''Linaria'' is a

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...

of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and

herbaceous Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...

perennials A perennial plant or simply perennial is a plant that lives more than two years. The term ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the years") is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. The term is also widel ...

, and the largest genus in the

Antirrhineae The Antirrhineae are one of the 12 tribes of the family Plantaginaceae. It contains the toadflax relatives, such as snapdragons. Description and uses Most Antirrhineae are herbaceous, short-lived, perennial or annual plants growing at most a ...

tribe of the plantain family

Plantaginaceae Plantaginaceae, the plantain family, is a large, diverse family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales that includes common flowers such as snapdragon and foxglove. It is unrelated to the banana-like fruit also called "plantain." In older cl ...

Taxonomy

''Linaria'' was traditionally placed in the family

Scrophulariaceae The Scrophulariaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the figwort family. The plants are annual and perennial herbs, as well as shrubs. Flowers have bilateral (zygomorphic) or rarely radial (actinomorphic) symmetry. The Scr ...

Phylogenetic analysis In biology, phylogenetics (; from Greek φυλή/ φῦλον [] "tribe, clan, race", and wikt:γενετικός, γενετικός [] "origin, source, birth") is the study of the evolutionary history and relationships among or within groups o ...

has now placed it in the vastly expanded family

. Closely related genera include '' Nuttallanthus'' (American toadflaxes, recently split from ''Linaria''), ''

Antirrhinum ''Antirrhinum'' is a genus of plants commonly known as dragon flowers, snapdragons and dog flower because of the flowers' fancied resemblance to the face of a dragon that opens and closes its mouth when laterally squeezed. They are native to r ...

'' (snapdragons) and ''

Cymbalaria ''Cymbalaria'' is a genus of about 10 species of herbaceous perennial plants previously placed in the family Scrophulariaceae, but recently shown by genetic research to be in the much enlarged family Plantaginaceae. The genus is native to south ...

'' (ivy-leaved toadflaxes).

Cultivation

Several ''Linaria'' species are cultivated as garden plants, and some are regarded as having a weedy habit. *Common toadflax or butter-and-eggs (''

Linaria vulgaris ''Linaria vulgaris'', the common toadflax,Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). ''Flora of Britain and Northern Europe''. yellow toadflax or butter-and-eggs, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae, native to Europe, Siberia ...

''), a European species which is widely introduced elsewhere and grows as a common weed in some areas. *Broomleaf toadflax or Dalmatian toadflax (''

Linaria genistifolia ''Linaria genistifolia'' is a species of flowering plant belonging to the family Plantaginaceae. Its native range is from Europe to southwestern Siberia Siberia ( ; rus, Сибирь, r=Sibir', p=sʲɪˈbʲirʲ, a=Ru-Сибирь.ogg) is a ...

'', syn. ''L. dalmatica''), a native of southeast Europe that has become a weed in parts of North America.Dalmatian Toadflax (''Linaria dalmatica'').
National Invasive Species Information Center,

United States National Agricultural Library The United States National Agricultural Library (NAL) is one of the world's largest agricultural research libraries, and serves as a national library of the United States and as the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. Located ...

. *Purple toadflax (''

Linaria purpurea ''Linaria purpurea'' or purple toadflax is a purple-flowered plant native to Italy, part of the plantain family (Plantaginaceae). It is sometimes planted in gardens and is also an introduced weed in North America and other parts of Europe. Descr ...

''), a species native to the

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on the e ...

region grown as a

garden A garden is a planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the cultivation, display, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. The single feature identifying even the wildest wild garden is ''control''. The garden can incorporate both ...

plant for its dark purple or pink flowers. The version with purple flowers can be mistaken for lavender. Spreads readily. *Pale toadflax (''

Linaria repens ''Linaria repens'', also known as pale toadflax or creeping toadflax in Europe and as striped toadflax in the US, is an herbaceous plant in the family Plantaginaceae, native to Europe. Description ''Linaria repens'' is a short-statured herb (ma ...

''), a species from western Europe similar to ''L. purpurea'', but with paler flowers. *Alpine toadflax (''

Linaria alpina ''Linaria alpina'', sometimes called alpine toadflax, is a purple-flowered plant native to mountainous areas of southern and central Europe. It belongs to the family Plantaginaceae (plantain family; unrelated to the fruit). It is found in many m ...

''), purple flowers with orange (or purple) lobes in the center. *Moroccan toadflax (''

Linaria maroccana ''Linaria maroccana'' is a species of flowering plant in the plantain family known by the common names Moroccan toadflax and annual toadflax. It is native to Morocco Morocco (),, ) officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is the westernmost ...

''), the flower has five lobes arranged into two lips with a spur at the end, often purple with white.

Species

The following species are recognised in the genus ''Linaria'': *''

Linaria accitensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria acutiloba ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria aeruginea ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria afghanica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria alaica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria albifrons ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria algarviana ''Linaria algarviana'' is a species of toadflax in the plantain family Plantaginaceae, endemic to southern Portugal, specifically the western portion of the Algarve The Algarve (, , ; from ) is the southernmost NUTS II region of continental ...

'' *''

Linaria altaica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria amethystea ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria amoi ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plant ...

'' *'' Linaria angustissima'' *'' Linaria antilibanotica'' *'' Linaria arcusangeli'' *''

Linaria arenaria ''Linaria arenaria'', sometimes called sand toadflax or French toadflax, is a yellow-flowered member of the genus ''Linaria''. It is found in sand-dunes and sandy grassland in western France, north-west Spain and Portugal and is thus a psammophyt ...

'' *'' Linaria arenicola'' *'' Linaria argillicola'' *''

Linaria armeniaca ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria arvensis'' *''

Linaria atlantica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are Annual plant, annuals and herbaceous Perennial plant, perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe ...

'' *''

Linaria azerbaijanensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria badachschanica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria badalii'' *'' Linaria bamianica'' *''

Linaria becerrae ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria bessarabica'' *'' Linaria biebersteinii'' *'' Linaria bipartita'' *''

Linaria bipunctata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria bordiana'' *'' Linaria boushehrensis'' *'' Linaria brachyphylla'' *'' Linaria bubanii'' *'' Linaria bungei'' *'' Linaria buriatica'' *'' Linaria caesia'' *''

Linaria capraria ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria cavanillesii'' *''

Linaria chalepensis ''Linaria chalepensis'' is a white-flowered plant found in southern Europe, belonging to the family Plantaginaceae (plantain family; unrelated to the fruit). Sources References {{Taxonbar, from=Q17735634 chalepensis Flora of Malta ...

'' *'' Linaria clementei'' *'' Linaria confertiflora'' *'' Linaria corifolia'' *'' Linaria × cornubiensis'' *'' Linaria cossoniana'' *'' Linaria cossonii'' *'' Linaria cretacea'' *''

Linaria dalmatica ''Linaria dalmatica'' is a herbaceous, short-lived perennial plant native to western Asia and southeastern Europe that has become a weed in other areas. The family this plant now belongs to is the Plantaginaceae Family. Previously, it belonged t ...

'' *''

Linaria damascena ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria decipiens'' *'' Linaria depauperata'' *'' Linaria diffusa'' *'' Linaria dissita'' *'' Linaria × dominii'' *'' Linaria dumanii'' *''

Linaria elegans ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria elymaitica'' *''

Linaria fallax ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria farsensis'' *'' Linaria fastigiata'' *''

Linaria faucicola ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria fedorovii ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria ficalhoana ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria flava ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

'' *'' Linaria gharbensis'' *'' Linaria glacialis'' *''

Linaria glauca ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria golestanensis'' *'' Linaria grandiflora'' *''

Linaria griffithii ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria grjunerae'' *'' Linaria guilanensis'' *'' Linaria haelava'' *''

Linaria hepatica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria heratensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria hirta ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria hohenackeri'' *''

Linaria huteri ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria × hybrida'' *''

Linaria iconia ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria ikonnikovii ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria imzica'' *'' Linaria incarnata'' *''

Linaria incompleta ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are Annual plant, annuals and herbaceous Perennial plant, perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe ...

'' *''

Linaria intricata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria iranica'' *'' Linaria × jalancina'' *'' Linaria japonica'' *''

Linaria jaxartica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria joppensis'' *'' Linaria kavirensis'' *'' Linaria khalkhalensis'' *''

Linaria khorasanensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are Annual plant, annuals and herbaceous Perennial plant, perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe ...

'' *'' Linaria × kocianovichii'' *''

Linaria kokanica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria kulabensis'' *'' Linaria kurdica'' *'' Linaria latifolia'' *'' Linaria laxiflora'' *'' Linaria leptoceras'' *'' Linaria lineolata'' *''

Linaria loeselii ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria longicalcarata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria macrophylla'' *'' Linaria macroura'' *''

'' *'' Linaria maymanica'' *'' Linaria mazandaranensis'' *''

Linaria melampyroides ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria melanogramma'' *''

Linaria meyeri ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria michauxii'' *'' Linaria micrantha'' *''

Linaria microsepala ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria multicaulis'' *'' Linaria munbyana'' *'' Linaria musilii'' *''

Linaria nachitschevanica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria nigricans'' *'' Linaria nivea'' *'' Linaria nurensis'' *'' Linaria nuristanica'' *''

Linaria oblongifolia ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plant ...

'' *'' Linaria odora'' *'' Linaria oligantha'' *'' Linaria × oligotricha'' *'' Linaria onubensis'' *'' Linaria orbensis'' *'' Linaria ordubadica'' *'' Linaria pamirica'' *'' Linaria paradoxa'' *''

Linaria parviracemosa ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *''

Linaria pedicellata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria pedunculata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria pelisseriana'' *'' Linaria peloponnesiaca'' *'' Linaria peltieri'' *'' Linaria pinifolia'' *'' Linaria platycalyx'' *''

Linaria polygalifolia ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria popovii'' *'' Linaria propinqua'' *'' Linaria pseudolaxiflora'' *'' Linaria pseudoviscosa'' *''

'' *'' Linaria pyramidalis'' *''

Linaria qartobensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria quasisessilis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *''

Linaria reflexa ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria remotiflora'' *''

'' *''

Linaria ricardoi ''Linaria ricardoi'' is a rare Portuguese endemic plant species in the family Plantaginaceae. It blossoms from March to April. Distribution and habitat ''Linaria ricardoi'' is endemic to southern Portugal in the Alentejo Region but the species' ...

'' *''

Linaria riffea ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria × rocheri'' *'' Linaria rubioides'' *'' Linaria sabulosa'' *'' Linaria salangensis'' *'' Linaria salzmannii'' *'' Linaria saposhnikovii'' *'' Linaria saturejoides'' *'' Linaria saxatilis'' *'' Linaria schelkownikowii'' *'' Linaria schirvanica'' *'' Linaria semialata'' *'' Linaria × sepium'' *'' Linaria sessilis'' *'' Linaria simplex'' *'' Linaria spartea'' *''

Linaria striatella ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria supina'' *'' Linaria tarhunensis'' *''

Linaria tenuis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plant ...

'' *''

Linaria thibetica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria thymifolia'' *'' Linaria tingitana'' *''

Linaria tonzigii ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria triornithophora'' *'' Linaria triphylla'' *'' Linaria tristis'' *''

Linaria tursica ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantag ...

'' *'' Linaria unaiensis'' *'' Linaria × valdesiana'' *'' Linaria venosa'' *'' Linaria ventricosa'' *'' Linaria veratrifolia'' *''

Linaria verticillata ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are Annual plant, annuals and herbaceous Perennial plant, perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe ...

'' *'' Linaria virgata'' *'' Linaria viscosa'' *'' Linaria volgensis'' *''

'' *''

Linaria warionis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Planta ...

'' *'' Linaria weilleri'' *''

Linaria yunnanensis ''Linaria'' is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are Annual plant, annuals and herbaceous Perennial plant, perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe ...

'' *'' Linaria yusufeliensis'' *'' Linaria × zaborskiana'' *'' Linaria zaissanica''

Etymology

The members of this genus are known in English as

toadflax Toadflax is the common name of several related genera of plants in the family Plantaginaceae, including: * ''Anarrhinum'' * ''Antirrhinum'', also called Snapdragon * ''Chaenorhinum'', native to Turkey and the Mediterranean * ''Cymbalaria'' * ''Lina ...

, a name shared with several related genera. The 'toad' in toadflax may relate to the plants having historically been used to treat

bubonic plague Bubonic plague is one of three types of plague caused by the plague bacterium (''Yersinia pestis''). One to seven days after exposure to the bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. These symptoms include fever, headaches, and vomiting, as well a ...

, a false link having been drawn between the words 'bubo' and '

Bufo ''Bufo'' is a genus of true toads in the amphibian family Bufonidae. As traditionally defined, it was a wastebasket genus containing a large number of toads from much of the world, but following taxonomic reviews most of these have been moved to ...

'. The scientific name ''Linaria'' means "resembling ''linum''" (

flax Flax, also known as common flax or linseed, is a flowering plant, ''Linum usitatissimum'', in the family Linaceae. It is cultivated as a food and fiber crop in regions of the world with temperate climates. Textiles made from flax are known in ...

), which the foliage of some species superficially resembles.

Distribution and habitat

The genus is native to temperate regions of Europe, northern Africa and Asia, with the highest species diversity in the

Mediterranean region In biogeography, the Mediterranean Basin (; also known as the Mediterranean Region or sometimes Mediterranea) is the region of lands around the Mediterranean Sea that have mostly a Mediterranean climate, with mild to cool, rainy winters and wa ...

Ecology

Some ''Linaria'' are regarded as

noxious weed A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is injurious to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or liv ...

s. They are likely toxic to

livestock Livestock are the domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals ...

, but ruminants generally avoid them.Sing, S. E. and R. K. Peterson. (2011)
Assessing environmental risks for established invasive weeds: Dalmatian (''Linaria dalmatica'') and yellow (''L. vulgaris'') toadflax in North America.
''International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health'' 8(7) 2828-53.

Chemical composition

''Linaria'' species are rich in alkaloids, iridoids, terpenes, phenolic acids and flavonoids.

Vasicine Vasicine (peganine) is a quinazoline alkaloid. It is found in ''Justicia adhatoda'', after which it is named. It is additionally found in ''Peganum harmala''. Vasicine has been compared to theophylline both ''in vitro'' and ''in vivo''. It has a ...

Vasicinone Vasicinone is a quinazoline alkaloid. It shows bronchodilatory activity ''in vitro'' but bronchoconstrictory activity ''in vivo''. Vasicinone was shown to have an antianaphylactic action. It has been found within ''Peganum harmala''. Vasicinone ...

, 7-hyrdoxyvasicine, Linarinic acid,

Choline Choline is an essential nutrient for humans and many other animals. Choline occurs as a cation that forms various salts (X− in the depicted formula is an undefined counteranion). Humans are capable of some ''de novo synthesis'' of choline but re ...

, Linavuline,

Luteolin Luteolin is a flavone, a type of flavonoid, with a yellow crystalline appearance. Luteolin is the principal yellow dye compound that is obtained from the plant ''Reseda luteola'', which has been used as a source of the dye since at least the fir ...

Acacetin Acacetin is a 4′- ''O''-methylated flavone of the parent compound apigenin, found in ''Robinia pseudoacacia ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', commonly known in its native territory as black locust, is a medium-sized hardwood deciduous tree, belon ...

Apigenin Apigenin (4′,5,7-trihydroxyflavone), found in many plants, is a natural product belonging to the flavone class that is the aglycone of several naturally occurring glycosides. It is a yellow crystalline solid that has been used to dye wool. S ...

Chrysin Chrysin, also called 5,7-dihydroxyflavone, is a flavone found in honey, propolis, the passion flowers, ''Passiflora caerulea'' and ''Passiflora incarnata'', and in ''Oroxylum indicum''. It is extracted from various plants, such as the blue passion ...

Quercetin Quercetin is a plant flavonol from the flavonoid group of polyphenols. It is found in many fruits, vegetables, leaves, seeds, and grains; capers, red onions, and kale are common foods containing appreciable amounts of it. It has a bitter flavor a ...

Myricetin Myricetin is a member of the flavonoid class of polyphenolic compounds, with antioxidant properties. Common dietary sources include vegetables (including tomatoes), fruits (including oranges), nuts, berries, tea, and red wine. Myricetin is structu ...

, Linarioside,

Aucubin Aucubin is an iridoid glycoside. Iridoids are commonly found in plants and function as defensive compounds. Iridoids decrease the growth rates of many generalist herbivores. Natural occurrences Aucubin, as other iridoids, is found in asterids ...

, Linaride, Iridolinaroside A-D, Iridolinarin A-C are some compounds found in plants of this genus.

Uses

Toadflaxes are used as food plants by the

larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...

e of some

Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...

species, including the

mouse moth The mouse moth (''Amphipyra tragopoginis'') is a moth of the family Noctuidae. It is a widespread species with a Holarctic distribution. Distribution Europe (except the extreme north, and not occurring in the south of Spain, Sicily, or the Balkan ...

(''Amphipyra tragopoginis'') and the

common buckeye ''Junonia coenia'', known as the common buckeye or buckeye, is a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae. It is found in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and in Mexico. Its habitat is open areas with low vegetation and some bare ground. ...

(''Junonia coenia'').

Traditional medicine

''Linaria vulgaris'' has been used as a

medicinal herb Medicinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including defense and protection ag ...

.Duke, J. A
Ethnobotanical uses: ''Linaria vulgaris''.
Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases.

References

Bibliography

* A Phylogeny of Toadflaxes (''Linaria'' Mill.) Based on Nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer Sequences: Systematic and Evolutionary Consequences. Mario Fernández-Mazuecos, José Luis Blanco-Pastor, and Pablo Vargas. ''International Journal of Plant Sciences'', Vol. 174, No. 2 (February 2013), pp. 234–249 Published by: The University of Chicago Press, Article DOI: 10.1086/668790 * Vargas P, JA Rosselló, R Oyama, J Güemes. 2004 Molecular evidence for naturalness of genera in the tribe Antirrhineae (Scrophulariaceae) and three independent evolutionary lineages from the New World and the Old. ''Plant Systematics and Evolution'' 249:151–172. * {{Taxonbar, from=Q156692 Plantaginaceae genera Taxa named by Philip Miller