible that in fact the text referred to two Shang ministers, father and son, coming from the same eponymous territory ''wu''. Perhaps, later, the name (''wu'' ) of these two ministers has been confused with the character ''wu'' () as employed in other received texts.
''Wu''-shamans participated in court scandals and dynastic rivalries under
Emperor Wu of Han
Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), formally enshrined as Emperor Wu the Filial (), born Liu Che (劉徹) and courtesy name Tong (通), was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of ancient China, ruling from 141 to 87 BC. His reign la ...
(r. 141-87 BCE), particularly regarding the crime of ''wugu'' (with
''gu'' "venom-based poison") "sorcery; casting harmful spells". In 130 BCE,
Empress Chen Jiao
Empress Chen of Wu (孝武陳皇后), was empress of the Han dynasty and the first wife of Emperor Wu of Han (Liu Che). She was also known as Chen Jiao () or as her milk name Chen A'Jiao (陈阿娇). She was born to Chen Wu (father) and Liu P ...
was convicted of using shamans from
Yue to conduct ''wugu'' magic. She "was dismissed from her position and a total of 300 persons who were involved in the case were executed", their heads were cut off and exposed on stakes. In 91 BCE, an attempted coup against crown prince
Liu Ju
Liu Ju (; 128–91 BC), formally known as Crown Prince Wei (衛太子) and posthumously as Crown Prince Li (戾太子, literally "the Unrepentant Crown Prince", where Li is an unflattering name) was a Western Han Dynasty crown prince. He was the ...
involved accusations of practicing ''wugu'', and subsequently "no less than nine long months of bloody terrorism, ending in a tremendous slaughter, cost some tens of thousands their lives!".
Ever since Emperor Wu of Han established Confucianism as the state religion, the ruling classes have shown increasing prejudice against shamanism. Some modern writers view the traditional Confucianist disdain for female shamans as
sexism
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primari ...
. Schafer wrote:
In the opinion of the writer, the Chou ruling class was particularly hostile to women in government
In many countries, women have been underrepresented in the government and different institutions. This historical tendency still persists, although women are increasingly being elected to be heads of state and government.
As of October 20 ...
, and regarded the ancient fertility rites as impure. This anti-female tendency was even more marked in the state of Lu, where Confucius approved of the official rain-ceremony in which men alone participated. There was, within ancient China, a heterogeneity of culture areas, with female shamans favored in some, males in others. The "licentiousness" of the ceremonies of such a state as Cheng (doubtless preserving the ancient Shang traditions and customs) was a byword among Confucian moralists. Confucius' state seems on the other hand to have taken the "respectable" attitude that the sexes should not mingle in the dance, and that men were the legitimate performers of the fertility rites. The general practice of the later Chou period, or at least the semi-idealized picture given of the rites of that time in such books as the ''Chou li'', apparently prescribed a division of magical functions between men and women. The former generally play the role of exorcists, the latter of petitioners. This is probably related to the metaphysical belief that women, embodying the principle ''yin'', were akin to the spirits, whereas men, exemplifying the element ''yang'', were naturally hostile to them.
Accepting the tradition that Chinese shamans were women (i.e., ''wu'' "shamaness" as opposed to ''xi'' "shaman"), Kagan believes:
One of the main themes in Chinese history is the unsuccessful attempt by the male Confucian orthodoxy to strip women of their public and sacred powers and to limit them to a role of service ... Confucianists reasserted daily their claim to power and authority through the promotion of the phallic ancestor cult which denied women religious representation and excluded them from the governmental examination system which was the path to office, prestige, and status.
In addition, Unschuld refers to a "Confucian medicine" based upon systematic correspondences and the idea that illnesses are caused by excesses (rather than demons).
The ''Zhouli'' provides detailed information about the roles of ''wu''-shamans. It lists, "Spirit Mediums as officials on the payroll of the Zhou Ministry of Rites (''Liguan'' , or Ministry of Spring, ''Chun guan'' )." This text differentiates three offices: the Siwu 司巫 "Manager/Director of Shamans", Nanwu "Male Shamans", and ''Nüwu'' "Female Shamans".
The managerial Siwu, who was of
''Shi'' "Gentleman; Yeoman" feudal rank, yet was not a ''wu'', supervised "the many ''wu''".
The Managers of the Spirit Mediums are in charge of the policies and orders issued to the many Spirit Mediums. When the country suffers a great drought, they lead the Spirit Mediums in dancing the rain-making ritual (''yu'' ). When the country suffers a great calamity, they lead the Spirit Mediums in enacting the long-standing practices of Spirit Mediums (''wuheng'' ). At official sacrifices, they [handle] the ancestral tablets in their receptacles, the cloth on which the spirits walk, and the box containing the reeds [for presenting the sacrificial foodstuffs]. In all official sacrificial services, they guard the place where the offerings are buried. In all funerary services, they are in charge of the rituals by which the Spirit Mediums make [the spirits] descend (''jiang'' ).
The Nanwu and Nüwu have different shamanic specializations, especially regarding inauspicious events like sickness, death, and natural disaster.
The Male Spirit Mediums are in charge of the ''si'' and ''yan'' Sacrifices to the Deities of the Mountains and Rivers. They receive the honorific titles f the deities
F, or f, is the sixth Letter (alphabet), letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is English alphabet#Let ...
which they proclaim into the our
Our or OUR may refer to:
* The possessive form of "we"
* Our (river), in Belgium, Luxembourg, and Germany
* Our, Belgium, a village in Belgium
* Our, Jura, a commune in France
* Office of Utilities Regulation (OUR), a Politics of Jamaica#Regulator ...
directions, holding reeds. In the winter, in the great temple hall, they offer r: shoot arrowswithout a fixed direction and without counting the number. In the spring, they make proclamations and issue bans so as to remove sickness and disease. When the king offers condolence, they together with the invocators precede him.
The Female Mediums are in charge of anointing and ablutions at the exorcisms that are held at regular times throughout the year. When there is a drought or scorching heat, they dance in the rain-making ritual (''yu''). When the queen offers condolence, they together with the invocators precede her. In all great calamities of the state, they pray, singing and wailing. (part 26)[, citing .]
Von Falkenhausen concludes:
If we are to generalize from the above enumeration, we find that the Spirit Mediums' principal functions are tied up with averting evil and pollution. They are especially active under circumstances of inauspiciousness and distress. In case of droughts and calamities, they directly address the supernatural powers of Heaven and Earth. Moreover, they are experts in dealing with frightful, dangerous ghosts (the ghosts of the defunct at the time of the funeral, the evil spirits at the exorcism, and the spirits of disease) and harmful substances (unburied dead bodies during visits of condolence and all manner of impure things at the lustration festival).
''Chu Ci''
The poetry anthology ''Chu Ci'', especially its older pieces, is largely characterized by its shamanic content and style, as explicated to some extent by sinologist
David Hawkes: ''passim''). Among other points of interest are the intersection of Shamanic traditions and mythology/folk religion in the earlier textual material, such as ''
Heavenly Questions, Tianwen'' (possibly based on even more ancient shamanic temple murals), the whole question of the interpretation of the 11 verses of the ''
Jiu Ge
''Jiu Ge'', or ''Nine Songs'', () is an ancient set of poems. Together, these poems constitute one of the 17 sections of the poetry anthology which was published under the title of the ''Chuci'' (also known as the ''Songs of Chu'' or as the ''S ...
'' (''Nine Songs'') as the libretto of a shamanic dramatic performance, the motif of shamanic spirit flight from ''
Li Sao
"''Li Sao''" (; translation: "Encountering Sorrow") is an ancient Chinese poem from the anthology ''Chuci'' traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan. ''Li Sao'' dates from the late 3rd century BCE, during the Chinese Warring States period.
Backgrou ...
'' through subsequent pieces, the evidence of possible regional variations in wu shamanism between
Chu,
Wei,
Qi, and other states (or shamanic colleges associated with those regions), and the suggestion that some of the newer textual material was modified to please Han Wudi, by
Liu An
Liú Ān (, c. 179–122 BC) was a Han dynasty Chinese prince, ruling the Huainan Kingdom, and an advisor to his nephew, Emperor Wu of Han (武帝). He is best known for editing the (139 BC) ''Huainanzi'' compendium of Daoist, Confucianist, and ...
, the Prince of Huainan, or his circle. The
''Chu Ci'' contents have traditionally been chronologically divided into an older, pre-
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
group, and those written during the Han Dynasty. Of the traditionally-considered to be the older works (omitting the mostly prose narratives, "
Bu Ju Bu Ju (; Pinyin: Bǔ Jū; en, Divination) is a short work anthologized in the Chu Ci (楚辭 ''Songs of Chu'', sometimes called ''The Songs of the South''). Although traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan, there is little likelihood that he is the aut ...
" and "
Yu Fu
"Yu Fu" or "The Fisherman" () is a short work anthologized in the Chu Ci (楚辭 ''Songs of Chu'', sometimes called ''The Songs of the South''. Traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan, there is little likelihood that he is the actual author (Hawkes 20 ...
") David Hawkes considers the following sections to be "functional, explicitly shamanistic": ''
Jiu Ge
''Jiu Ge'', or ''Nine Songs'', () is an ancient set of poems. Together, these poems constitute one of the 17 sections of the poetry anthology which was published under the title of the ''Chuci'' (also known as the ''Songs of Chu'' or as the ''S ...
'', ''Tian Wen'', and the two shamanic summons for the soul, "
The Great Summons
"The Great Summons" or ''"Da Zhao"'' ()
is one of the poems anthologized in the ancient Chinese poetry collection, the ''Chu ci'', also known as ''The Songs of the South''. "The Great Summons" consists of a single poem without introduction or epil ...
" and "
Summons of the Soul". Regarding the other, older pieces he considers that "shamanism, if there is any" to be an incidental poetic device, particularly in the form of descriptions of the shamanic spirit journey.
Background
The mainstream of Chinese literacy and literature is associated with the
shell and bone oracular inscriptions from recovered archeological artifacts from the
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty founded by Tang of Shang (Cheng Tang) that ruled in the Yellow River valley in the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and ...
and with the literary works of the Western
Zhou dynasty
The Zhou dynasty ( ; Old Chinese ( B&S): *''tiw'') was a royal dynasty of China that followed the Shang dynasty. Having lasted 789 years, the Zhou dynasty was the longest dynastic regime in Chinese history. The military control of China by th ...
, which include the classic Confucian works. Both are associated with the northern Chinese areas. South of the traditional Shang and Zhou areas was the land (and water) of
Chu. Politically and to some extent culturally distinct from the Zhou dynasty and its later 6 devolved hegemonic states, Chu was the original source and inspiration for the poems anthologized during the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–207 BC) and a warr ...
under the title ''
Chu Ci
The ''Chu ci'', variously translated as ''Verses of Chu,'' ''Songs of Chu'', or ''Elegies of Chu'', is an ancient anthology of Chinese poetry including works traditionally attributed mainly to Qu Yuan and Song Yu from the Warring States period ...
'', literally meaning something like "the literary material of Chu". Despite the tendency of Confucian-oriented government officials to suppress wu shamanic beliefs and practice, in the general area of Chinese culture, the force of colonial conservatism and the poetic voice of
Qu Yuan
Qu Yuan ( – 278 BCE) was a Chinese poet and politician in the Chu (state), State of Chu during the Warring States period. He is known for his patriotism and contributions to Classical Chinese poetry, classical poetry and verses, ...
and other poets combined to contribute an established literary tradition heavily influenced by wu shamanism to posterity. Shamanic practices as described anthropologically are generally paralleled by descriptions of wu practices as found in the ''Chu Ci'', and in Chinese mythology more generally.
''Li Sao'', ''Yuan You'', and ''Jiu Bian''
The signature poem of the ''Chu Ci'' is the poem ''
Li Sao
"''Li Sao''" (; translation: "Encountering Sorrow") is an ancient Chinese poem from the anthology ''Chuci'' traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan. ''Li Sao'' dates from the late 3rd century BCE, during the Chinese Warring States period.
Backgrou ...
''. By China's "first poet",
Qu Yuan
Qu Yuan ( – 278 BCE) was a Chinese poet and politician in the Chu (state), State of Chu during the Warring States period. He is known for his patriotism and contributions to Classical Chinese poetry, classical poetry and verses, ...
, a major literary device of the poem is the shamanic spirit journey. "
Yuan You
"Yuanyou" or Far-off Journey (; Pinyin: Yuǎnyóu; en, Far Roaming) is a short work anthologized in the Chuci (楚辭 ''Songs of Chu'', sometimes called ''The Songs of the South''). "Yuanyou" is a poetic conceit involving a shamanic/Daoist flight ...
", literally "The Far-off Journey" features shamanic spirit flight as a literary device, as does ''
Jiu Bian'', as part of its climactic ending. In the ''Li Sao'', two individual shaman are specified, Ling Fen () and Wu Xian (). This Wu Xian may or may not be the same as the (one or more) historical person(s) named
Wu Xian. Hawkes suggests an equation of the word ''ling'' in the
Chu dialect with the word ''wu''.
Questioning Heaven
The ''
Heavenly Questions
The ''Heavenly Questions'' or ''Questions to Heaven'' () is a piece contained in the Classical Chinese poetry collection of ''Chu Ci'', which is noted both in terms of poetry and as a source for information on the ancient culture of China, espec ...
'' (literally "Questioning Heaven") is one of the ancient repositories of Chinese myth and a major cultural legacy. Propounded as a series of questions, the poem provides insight and provokes questions about the role of wu shaman practitioners in society and history.
''Jiu Ge''
The ''Jiu Ge'' may be read as the lyrical preservation of a shamanic dramatic performance. Apparently typical of at least one variety of shamanism of the Chu area of the
Yangzi River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ; ) is the longest river in Asia, the third-longest in the world, and the longest in the world to flow entirely within one country. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains (Tibetan Plateau) and flows ...
basin, the text exhibits a marked degree of eroticism in connection with shamanic invocations.
Summoning the soul
Summoning the soul (''hun'') of the possibly dead was a feature of ancient culture. The 2 ''Chu Ci'' pieces of this type may be authentic transcriptions of such a process.
Individual wu shaman
Various individual wu shaman are alluded to in the ''Chu Ci''. In some cases the binomial nomenclature is unclear, referring perhaps to one or two persons; for example, in the case of Peng Xian, who appears likely to represent Wu Peng and Wu Xian, which is a common type of morphological construction in Classical Chinese poetry. David Hawkes refers to some wu shaman as "Shaman Ancestors". Additionally, the distinction between humans and transcendent divinities tends not to be explicit in the received ''Chu Ci'' text. In some cases, the individual wu shaman are known from other sources, such as the ''
Shanhaijing
The ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'', also known as ''Shan Hai Jing'', formerly romanized as the ''Shan-hai Ching'', is a Chinese classic text and a compilation of mythic geography and beasts. Early versions of the text may have existed sinc ...
'' (''Classic of Mountains and Seas''). The name of some individual shaman includes "Wu" () in the normal position of the family surname, for example, in the case of Wu Yang (, "Shaman Bright"). Wu Yang is the major speaker in ''Zhao Hun''/''Summons for the Soul''. He also appears in ''
Shanhaijing
The ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'', also known as ''Shan Hai Jing'', formerly romanized as the ''Shan-hai Ching'', is a Chinese classic text and a compilation of mythic geography and beasts. Early versions of the text may have existed sinc ...
'' together with Wu Peng (): 6 wu shaman are depicted together reviving a corpse, with Wu Peng holding the Herb of Immortality.
In the ''
Li Sao
"''Li Sao''" (; translation: "Encountering Sorrow") is an ancient Chinese poem from the anthology ''Chuci'' traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan. ''Li Sao'' dates from the late 3rd century BCE, during the Chinese Warring States period.
Backgrou ...
'', two individual shaman are specified: Ling Fen () and Wu Xian (). This Wu Xian may or may not be the same as the (one or more) historical person(s) named
Wu Xian. Hawkes suggests an equation of the word ''ling'' in the Chu dialect with the word ''wu''.
In ''
Shanhaijing
The ''Classic of Mountains and Seas'', also known as ''Shan Hai Jing'', formerly romanized as the ''Shan-hai Ching'', is a Chinese classic text and a compilation of mythic geography and beasts. Early versions of the text may have existed sinc ...
'' (''Classic of Mountains and Seas''), the name of some individual shaman includes "Wu" () in the normal position of the family surname, for example, in the case of the following list, where the 6 are depicted together reviving a corpse, with Wu Peng holding the Herb of Immortality. Wu Peng and Wu Yang and others are also known from the ''Chu Ci'' poetry anthology. Wu Yang is the major speaker in ''
Zhao Hun
Summons of the Soul, Summoning of the Soul, or Zhao Hun (; Pinyin: Zhāo Hún) is one of the poems anthologized in the ancient Chinese poetry collection, the ''Chu Ci''. The "Summons of the Soul" consists of a four-part poem. The first part consis ...
'' (also known as, ''Summons for the Soul''). From Hawkes:
*The six shamans receiving a corpse: Wu Yang (, "Shaman Bright"), Wu Peng (), Wu Di (), Wu Li () [Tang reconstruction *Lǐ, Hanyu Pinyin Lǚ], Wu Fan (), Wu Xiang ()
*Ten other individuals named ''Wu'' in ''Shanhaijing'': Wu Xian (), Wu Ji (), Wu Fen (or Ban) (), Wu Peng (), Wu Gu (), Wu Zhen (), Wu Li (), Wu Di (), Wu Xie (), Wu Luo ().
Modern Chinese folk religion
Aspects of
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
are sometimes associated with "shamanism". De Groot provided descriptions and pictures of hereditary shamans in
Fujian
Fujian (; alternately romanized as Fukien or Hokkien) is a province on the southeastern coast of China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capi ...
, called ''saigong'' (pinyin ''shigong'') . Paper analyzed ''tongji'' mediumistic activities in the Taiwanese village of Bao'an .
Shamanistic practices of
Tungusic peoples are also found in China. Most notably, the Manchu
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
introduced Tungusic shamanistic practice as part of their official cult (see
Shamanism in the Qing dynasty
Shamanism was the dominant religion of the Jurchen people of northeast Asia and of their descendants, the Manchu people. As early as the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called ''tangse''. There were ...
). Other remnants of Tungusic shamanism are found within the territory of the People's Republic of China. documented Chuonnasuan (1927–2000), the last shaman of the
Oroqen in northeast China.
See also
*
Chinese shamanism
Chinese shamanism, alternatively called Wuism (; alternatively ''wū xí zōngjiào''), refers to the shamanic religious tradition of China. Its features are especially connected to the ancient Neolithic cultures such as the Hongshan culture. ...
*
Chinese folk religion
Chinese folk religion, also known as Chinese popular religion comprehends a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. Vivienne Wee described it as "an empty bowl, which can variously be filled ...
*
Shamanism in the Qing dynasty
Shamanism was the dominant religion of the Jurchen people of northeast Asia and of their descendants, the Manchu people. As early as the Jin dynasty (1115–1234), the Jurchens conducted shamanic ceremonies at shrines called ''tangse''. There were ...
*
Chu Ci
The ''Chu ci'', variously translated as ''Verses of Chu,'' ''Songs of Chu'', or ''Elegies of Chu'', is an ancient anthology of Chinese poetry including works traditionally attributed mainly to Qu Yuan and Song Yu from the Warring States period ...
*
Han Wudi
Emperor Wu of Han (156 – 29 March 87BC), formally enshrined as Emperor Wu the Filial (), born Liu Che (劉徹) and courtesy name Tong (通), was the seventh emperor of the Han dynasty of ancient China, ruling from 141 to 87 BC. His reign las ...
*
Jiu Ge
''Jiu Ge'', or ''Nine Songs'', () is an ancient set of poems. Together, these poems constitute one of the 17 sections of the poetry anthology which was published under the title of the ''Chuci'' (also known as the ''Songs of Chu'' or as the ''S ...
*
Mudang
''Mu'' () is an ancient Korean word defining a shaman in the Korean traditional religion. Korean shamans hold rituals called '' gut'' (literally "good") for the welfare of the individuals and the society.
In modern Korea different terms are u ...
*
Miko
A , or shrine maiden,Groemer, 28. is a young priestess who works at a Shinto shrine. were once likely seen as shamans,Picken, 140. but are understood in modern Japanese culture to be an institutionalized role in daily life, trained to perform ...
*
Xu Fu
Xu Fu (Hsu Fu; ) was a Chinese alchemist and explorer. He was born in 255 BC in Qi, an ancient Chinese state, and disappeared at sea in 210 BC. He served as a court sorcerer in Qin Dynasty China. Later, he was sent by Qin Shi Huang to the eas ...
*
Yubu
''Yubu'', translated as Pace(s) of Yu or Step(s) of Yu, is the basic mystic dance step of religious Daoism. This ancient walking or dancing technique typically involves dragging one foot after another, and is explained in reference to the leg ...
Notes
References
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Digitalized edition2007
Chicoutimi
Chicoutimi () is the most populous borough (arrondissement) of the city of Saguenay in Quebec, Canada.
It is situated at the confluence of the Saguenay and Chicoutimi rivers. During the 20th century, it became the main administrative and com ...
Canda - Paris by Pierre Palpant.
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Footnotes
External links
Unihan Database
Han unification is an effort by the authors of Unicode and the Universal Character Set to map multiple character sets of the Han characters of the so-called CJK languages into a single set of unified characters. Han characters are a feature s ...
Chinese Etymology
Barend ter Haar
''Yijing'' Prediction and Wu (Shamanism) Zhongxian Wu
Theological and Pastoral Reflections on the Practice of Shamanism Olivier Lardinois
"Divination as a Form of Political Authority in Early China" Wu Keying
Shaman Center,
Academia Sinica
Academia Sinica (AS, la, 1=Academia Sinica, 3=Chinese Academy; ), headquartered in Nangang, Taipei, is the national academy of Taiwan. Founded in Nanking, the academy supports research activities in a wide variety of disciplines, ranging from ...
Institute of History and Philology
Jade Pendant in the Form of a Female Dancer 475-221 BCE Freer Gallery of Art
The Freer Gallery of Art is an art museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. focusing on Asian art. The Freer and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery together form the National Museum of Asian Art in the United States. The Freer and Sac ...
Archaic Chinese Sacrificial Practices in the Light of Generative Anthropology Herbert Plutschow
Wu: female shamans in ancient China Max Dashu
Maxine Hammond Dashu (born 1950), known professionally as Max Dashu, is an American feminist historian, author, and artist. Her areas of expertise include female iconography, mother-right cultures and the origins of patriarchy. She identifies as ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wu (Shaman)
Anthropology of religion
Shamanism in China
Chinese folk religion
Supernatural healing
Traditional healthcare occupations
Asian shamanism
Religious occupations
Miko
Muism